Fire Modeling in CFD

May 26th, 2010

 Agenda
Fire Modeling in CFD
May 26th, 2010
7:30am PDT (Seattle) / 10:30am EDT (New York) / 3:30pm BST (London)

Welcome & Introduction (Overview of NAFEMS Activities)

Matthew Ladzinski, NAFEMS North America
Fire Modeling in CFD
Andrej Horvat, Ph.D., Intelligent Fluid Solutions, Ltd.
Q&A Session
Panel
Closing

Ladzinski Horvat
Collaboration – Innovation – Productivity - Quality
 THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
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An Overview of NAFEMS Activities

Matthew Ladzinski
NAFEMS North America

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 Fire Modelling
in Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD)

Dr. Andrej Horvat

Intelligent Fluid Solutions Ltd.

NAFEMS Webinar Series

26 May 2010
Contents IFS

Overview of fluid dynamics transport equations
- transport of mass, momentum, energy and composition
- influence of convection, diffusion, volumetric (buoyancy) force
- transport equation for thermal radiation

Averaging and simplification of transport equations
- spatial and time averaging
- influence of averaging on zone and field models
- solution methods

CFD modelling
- turbulence models (k-epsilon, k-omega, Reynolds stress, LES)
- combustion models (mixture fraction, eddy dissipation, flamelet)
- thermal radiation models (discrete transfer, Monte Carlo)

Conclusions
12
Introduction IFS

Today, CFD methods are well established tools that help in design,
prototyping, testing and analysis

The motivation for development of modelling methods (not only CFD)

is to reduce cost and time of product development, and to improve
efficiency and safety of existing products and installations

Verification and validation of modelling approaches by comparing

computed results with experimental data is necessary

Experimental investigation of fire in a realistic environment is in many

situations impossible. In such cases, CFD is the only viable analysis
and design tool.

13
Introduction IFS

Fire modelling is an area of computational modelling which aims to
predict fire behaviour in different environmental conditions.

Therefore, these computational models need to take into account
fluid dynamics, combustion and heat transfer processes.

The complexity of the fire modelling arises from significantly
different time scales of the modelled processes. Also, not
completely understood physics and chemistry of fire adds the
uncertainty to the modelling process.

14
 IFS

Overview of fluid dynamics

transport equations

15
Transport equations IFS

Eulerian and Lagrangian description

Eulerian description – transport equations for mass, momentum

and energy are written for a (stationary) control volume

Lagrangian description – transport equations for mass,
momentum and energy are written for a moving material particle 16
Transport equations IFS

Majority of the numerical modelling in fluid mechanics is
based on the Eulerian formulation of transport equations

Using the Eulerian formulation, each physical quantity is
described as a mathematical field. Therefore, these
models are also named field models

Lagrangian formulation is a basis for particle dynamics
modelling: bubbles, droplets (sprinklers), solid particles
(dust) etc.

17
Transport equations IFS

Droplets trajectories from sprinklers (left), gas temperature

field during fire suppression (right)

18
Transport equations IFS

The following physical laws and terms also need to be
included

}
- Newton's viscosity law diffusive terms -
- Fourier's law of heat conduction flux is a linear
function of a gradient
- Fick's law of mass transfer
- Sources and sinks due to thermal radiation, chemical
reactions etc.

19
Transport equations IFS

Transport of mass and composition
∂ t ρ + ∂ i (vi ρ) = M ∂ t (ρξ j ) + ∂ i (vi ρξ j ) = ∂ i (ρD∂ i ξ j ) + M j

Transport of momentum

∂ t (ρv j ) + ∂ i (vi ρv j ) = −∂ j p + 2∂ i (µSij ) + ρg j + F j Sij =

1
(∂ j vi + ∂ i v j )
2

Transport of energy

∂ t (ρh ) + ∂ i (vi ρh ) = ∂ i (λ∂ iT ) + Q

volumetric
term
change diffusion
flux difference
in a control vol.
(convection) 20
Transport equations IFS

Lagrangian formulation is simpler
r r
- particle location equation dx dt = u

- mass conservation eq. for a particle dm dt = M

- momentum conservation eq. for a particle

r r r r
m(du dt ) = FD + FL + FV

drag lift volumetric

forces
- thermal energy conservation eq. for a particle
mc p (dT dt ) = QC + QL + QR

convection latent thermal

heat radiation
Transport equations of the Lagrangian
model need to be solved for each representative particle 21
Transport equations IFS

Thermal radiation
Equations describing thermal radiation
are much more complicated

- spectral dependency of material properties

- angular (directional) dependence of the radiation transport
dI ν (Ω ) K
= −(K aν + K sν )I ν (Ω ) + K aν I eν + sν ∫ I (Ω' )P (Ω' → Ω)dΩ'
sν ν
ds 4π 4π

change of absorption emission in-scattering

radiation and
intensity out-scattering 22
 IFS

Averaging and simplification

of transport equations

23
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

The presented set of transport equations is analytically
unsolvable for majority of cases

Success of a numerical solving procedure is based on

density of the numerical grid, and in transient cases, also
on the size of the integration time-step

Averaging and simplification of transport equations help

(and improve) solving the system of equations:
- derivation of averaged transport equations for turbulent
flow simulations
- derivation of integral (zone) models
24
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

Averaging and filtering

ρ, vi , p, h

w χ,τ

The largest flow structures can occupy the whole flow

field, whereas the smallest vortices have the size of
Kolmogorov scale
( )
1 1 1
η= ν ε 3 4 uη = (εν ) 4 τη = (ν ε ) 2

25
 Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

Kolmogorov scale is (for most cases) too small to be
captured with a numerical grid

Therefore, the transport equations have to be filtered

(averaged) over:
- spatial interval → Large Eddy Simulation (LES) methods
- time interval → k-epsilon model, SST model,
Reynolds stress models

26
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

Transport equation variables can be decomposed onto
a filtered (averaged) part and a residual (fluctuation)
ρ = ρ + ρ' p = p + p' ~ ~
vi = ρvi ρ + v*i = v~i + v*i ξi = ξi + ξ* hi = h + h*

Filtered (averaged) transport equations

∂ t ρ + ∂ j ( ρ v~j ) = M ( ) (
~
∂t ρ ξ j + ∂i ρ~
~
)
vi ξ j = M j − ∂ i (ρ Γ j ) turbulent mass
fluxes
sources and sinks
∂ t (ρ v~j ) + ∂ i (ρ ~
vi v~j ) = −∂ j p + 2∂ i (µS ij ) + ρ g j + F j − ∂ i (ρ Π ij ) represent a separate
problem and require
additional models
( ) (
~ ~
) ~
( )
vi h = ∂ i λ∂ iT + Q − ∂ i (ρ Ω i )
∂t ρ h + ∂i ρ~ - turbulent stresses
- Reynolds stresses
turbulent heat fluxes - subgrid stresses
27
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

Buoyancy induced flow over a heat source (Gr=10e10);

inert model of fire 28
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

LES model; instantaneous temperature field

29
 Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

a) b)

Temperature field comparison:

a) steady-state RANS model, b) averaged LES model results
30
Averaging and simplification of
transport equations
IFS

Additional simplifications
- flow can be modelled as a steady-state case → the
solution is a result of force, energy and mass flow balance
taking into consideration sources and sinks
- fire can be modelled as a simple heat source → inert fire
models; do not need to solve transport equations for
composition
- thermal radiation heat transfer is modelled as a simple sink
of thermal energy → FDS takes 35% of thermal energy
- control volumes can be so large that continuity of flow
properties is not preserved → zone models
31
 IFS

CFD Modelling

32
Turbulence models IFS

laminar flow

transitional flow

turbulent flow

van Dyke, 1965 33

 Turbulence models IFS

Turbulence models introduce additional (physically related)
diffusion to a numerical simulation

This enables :
- RANS models to use a larger time step (∆t >> Kolmogorov
time scale) or even a steady-state simulation
- LES models to use a less dense (smaller) numerical grid
(∆x > Kolmogorov length scale)

The selection of the turbulence model fundamentally

influences distribution of the simulated flow variables
(velocity, temperature, heat flow, composition etc)

34
Turbulence models IFS

In general, 2 kinds of averaging (filtering) exist, which
leads to 2 families of turbulence models:
- filtering over a spatial interval → Large Eddy Simulation
(LES) models
- filtering over a time interval → Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) models: k-epsilon model, SST
model, Reynolds Stress models etc

For RANS models, size of the averaging time interval is
not known or given (statistical average of experimental
data)

For LES models, size of the filter or the spatial averaging
interval is a basic input parameter (in most cases, it is
equal to grid spacing)
35
Turbulence models IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models
For two-equation models (e.g. k-epsilon, k-omega or
SST), 2 additional transport equations need to be solved:

- for kinetic energy of turbulent fluctuations k = 1 2 Π ii

- for dissipation of turbulent fluctuations ρ ε = µ (∂ j vi* ∂ j vi* )

or
- for frequency of turbulent fluctuations ω~ ε k

These variables are then used to calculate eddy viscosity:

k2 k
µ t = Cµ ρ =ρ
ε ω 36
Turbulence models IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models
- from eddy viscosity, Reynolds stresses, turbulent heat and
mass fluxes are obtained
1 2 µt ~ µt ~
ρ Π ij − ρ Π ll δ ji = −2µ t S ij + µ t (∂ l ~
vl ) δ ji ρΩ j = − ∂ jh ρΓj = − ∂ jξ
3 3 Prt Sct

- model parameters are usually defined from experimental

data e.g. dissipation of grid generated turbulence or flow
in a channel
- transport equation for k is derived directly from the
transport equations for Reynolds stresses Π ij
- transport equation for ε is empirical

37
Turbulence models IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models
- Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models are based on spatial
filtering (averaging)
- many different forms of the filter exist, but the most
common is "top hat" filter (simple geometrical averaging)
- size of the filter is based on a grid node spacing
Basic assumption of LES methodology:
Size of the used filter is so small that the averaged flow
structures do no influence large structures, which do
contain most of the energy.
These small structures are being deformed, disintegrated
onto even smaller structures until they do not dissipate
due to viscosity (kinetic energy → thermal energy). 38
Turbulence models IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models
- eddy (turbulent) viscosity is defined as
µ t ~ ρ l 4 / 3ε1 / 3 where l ~ Cs ∆

grid spacing
- using the definition of turbulence (subgrid) stresses
2 2
ρ Π ji − ρ k δ ji = −2µ t S ij + µ t (∂ l ~
vl ) δ ji
3 3
µt ~
ρΩ j = − ∂ jh
and turbulence fluxes Prt

the expression for eddy viscosity can be written as

~
µ t = ρ (Cs ∆ ) (2 S ji S ij + G ) where the contribution gi ∂ i h
2 1/ 2
G~ ~
due to buoyancy is Prt h
39
Turbulence models IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models
- presented Smagorinsky model is the simplest from the
LES models
- it requires knowledge of empirical parameter Cs, which is
not constant for all flow conditions
- newer, dynamic LES models calculate Cs locally - the
procedure demands introduction of the secondary filter
- LES models demand much denser (larger) numerical grid
- they are used for transient simulations
- to obtain average flow characteristics, we need to perform
statistical averaging over the simulated time interval

40
Turbulence models IFS

Comparison of turbulence models
k-e (Gr = 10 10 ) k-e (Gr = 10 10 )
k-e &&B (Gr = 10 1 0 ) k-e &&B (Gr = 10 10 )
8 R&G k-e (Gr = 1 0 10 ) R&G k-e (Gr = 1 0 10 )
7 S S T (Gr = 10 1 0 ) S S T (Gr = 1 0 10 )
10 10
6 S S G (Gr = 10 ) S S G (Gr = 10 )
10 10
5 LES (Gr = 10 ) LES (Gr = 10 )
Rous e e t al. (195 2) Rous e e t al. (195 2)
4 S habbir and Ge o rge (1 994) S habbir and Ge org e (1994)
-1
10
3

b c (R 5 /F20 )1/3
w c (R/F 0 )1/3

1 10 -2

25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100
z/R z/R

a) b)
Buoyant flow over a heat source: a) velocity, b) temperature*
41
Combustion models IFS

Grinstein,
Chen et al., 1988 Kailasanath, 1992
42
Combustion models IFS

Combustion can be modelled with heat sources
- information on chemical composition is lost
- thermal loading is usually under-estimated

Combustion modelling contains

- solving transport equations for composition
- chemical balance equation
- reaction rate model

Modelling approach dictates the number of additional

transport equations required

43
Combustion models IFS

Modelling of composition requires solving n-1 transport
equations for mixture components – mass or molar
(volume) fractions

 µ µ  ~ 
( ) (
~
∂t ρ ξ j + ∂i ρ~
~
)
vi ξ j = ∂ i   + t ∂ i ξ j  + M j

  Sc Sct  

Chemical balance equation can be written as

ν' A A + ν' B B + ν'C C ..... ↔ ν" A A + ν" B B + ν"C C .....

or
, ,

∑ν' I ↔ ∑ν" I
I
I = A,B ,C.... I = A,B ,C....
I

44
Combustion models IFS

Reaction source term is defined as

M j = W j (ν" j −ν' j )R
or for multiple M j = W j ∑ (ν" k , j −ν ' k , j )Rk
reactions k

where R or Rk is a reaction rate

Reaction rate is determined using different models

- Constant burning (reaction) velocity
- Eddy break-up model and Eddy dissipation model
- Finite rate chemistry model
- Flamelet model
- Burning velocity model

45
Combustion models IFS

Constant burning velocity sL
ρc
sF = sL speed of flame front propagation is
ρh
larger due to expansion

- values are experimentally determined for ideal conditions

- limits due to reaction kinetics and fluid mechanics are not
taken into account
- source/sink in mass fraction transport equation M j ~ ρ f sL l

- source/sink in energy transport equation Q ~ M j ∆hc

- expressions for sL usually include additional models

46
Combustion models IFS

Eddy break-up model and Eddy dissipation model
- is a well established model that can be used for simple
reactions (one- and two-step combustion)
- in general, it cannot be used for prediction of products of
complex chemical processes (NO, CO, SOx, etc)
- it is based on the assumption that the reaction is much
faster than the transport processes in flow
- reaction rate depends on mixing rate of reactants in
turbulent flow sL ~ ε k
- Eddy dissipation model reaction rate
~ ψ ~ ψ~ 
ε
R = C A ρ min ψ f , 
o p
,C B
k  s (1 + s ) 
47
Combustion models IFS

Backdraft simulation

outflow of comb.
products

inflow of fresh air

fireball

Horvat et al., 2008

48
Combustion models IFS

Finite rate chemistry model
- it is applicable when a chemical reaction rate is slow or
comparable with turbulent mixing
~ −E 
R = AT β exp  ~a  ∏ ψ ~ ν' I
- reaction kinetics must be known  RT  I = A ,B ,C ...
I

- for each additional reaction the same expression is

added
- the model is numerically demanding due to exponential
terms
- often the model is used in combination with the Eddy
dissipation model

49
Combustion models IFS

Flamelet model
- describes interaction of reaction kinetics with turbulent
structures for a fast reaction (high Damköhler number)
- basic assumption is that combustion is taking place in
thin sheets - flamelets
- turbulent flame is an ensemble of laminar flamelets
- the model gives a detailed picture of the chemical
composition - resolution of small length and time scales
of the flow is not needed
- the model is also known as "Mixed-is-burnt" - large
difference between various implementations of the
model
50
Combustion models IFS

Flamelet model
- it is based on definition of a mixture fraction
Z kg/s fuel
A 1 kg/s mixture
mixing
1-Z kg/s oxidiser M
proces
B
βM − βB
Z β A + (1 − Z )β B = β M or Z= where β = ξ f − ξo i
β A − βB

- the conditions in vicinity of flamelets are described with

the respect to Z; Z=Zst is a surface with the stoihiometric
conditions
- transport equations are rewritten with Z dependencies;
conditions are one-dimensional ξ(Z) , T(Z) etc.
51
Combustion models IFS

Flamelet model
- for turbulent flow, we need to solve an additional transport
equation for mixture fraction Z
 µ µ  ~
( ) (
~ ~
)
∂ t ρ Z + ∂ i ρ v~i Z = ∂ i   + t ∂ i Z 

  Sc Sct  

- and a transport equation for variation of mixture fraction Z"

 ~'' 2   ~ ~'' 2   µ  ~ 

µt
~
ε '' 2
∂ t  ρ Z  + ∂ i  ρ ui Z  = ∂ i  ρ D + t '' 2 
 ∂ i Z  + 2 ( )
~2
∂ i Z − ρ Cχ Z
     Sct   Sct k

- composition is calculated from preloaded libraries

1 1∞
~ = ψ (Z ) PDF (Z ) dZ ~ = ψ (Z ,χ ) PDF (Z ) PDF (χ ) dZ dχ
ψ j ∫ j
0
ψ j ∫∫ j
0 0

these PDFs are tabulated for different fuel,

52
oxidiser, pressure and temperature
Thermal radiation IFS

It is a very important heat transfer mechanism in fires

In fire simulations, thermal radiation should not be
neglected

The simplest approach is to reduce the heat release
rate of a fire (35% reduction in FDS)

Modelling of thermal radiation - solving transport
equation for radiation intensity

dI ν (Ω ) K
= −(K aν + K sν )I ν (Ω ) + K aν I eν + sν ∫ I (Ω' )P (Ω' → Ω)dΩ'
sν ν
ds 4π 4π

change of absorption emission in-scattering

intensity and scattering
53
Thermal radiation IFS

Radiation intensity is used for definition of a source/sink
in the energy transport equation and radiation wall heat
fluxes

Energy spectrum of blackbody radiation

2πν 2 n 2 hν
Eν (T ) = πI ν (T ) = 2 [Wm-2 Hz -1 ]
c exp(hν k BT ) − 1

ν - frequency
c - speed of light
n - refraction index
h - Planck's constant
kB - Boltzmann's constant
∞

integration over E (T ) = n σT = ∫ Eν (T ) dν [Wm-2 ]

2 4

the whole spectrum 0

54
Thermal radiation IFS

Discrete Transfer
- modern deterministic model
- assumes isotropic scattering, homogeneous gas properties
- each wall cell works as a radiating surface that emits rays
through the surrounding space (separated onto multiple solid
angles)
- radiation intensity is integrated along each ray between the
walls of the simulation domain
( )
I ν (r , s ) = I 0 ν e -( K aν + K sν )s + I eν 1 − e − K a s + K sν I ν

, j = ∫ I ν (r , s ) cos ϕ j cos θ dΩ
qνrad
4π

- source/sink in the energy transport equation Q rad = −∂ i qirad

55
Thermal radiation IFS

Monte Carlo
- it assumes that the radiation intensity is proportional to
(differential angular) flux of photons
- radiation field can be modelled as a "photon gas"
- absorption constant Kaν is the probability per unit length of
photon absorption at a given frequency ν
- average radiation intensity Iν is proportional to the photon
travelling distance in a unit volume and time
- radiation heat flux qrad is proportional to the number of
photon incidents on the surface in a unit time
- accuracy of the numerical simulation depends on the
number of used "photons"
56
Thermal radiation IFS

These radiation methods can be used:
- for an averaged radiation spectrum - grey gas
- for a gas mixture, which can be separated onto multiple
grey gases (such grey gas is just a modelling concept)
- for individual frequency bands; physical parameters are
very different for each band

57
Thermal radiation IFS

Flashover simulation

Horvat et al., 2009 secondary

fire
primary
fire

wooden targets

propane burner 58
 IFS

Conclusions

59
Conclusions IFS

The webinar gave a short (but demanding) overview of
fluid mechanics and heat transfer theory that is relevant
for fire simulations

All current commercial CFD software packages (ANSYS-
CFX, ANSYS-Fluent, Star-CD, Flow3D, CFDRC, AVL Fire)
contain most of the shown models and methods:
- they are based on the finite volume or the finite element
method and they use transport equations in their
conservative form
- numerical grid is unstructured for greater geometrical
flexibility
- open-source computational packages exist and are freely
accessible (FDS, OpenFoam, SmartFire, Sophie)
60
Contact information IFS
Andrej Horvat
Intelligent Fluid Solutions Ltd.
99 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RY, UK
Tel.: +44 (0)1235 841 505
Fax: +44 (0)1235 854 001
Mobile: +44 (0)78 33 55 63 73
Skype: a.horvat
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.intelligentfluidsolutions.co.uk

61
 Questions

Website: www.nafems.org
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 THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ENGINEERING ANALYSIS COMMUNITY

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