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9.1 Relations and Their Properties 581

Proof: We first prove the “if” part of the theorem. We suppose that R n ⊆ R for n = 1,
2, 3, . . . . In particular, R 2 ⊆ R. To see that this implies R is transitive, note that if (a, b) ∈ R
and (b, c) ∈ R, then by the definition of composition, (a, c) ∈ R 2 . Because R 2 ⊆ R, this means
that (a, c) ∈ R. Hence, R is transitive.
We will use mathematical induction to prove the only if part of the theorem. Note that this
part of the theorem is trivially true for n = 1.
Assume that R n ⊆ R, where n is a positive integer. This is the inductive hypothesis. To
complete the inductive step we must show that this implies that R n+1 is also a subset of R.
To show this, assume that (a, b) ∈ R n+1 . Then, because R n+1 = R n ◦ R, there is an
element x with x ∈ A such that (a, x) ∈ R and (x, b) ∈ R n . The inductive hypothesis, namely,
that R n ⊆ R, implies that (x, b) ∈ R. Furthermore, because R is transitive, and (a, x) ∈ R
and (x, b) ∈ R, it follows that (a, b) ∈ R. This shows that R n+1 ⊆ R, completing the proof.

Exercises

1. List the ordered pairs in the relation R from d) there is a Web page that includes links to both Web
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} to B = {0, 1, 2, 3}, where (a, b) ∈ R page a and Web page b.
if and only if 6. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all real
a) a = b. b) a + b = 4. numbers is reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or
c) a > b. d) a | b. transitive, where (x, y) ∈ R if and only if
e) gcd(a, b) = 1. f ) lcm(a, b) = 2. a) x + y = 0. b) x = ±y.
2. a) List all the ordered pairs in the relation c) x − y is a rational number.
R = {(a, b) | a divides b} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. d) x = 2y. e) xy ≥ 0.
b) Display this relation graphically, as was done in f ) xy = 0. g) x = 1.
Example 4. h) x = 1 or y = 1.
c) Display this relation in tabular form, as was done in 7. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all integers
Example 4. is reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive,
where (x, y) ∈ R if and only if
3. For each of these relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, decide
whether it is reflexive, whether it is symmetric, whether a) x = y. b) xy ≥ 1.
it is antisymmetric, and whether it is transitive. c) x = y + 1 or x = y − 1.
d) x ≡ y (mod 7). e) x is a multiple of y.
a) {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
f ) x and y are both negative or both nonnegative.
b) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} g) x = y 2 . h) x ≥ y 2 .
c) {(2, 4), (4, 2)}
8. Show that the relation R = ∅ on a nonempty set S is sym-
d) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} metric and transitive, but not reflexive.
e) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
9. Show that the relation R = ∅ on the empty set S = ∅ is
f ) {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)} reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
4. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all people 10. Give an example of a relation on a set that is
is reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or transitive,
where (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a) both symmetric and antisymmetric.
b) neither symmetric nor antisymmetric.
a) a is taller than b.
A relation R on the set A is irreflexive if for every
b) a and b were born on the same day.
a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ / R. That is, R is irreflexive if no element
c) a has the same first name as b. in A is related to itself.
d) a and b have a common grandparent.
11. Which relations in Exercise 3 are irreflexive?
5. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all Web
12. Which relations in Exercise 4 are irreflexive?
pages is reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, and/or tran-
sitive, where (a, b) ∈ R if and only if 13. Which relations in Exercise 5 are irreflexive?
a) everyone who has visited Web page a has also visited 14. Which relations in Exercise 6 are irreflexive?
Web page b. 15. Can a relation on a set be neither reflexive nor irreflexive?
b) there are no common links found on both Web 16. Use quantifiers to express what it means for a relation to
page a and Web page b. be irreflexive.
c) there is at least one common link on Web page a and 17. Give an example of an irreflexive relation on the set of all
Web page b. people.
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582 9 / Relations

A relation R is called asymmetric if (a, b) ∈ R implies that 33. Let R be the relation on the set of people consisting of
(b, a) ∈
/ R. Exercises 18–24 explore the notion of an asym- pairs (a, b), where a is a parent of b. Let S be the relation
metric relation. Exercise 22 focuses on the difference between on the set of people consisting of pairs (a, b), where a
asymmetry and antisymmetry. and b are siblings (brothers or sisters). What are S ◦ R
18. Which relations in Exercise 3 are asymmetric? and R ◦ S?
Exercises 34–37 deal with these relations on the set of real
19. Which relations in Exercise 4 are asymmetric? numbers:
20. Which relations in Exercise 5 are asymmetric?
R1 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a > b}, the “greater than” relation,
21. Which relations in Exercise 6 are asymmetric? R2 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a ≥ b}, the “greater than or equal to”
22. Must an asymmetric relation also be antisymmetric? Must relation,
an antisymmetric relation be asymmetric? Give reasons R3 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a < b}, the “less than” relation,
for your answers. R4 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a ≤ b}, the “less than or equal to”
23. Use quantifiers to express what it means for a relation to relation,
be asymmetric. R5 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a = b}, the “equal to” relation,
24. Give an example of an asymmetric relation on the set of R6 = {(a, b) ∈ R2 | a = b}, the “unequal to” relation.
all people. 34. Find
25. How many different relations are there from a set with m a) R1 ∪ R3 . b) R1 ∪ R5 .
elements to a set with n elements?
c) R2 ∩ R4 . d) R3 ∩ R5 .
Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. The inverse rela-
e) R1 − R2 . f ) R2 − R1 .
tion from B to A, denoted by R −1 , is the set of ordered pairs
{(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ R}. The complementary relation R is the g) R1 ⊕ R3 . h) R2 ⊕ R4 .
set of ordered pairs {(a, b) | (a, b) ∈
/ R}. 35. Find
26. Let R be the relation R = {(a, b) | a < b} on the set of a) R2 ∪ R4 . b) R3 ∪ R6 .
integers. Find c) R3 ∩ R6 . d) R4 ∩ R6 .
a) R −1 . b) R. e) R3 − R6 . f ) R6 − R3 .
27. Let R be the relation R = {(a, b) | a divides b} on the set g) R2 ⊕ R6 . h) R3 ⊕ R5 .
of positive integers. Find 36. Find
a) R −1 . b) R. a) R1 ◦ R1 . b) R1 ◦ R2 .
28. Let R be the relation on the set of all states in the United c) R1 ◦ R3 . d) R1 ◦ R4 .
States consisting of pairs (a, b) where state a borders
state b. Find e) R1 ◦ R5 . f ) R1 ◦ R6 .
a) R −1 . b) R. g) R2 ◦ R3 . h) R3 ◦ R3 .
29. Suppose that the function f from A to B is a one-to- 37. Find
one correspondence. Let R be the relation that equals the a) R2 ◦ R1 . b) R2 ◦ R2 .
graph of f . That is, R = {(a, f (a)) | a ∈ A}. What is the c) R3 ◦ R5 . d) R4 ◦ R1 .
inverse relation R −1 ?
e) R5 ◦ R3 . f ) R3 ◦ R6 .
30. Let R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} and R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), g) R4 ◦ R6 . h) R6 ◦ R6 .
(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)} be rela-
38. Let R be the parent relation on the set of all people (see
tions from {1, 2, 3} to {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find
Example 21). When is an ordered pair in the relation R 3 ?
a) R1 ∪ R2 . b) R1 ∩ R2 .
39. Let R be the relation on the set of people with doctorates
c) R1 − R2 . d) R2 − R1 .
such that (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a was the thesis advisor
31. Let A be the set of students at your school and B the set of of b. When is an ordered pair (a, b) in R 2 ? When is an
books in the school library. Let R1 and R2 be the relations ordered pair (a, b) in R n , when n is a positive integer?
consisting of all ordered pairs (a, b), where student a is (Assume that every person with a doctorate has a thesis
required to read book b in a course, and where student a advisor.)
has read book b, respectively. Describe the ordered pairs
in each of these relations. 40. Let R1 and R2 be the “divides” and “is a multiple of”
a) R1 ∪ R2 b) R1 ∩ R2 relations on the set of all positive integers, respectively.
That is, R1 = {(a, b) | a divides b} and R2 = {(a, b) | a
c) R1 ⊕ R2 d) R1 − R2 is a multiple of b}. Find
e) R2 − R1 a) R1 ∪ R2 . b) R1 ∩ R2 .
32. Let R be the relation {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1)}, c) R1 − R2 . d) R2 − R1 .
and let S be the relation {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2)}.
Find S ◦ R. e) R1 ⊕ R2 .