ADDITIONAL 1NFORMATION

Glands of Tyson pellucida (eggs of

glands located in the modified
are
sebaceous membrane and zona

penis of human penis. prepuce and glans mammal).

Membrane. It is
Secondary Egg
In prostate
cancer the testes are (i) follicle cells surrounding
removed. formed by the its period of growth.
Castration. Removal of the testes or ova- ovumin the ovary during
ries. radiata (eggS of mam-
Example: Corona of insect).
Hysterectomy. Removal of the uterus mals) and chorion (eggs
It is secreted
(womb). (ii) Tertiary Egg Membrane.
uterus. Examples egg
Prostatectomy- Removal of a portion of by the oviduct or
shell, shell membranes
the prostate. Jely (frog's eggs), birds and
and albumen (egg of reptiles,
Egg Membranes. On the basis of their ori-
egg laying mammals).
gin, the egg membranes are classified into of Eggs. Based on the quantity
of
three types. Types
yolk, the eggs are of the following types.
(i) Primary Egg Membrane. It is secreted (i) Microlecithal eggs. They contain very
by ovum (egg) itself. Examples : Vitelline small amount of yolk. Examples: eggs
of
 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
cea urchin, tunicates, amphioxus. In 125 U1
Ipials (kangaroo) eggs ontain
mar of the egg. It occurs in
amount yolk and hence these
of very little
cially insects. arthropods espe-
called microlecithal, however, eggs are
Based
human
is alecithal (almost free of yolk). egg on the potentiality of the blas-
tomeres, cleavage is of two types:
ci) Mesolecithal eggs. With 1. Determinate
amount of yolk, e.g., eggs of moderate (Mosaic) cleavage.
(lamprey), lung fish, frogs and Petromyzon
this type of
cleavage a complete embryo Inis
toads. formed only if all the blastomeres remain
(i) Macrolecithal or together,
They contain large amountPolylecithal
of yolk,
eggs. e.g., annelid eggs.
eggs of insects, e.g.,
sharks, bony fishes,
tiles, birds and prototherian mammals.rep-
Based on the distribution of yolk in the
toplasm eggs are of the following types.cy-
D
INTACT BLASTOMERS

Homolecithal
formly distributed alleggs the yolk is uni- BLASTOMERS BLASTOMERS
over the SEPARATED
toplasm of the egg), e.g., eggs ooplasm (cy- SEPARATED
of echino-
derms and potochordates.
() Telolecithal eggs-the yolk is concen-
trated in the vegetal half, e.g., eggs of am-
phibianS.
(ii) Meiolecithal eggs- the yolk is very
large which occupies nearly the entire oop-
lasm, leaving free only a small disc-like
Two Half Two Complete
area of cytoplasm for the nucleus,
e.g., eggs Embryos Embryos
of reptiles, birds and egg laying
mammals. DETERMINATE INDETERMINATE
(iv) Centrolecithal eggs- the yolk is lo CLEAVAGE CLEAVAGE
calized at the
centre, e.g., eggs of insects.
Types of cleavage. Based on the amount 2. Indeterminate (Nonmosaic) cleavage.
and pattern of distribution of yolk in the zy- In this type of cleavage each early blas-
gote, cleavage is of two types: holoblastic tomere on separation from other blas-
and meroblastic. tomeres may give rise to complete embryo,
1. Holoblastic cleavage. It divides the e.g., chordate eggs.
zygote and blastomeres completely into Gynecomastia. Sometimes, the mammary
daughter cells. It is of two types: equal and glands become functional in the males too.
unequal. It is called gynecomastia.
i) Equal Holoblastic cleavage. It forms Of the tota! volume of human semen more
equal blastomers. It occurs in star fish. than 50% contribution comes from semi-
nal vesicles and 15% from the prostate.
(ii) Unequal Holoblastic cleavage. It forms
PSA-Prostate Specific Antigen Test
unequal blastomeres. Blastomeres are
micromeres (smaller) and macromeres Polarity. The existence of a definite axis in
(larger). It is found in frog.
the egg embryo is called polarity.
Primordial germ cells (PGCs). The cells
2. Meroblastic cleavage. In this type of from which the definitive germ cells are
cleavage, the divisions are confined to the derived.
animal pole or peripheral region of egg.
Gastrular Movements. These are of two
The yolk remains undivided. It is of two
main types:
types: discoidal and superficial. 1. Epiboly. Epiboly means overgrowth of
Discoidal cleavage. The divisions are the micromeres. It occurs in frog where the
i) micromeres divide rapidly in the animal half
Confined to the cytoplasmic disc located
at the animal pole. It occurs in reptiles, and spread over the megameres in the
birds and egg laying mammals. vegetal half.
(i) Superficial cleavage. Thecleavage re 2. Emboly. Migration of prospective endo-
dermal and mesodermal cells from the
mains restricted to the peripheral portion
surface into the interior of the embryo is
 +2 blastocoel of
s

into the
BIOLOGY
ELEMENTARY

migrate s o l i d gastrula or
New cells
TRUEMAN's

U1 126 form a
invagination,
in- blastula to
archenteron
(primi
the
later hu
includes without
called emboly. It delamination.
sterogastrula is formed
and Archenteron

Ingressio
ingression
of infold- tive cavity). n
mass.
volution, cell
internal
It is the process the the
i)
Invagination.
pole of splitting
of the vegetal two
kinds.

ing or inpushing (blastocoel), is of Inward migration

into its cavity Ingression.
embryo (blastula) structure. It is just
(a) Unipolar the vegetal pole only
double-walled
rubber restricted to
forming a
side of a
of cells is
in one in Obelia.
like the pushing Invagination
occurs
It is seen in
migration of
Ingression. Inward
thumb.
ball with a
of frog. (b) Apolar sides of the blasto
the blastula of from all
o c c u r s in Hydra
occurs
Involution is the
process cells
blastula). It
Involution.
cells into (wall of
(i) the surface derm is a pro
turning in of
Delamination
rolling or in frog's Delamination.
the enmrbyo. It
occurs

the interior of
(iv) the separation
of layer of a
cess in which layer of the
blastula. means from the original
occurs
term ingression cells gastrulation of
(1i) Ingression. The blas- blastula. It
occurs during
ingression the
"inward migration'. In surface. chick and rabbit.
form new cells from their
tomeres
Mammals
in Some
Period
Gestation Gestation Period
Animal
Gestation Period in days)
Animal
(in days)
105-115
Lion
365-370 164
Ass Monkey (Rhesus)
282 19-20
Cow Mouse
Cat
63 270 days
Human being
60-63 (approximately)
Dog
624 266 days.
Elephant It is usually about
Goat 148 32
335-340 Rabbit
Horse 148
330-365 Sheep
Whale 155
Tiger

Twins ) Fraternal Twins (dizygotic or non- (i) Yolk placenta. Placenta is formed
sac

identical twins). Two offspring that have from yolk sac and chorion, e.g., Kangaroo
and opossum (both are metatherians or
developed in the uterus at the same time
but are the result of independent fertiliza- marsupials).
tion of two ova. (ii) Monozygotic Twins (ii) Chorio-allantoic placenta. Placenta is
(identical twins). Two offspring developed derived from allantois and chorion; e.g9.,
from a single fertilized ovum. At an early most eutherian mammals.
stage the zygote (fertilized ovum) sepa- (ii) Chorionic placenta. Placenta is
rates into two independent cells that de- formed from chorion, e.g., human beings.
velop into offspring of the same sex with
identical genetic characteristics. (ii) 2. Classification of placenta accordingg
Siamese Twins (United Twins). Named to the histology. Six tissue barriers in pla-
after Chang and Eng born in Siam centa are (1) Endothelium of foetal blood
vessels (2) Foetal connective tissue (3)
(Thialand). Their parents were Chinese. Trophoblast (4) Uterine epithelium (5) Uter-
Siamese twins are joined in a small area.
Now modern surgical techniques have ine connective tissue and (6) Endothelium
made it possible to separate infants. of maternal blood
vessels. Five histologi-
cal types of placenta are
Freemartin is a sexually undeveloped fe- present.
male calf twined with a male. (i) Epitheliochorial placenta. All six tis-
Types of Placenta sue barriers (layers) of the placenta are
1. Classification of placenta present, e.g., horse, ass and pig.
according
to the nature of the foetal membranes in- (i) Syndesmochorial placenta. Uterine
volved epithelium is absent; with five placental
 HUMAN REPRODUCTION

uterine placenta
to the fate of No part of
sheep, goat, buffalo, placenta.
barriers, e.g, cow, after birth,
Non-deciduate

camel and giraffe.

(i) is shed in the
uterine placenta
placenta. Uterine a s s and
zebra.
Endotheliochorial
c o n n e c t i v e tissue
e.g., horse, Some part of uter
(i) and uterine D e c i d u a t e placenta. the
eDithelium decidua in
four placental barriers, (ti) passed out a s
with
absent; ine tissue is
are carnivores tiger, fox, bear
(do9, cat, lion,
humans.
after birth, e.g., Placenta
e.g., placenta.
and mongoose).
three (ii)
C o n t r a - d e c i d u a t e

the foetal pla-

Haemochorial
placenta. All the non-deciduate
and even
and
(iv) (uterine epithelium, is
absorbed, e.g.,
Talpa (mole)
tissue barriers centa is
uterine tissue and
endothelium
Perameles (bandicoot).
connective wiin according
uterine a r e absent;
blood vessels) of placenta
maternal 4.
Classification
chorion
of e.g., lemur, apes
barriers, d i s t r i b u t i o n of
villi o n
three placental to the remain scat
and men.
Diffuse placenta.
The
chorion,
villi
placenta. All the (i) surface of the
the
and two foetal tered all over
)Haemoendothelial
barriers lemur.
uterine tissue horse and
three (foetal
connective tissue e.g., pig, placenta.
The villi a r e ar
barriers called
with only one Cotyledonary
tissue a r e absent; (ii) tufts or patches deer.
trophoblast) rat and guinea in separate and
and rabbit, ranged goat, sheep
barrier, e.g., e.g., cow,
placental cotyledons,

pig. of placenta according

Classification
3.

1. E N D O T H E L I U M -

2
2.CONNECTIVE-

TISSUE
3.TROPHOBLAST AUE C9Aeg3IDERA-3

4.UTERINNE -5
EPITHELIUM

6
5.CONNECTIVE-

TISSUE

6.ENDOTHELIUM-

C E n d o t h e l i o c h o r i a l

B Syndesmochorial

A Epitheliochorial

ONo
n FOETAL
BLOOD
FOETAL
PLACENTA 2

8
4 MATERNAL

BLOOD

MATERNAL
PLACENTA

E H a e m o e n d o t h e l i a l

D Haemochorial

according
to histology.
placenta
Types of
 ELEMENTARY
BIOLOGY +2
U1 128 TRUEMAN'S
described the
Oscar Hertwig (1849-1922)
The villi are ar nuclei of sperm
and the ovum
(ii) Intermediate placenta. union of the
urchin. Hertwia
as well as scattered, fertilization in sea
ranged in cotyledons during
e.g., camal and giraffe. (1896) induced parthenogenesis in ripe
The villi form an in- ova of sea
urchin by treating those with chlo
(iv) Zonary placenta. or complete roform or strychnine.
Complete (example racoon)
e.g., cat, wasawarded
encircling the blastocyst,
girdle Hans Spemann (1869-1941)
Prize in Physiology or Medi.
dog. seal and elephant. the 1935 Nobel
occur on a effect in
(v) Discoidal placenta. Villi cine for his discovery of organizer
a r e a of the blastocyst, When one em-
small disc-shaped embryonic development.
bear and bat. a stimulus that in-
e.g., rat, rabbit,
Villi first oc-
bryonic tissue transmits
fluences another tissue to produce
a struc.
(vi) Metadiscoidal placenta. restricted to
Cur all over but
later become ture that utherwise would
not come into
two discs. (a)
Monodiscoidal pla- then the former tissue is called or.
one or
circular
being,
centa. Villi are restricted
to one
ganizer or inducer and its morphogenic
Bidiscoidal He worked on
and man.
disc, e.g.. rabbit (b) effect is called induction.
Villi are restricted to two discs,
placenta. newt.
eg. monkey and apes. the world's
Wilmut cloned Dolly (a sheep),
Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) observed the first cloned mammal in
1997.
development of the hen's egg. lizard
The desert-grassland whiptail
is regarded as female
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Cnenidophorus uniparens, is
an all

the father (founder) of embryology. He There are no males. It repro-

species.
studied the embryonic development of the duces by parthenogenesis.
chick and of many other aninmals and wrote The cavity of uterus can expand 500 times
the famous Book De Generatione
to 5,000
Animalium. during pregnancy, from 10 cm"
cm.
Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) discovered
Mammalian egg lacks centrosome. It is
human spermatozoa in 1675 in the semen
with self-designed microscope. provided by the sperm during fertilization.
Pseudopregnancy. A condition in which
Steno introduced the word 'ovary' in 1667.
symptoms resembling those of pregnancy
Regner de Graaf (1641-1673) discovered is not pregnancy. t oc
are present, but
follicles in human ovary in 1671 and con curs after sterile copulation in mammals
sidered them to be eggs. Since Graaf dis- in which copulation induces ovulation.
covered follicles, they are also called Graa-
The ovum or egg cell is the largest cell in
fian foilicles.
Swammerdam (1738) observed the first
the human body.
Cleidoic eggs. The eggs which are self
cleavage of frog.
sufficient (except for O, intake and CO, out
Charles Bonnet (1720-1793) discovered
flow) are called cleidoic eggs. Many rep-
natural parthenogenesis. He also gave
tiles (except turtles which lay eggs on damp
the term parthenogenesis.
sand), all birds and terrestrial arthropods
Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) is re- have cleiodoic eggs.
garded as the "tather of modern embryol-
Intra-abdominal testes are found in
ogy". He discovered mammalian ova in
monotremata (egg laying mammals),
1827. He forwarded the germ layer theory.
proboscidea (elephants), cetacea (whales,
C.H. Pander (1817) first gave description etc.) and several insectivora.
of three germ layers in chick embryo.
Ascaris has paired ovaries and an un-
Prevost and Dumas (1824) were the first paired testis.
to describe cleavage in the eggs of
frog Sperm of Ascaris lacks flagellum (tail). It is
Schleiden and Schwann (1838-39) estab- amoeboid shaped.
lished the cellular nature of sperm and ova.
Spermiation is the process of release of
Whilhelm Roux (1850-1924) was pioneer the spermatozoa from the seminiferous
in experimental embryology. He is re-
tubules.
garded as father of experimental embry- LH. Surge refers to the
ology. He proposed mosaic theory of de- (peak maximum)
level of LH during middle of menstrual
velopment. cycle.
 HUMAN REPRODUCTION 129 U11

Foetal Ejection Reflex. The initial mild con- In a mother with diabetes mellitus, the foe
tus shall be high birth weight.
traction of the uterus initiated by the fully
of
developed foetus and the placental hor- Hypomastia. Abnormal smallness
mones, constitute the foetal ejection reflex. breasts and mammary glands.
The penis of most bats, insectivores, ro- Hypermastia. (i) Excessive growth of mam-
dents (e.g., rats), carnivores (e.g., dog, mary glands. (ii) Presence
of more than
walrus), whales and some primates (not normal number of mammae.
man) have a bone called baculum. Oligospermia. Decreased sperm count.
Asthenozoospermia. Reduced sperm
Sperm entry into the ovum stimulates the
production of MPF (M-phase promoting fac- motality.
tor) and APC (Anaphase promoting com-
Azoospermia. Absence of living sperma-
plex) which complete the meiosis-ll. tozoa (sperms) in the semen.