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Electronics
Quarter II – Module 1: Lesson 1
Introduction to Semiconductors
Electronics – Grade 10
Self-Learning Module
First Edition, 2020

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Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners,
can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions,
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Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any
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Thank you.

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that will help you in guiding
the learners.

For the learner:

Welcome to the Electronics Self – Learning Module 1 on Semiconductors!

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depict skill, action, and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create, and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a
learner is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant

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competencies and skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in
your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities
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Explore
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Learn
lesson. This aims to help you discover and
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to the exercises using the Answer Key at the
end of the module.
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Apply sentence/paragraph to be filled into process
what you learned from the lesson.

Assess This is a task which aims to evaluate your level

of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.
This contains answers to all activities in the
Answer Key module.

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Reflect
are encouraged to think about the lessons
particularly the parts that went well (they have
understood) and the parts that were weak (they
have difficulty) and write about it briefly.
Learners can share their thoughts and feeling
about the lessons.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References
The following are some reminders in using this module:

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1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
3. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
4. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
5. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

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 Explore

Introduction:

Semiconductors have electrical properties somewhere between those of insulators

and conductors. The use of semiconductor materials in electronic components is
not new; some devices are as old as the electron tube. Two of the most widely
known semiconductors in use today are the JUNCTION DIODE and TRANSISTOR.
These semiconductors fall under a more general heading called solid-state devices.
A SOLID-STATE DEVICE is nothing more than an electronic device, which operates
by virtue of the movement of electrons within a solid piece of semiconductor
material. Although the semiconductor was late in reaching its present development,
its story began long before the electron tube. Historically, we can go as far back as
1883 when Michael Faraday discovered that silver sulfide, a semiconductor, has a
negative temperature coefficient. Only 2 years later, another valuable characteristic
was reported by Munk A. Rosenshold. He found that certain materials have
rectifying properties. Strange as it may seem, his finding was given such little
notice that it had to be rediscovered 39 years later by F. Braun. Toward the close of
the 19th century, experimenters began to notice the peculiar characteristics of the
chemical element SELENIUM. They discovered that in addition to its rectifying
properties (the ability to convert ac into dc), selenium was also light sensitive-its
resistance decreased with an increase in light intensity. This discovery eventually
led to the invention of the photophone by Alexander Graham Bell. The photophone,
which converted variations of light into sound, was a predecessor of the radio
receiver; however, it wasn't until the actual birth of radio that selenium was used to
any extent. Today, selenium is an important and widely used. Many other materials
were tried and tested for use in communications. SILICON was found to be the
most stable of the materials tested while GALENA, a crystalline form of lead sulfide,
was found the most sensitive for use in early radio receivers. By 1915, Carl
Beredicks discovered that GERMANIUM, another metallic element, also had
rectifying capabilities. Later, it became widely used in electronics for low-power,
low-frequency application semiconductor.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe the process of development and functions of different types of
semiconductors.
2. Explain the functions and types of diodes

Pre-assessment:
Directions: Read and Write TRUE if the statement is true, and FALSE if the
statement is correct. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 1 of 20

 1. Insulators are materials that have very high resistivities.
2. Conductors are materials that have very low resistivities.
3. The resistivity of semiconductors is higher than insulators.
4. The examples of semiconductors belong to group 1 in the periodic table.
5. Doping semiconductors does not improve the conduction properties of a
material.
6. Valence electrons are the electrons in the first shell of an atom.
7. A semiconductor has four outermost electrons in each atom.
8. Samples of conductors, insulators and semiconductors can be found in the
periodic table of elements.
9. The bonding of atoms which is strengthened by the sharing of electrons is
called covalent bonding.
10. In an n-type semiconductor the impurities provide negative electrons as
charge carriers.

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 2 of 20

 Learn

Determining a Conductor, Semiconductor, or Insulator using

the number of Valence Electrons.
Valence electrons are electrons in the outer most shell. They are like outer planets
orbiting a star, they are attracted enough to stay in positions, but it doesn’t always
take a lot of energy to knock them out of place.

Three Major Groups of Materials in electronics as how they readily

allow charges like electrons to flow through it:
1. Conductors – group of materials which readily pass charges across them. A
good conductor has 1 valence electrons 
Examples: Aluminum, Copper, Gold Silver and Zinc

2. Insulators – materials which totally prevents charges from passing through

it. An insulator has eight valence electrons.
Examples: Ceramics, Glass, Polyethylene, and rubber

3. Semiconductors – those which allow only some of the charges to flow

through it. (Belong to group IV in the Periodic Table of the Elements. Each
atom has four outer most electrons also called metalloids or 4 valence
electrons – an element intermediate in properties between the typical
metals and nonmetals. It is neither a good conductor or a good insulator
Examples: Germanium, Selenium, and Silicon

Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) are mostly used
as Semiconductor materials in the construction of electronics devices.
Semiconductors

By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Chemistry Expert

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 3 of 20

 Two Classes of Semiconductors:

1. Single-crystal – a semiconductor that have a repetitive crystal

structure. (Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si).

Physicsopenlab.org
https://www.google.com/search

2. Compound – a semiconductor that are constructed of two or more

semiconductor materials of different atomic structure. Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Gallium Nitride (GaN),
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP).

Gallium Arsenide atomic structure

researchgate.net En.wikipedia.org

The term valence is used to indicate that the potential (ionization potential)
required to remove any one of these electrons from the atomic structure is
significantly lower than that required for any other electron in the structure.
Ion – is an atom/group of atoms that carries positive or negative charge as a
result of having lost or gained one or more electrons.

CANKAYA UNIVERSITY ECE.246Fun….

slide player.com
Fig.1 Fig. 2
Atomic structure of (a) silicon: (b) germanium: and (c) arsenic Covalent bonding of the Silicon atom

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 4 of 20

 You have learned that an atom consists of nucleus containing the protons
and neutrons, and electrons which travel around the nucleus. The atom as a whole
is electrically neutral having an equal number of protons and electrons. In the so-
called covalent solids (notably the elements in group IV of the periodic table – the
semiconductors) the valence or outer electrons are shared between neighboring
atoms and the atoms thereby become bound together (refer to fig. 2-Covalent
bonding of the Silicon atom. This occurs not only in elemental solids where all
atoms are of the same kind, but also in the so-called III-V compounds, such as
gallium arsenide, with constituent atoms from groups III and V of the periodic
table.
Most insulators and metals are crystalline solids. Their properties are not
affected by many small crystals that make them up. In all crystals, the atoms are
arranged in a regularly spaced three-dimensional array called lattice (refer to the
fig. below).

Example of a crystal lattice structure

https://study.com/academy/lesson/crystal-lattice-definition-structure.html
Fig. 3 Crystal Lattice Structure

Semiconducting solids for electronic applications are prepared as single

large crystals. In semiconductors, the fact that the atoms are in three-dimensional
array of large size (in comparison with an atom) makes the atom appear invisible to
electrons moving within a crystal. This property allows electrons to be quite mobile
in semiconductors.

Conduction in Semiconductors

What makes a semiconductor material special? Semiconductor materials

have a natural conduction called intrinsic conduction which could increased as
the temperature of the material is increased of the material is increased. In
addition, they have an artificial extra conduction due to impurities added to them
during manufacture. This latter conduction is called impurity conduction or
extrinsic conduction.

Types of Conduction in Semiconductors:

1. Intrinsic Conduction
In a pure semiconductor such as silicon, all outer electrons of the atoms
form bonds with neighboring atoms. At absolute zero, all valence electrons
are locked in covalent bonds between the atoms, so none is available for
conduction. Figure 2 (above) shows the bonding of the outer electrons of
neighboring silicon atoms.

When the temperature of the pure silicon crystal increases, the thermal
energy of the atom increases. Increasing the temperature moves some

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 5 of 20

 electrons from the valence band into the conduction band, that is, freeing
and enabling them to move in the crystal lattice. For every electron that is
“freed,” a gap or hole is created. The pair then becomes an electron-hole pair
(see figure 4).
Electron hole area once an electron is freed and moved through the material

File:Silicon matrix electron flow png…

Commons.wikimedia.org.

Fig. 4
Electron-hole pair is created once an electron is freed and moved through the materials

Since an atom is neutral when it has a complete set of electrons, the hole
vacated by an electron behaves as if it had a positive charge. Holes
(considered to be like positive charges) seem to move through semiconductor
material like the electrons and form part of the electric current in it. How
does the hole moves? The absence of an electron creates a hole. As a
consequence, the hole seems to move through the semiconductor material
like the electrons and form part of the electric current due to positive
charges. The factor that affect intrinsic conductor is temperature.

2. Impurity or Extrinsic Conduction

During manufacture, small amounts of different elements can be added to a
semiconductor material to change its conduction properties. Conduction
caused by the presence of these impurities, rather than by thermal
electrons, is called impurity conduction or extrinsic conduction.

Adding impurities to a semiconductor material is called doping. A silicon

atom has four electrons in its outer shell and all of these are shared with its
four nearest neighbors in the crystal lattice. Doping semiconductor is
necessary to improve its conduction properties.

Suppose an atom with five electrons in their outer shell, say antimony, is
added to silicon crystal, what happens to the structure of the crystal lattice?
Since antimony has five outer electrons, it will share four of them with the
neighboring silicon atoms leaving one electron free.

CANKAYA UNIVERSITY ECE.246Fun…. hyperphysics.phy-astr,gsu,edu

slide player.com Doped Semiconductors
Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 6 of 20
 Fig. 5 - Antimony impurity in n-type material
Adding impurity atoms from group V of the periodic table produces negative
electrons as charge carriers so that the doped material is called n-type
semiconductor (Figure 5) N-Type silicon has a large majority of negative
charge carriers, the number of which is controlled by the percentage of the
impurity added.

Suppose an atom with three outer electrons, say boron, is used to dope
crystal silicon, what happens to the structure of the crystal lattice? Since
boron has only three outer electrons to share with four neighboring silicon
atoms, it will be sharing only one electron with the silicon neighbor atom,
thus creating an electron-hole pair (Figure 6). Impurity atoms from group III
of the periodic table provide a positive hole for conduction. A semiconductor
material with extra holes (positive charge carriers) is called a p-type
semiconductor.

difference between.info
Figure 6
The surplus of holes in P-type

As an intrinsic conduction, the positive hole or the absence of an electron

can travel within the lattice. The charge carriers then are positive holes.

Characteristics of some Semiconductors:

Germanium
 was used almost exclusively because it was easy to find and was available in
fairly large quantities.
 relatively easy to refine to obtain very high levels of purity, an important
aspect in the fabrication process.
 in the long run, it was discovered that diodes and transistor made from it
got low levels of reliability due to primarily to its sensitivity to changes in
temperature
Silicon
 less temperature sensitive
 most abundant materials
 in 1954, the first SILICON transistor was introduced and silicon quickly
became the semiconductor material of choice leading semiconductor.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

 speeds of operation up to five times than Silicon, high operation of

computers and high levels of performance of communication system
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) was developed used in transistor in the early
1970’s.
Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 7 of 20
  difficult to manufacture at high level of purity.
 more expensive and had little design support in the early years of
development.
 demand for increased speed resulted in more funding for GaAs research and
today it is consistently used as the base material for high-speed, very large
scale integrated (VLS) circuit designs.

Combinations of p-and n-type semiconductors are used to make diodes and

transistors.

Types of Diodes

quora. Com

A diode is formed when a piece of n-type material is brought in contact with

a piece of p-type material. It has two electrodes in which two wires are
attached. It is a device which allows the flow of charges in only one direction.

byjus.com

Applications of diodes include, as rectifier, clipper, clamping, circuit

protection, voltage multiplier, and spike suppression.

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 8 of 20

 Engage

Activity 1. Fill Me Up!

Directions: Fill in the Venn Diagram below by identifying the similarities and
differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.

N-type P-type

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 9 of 20

 Apply

Activity 1 – Answer the questions briefly. Write your answer in a separate

sheet of paper.

1. How does resistivity of semiconductors compare with those of conductors

and insulators?
2. What is the relationship of the resistivity of these materials(conductors,
insulators, and semiconductors) and their ability to conduct current?
3. To what group in the periodic table do the semiconductors belong?
4. What does this tell you about the number of electrons in the outer shell of
their atoms? (the semiconductors)
5. How does the hole moves in a semiconductor material?
6. Why is there a need for doping?

Assess

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Which material allow only some of the charges to flow through
A Conductors B Insulators C Semiconductors D Rubber

2. Diodes allow current to pass in only one direction. This property

accounts for the _________ and _________ functions of the diode in the
circuit.
A switching and rectifying C switching and charging
B charging and discharging D rectifying and discharging
3. The following are mostly used as semiconductor materials in construction of
electronics devices EXCEPT.
A Germanium B Gallium Arsenide C Phosphorus D Silicon
4. Which of the following is a trivalent semiconductor.
A Arsenic B Gallium C Germanium D Silicon
5. A Silicon semiconductor has four valence electrons is doped with impurity
Antimony which has five valence electrons, this material now will become
A N - type B P - type C NPN - type D PNP – type
5. In a P- type material the vacancy is called hole this is a result of
A insufficient number of electrons to complete the covalent bonds.
B excess number of electrons to complete the covalent bonds.
C equal number of electrons to complete the covalent bonds.
D unpredictable number of electrons to complete the covalent bonds.

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 10 of 20

 6. Which of the following compares and contrast conductor and semiconductor
materials.
A When heat is applied in a conductor its conductivity increases, while in
semiconductor its conductivity decreases.
B When heat is applied in semiconductor its conductivity increases, while
in conductor its conductivity is zero.
C When heat is applied in semiconductor its conductivity increases, while
in conductor its conductivity decreases.
D When heat is applied in semiconductor its conductivity is zero, while in
conductor its conductivity decreases.
7. Materials that have very high resistivities .
A Conductors B Insulators C Semiconductors D Zinc
8. Elements such as phosphorous, arsenic, and antimony have five electrons
each in the outer shell of their atoms. They are called ____
A acceptor atoms B donor atoms C neutral atoms D Rectifiers
9. It refers to a doped semiconductor in which mobile positive-charge carriers
(holes are the majority carriers).
A N-type semiconductor C P-N junction
B P-type semiconductor D N-P junction
10.It is a device that allows electric current to flow in only one direction
A Capacitor B Diode C Resistor D Transistor

Reflect

1. What important concepts have you gained in the lesson?

2. What are the difficulties have you encountered in the
process of learning?
3. How will you apply the lesson learned in real - life situation?

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 11 of 20

 Answer Key

Pre Assessment:
1.T 2. T 3. F 4. F What I
Know(Apply)
5.F 6.F 7. T 8.T What's
1. The resistivity of
9.T 10. T More(Engage) semiconductors lies
between those of
Difference: conductors and
insulators.
2. The ability of
Assessment N-Type Semiconductors: semiconductors to
conduct electricity lies
-charge carriers are
1. C between those of
electrons conductors and
2. A
3. C insulators.
-doped materials are from
4. B 3. Group IV
group V of the periodic table
5. A 4. There are four electrons
of elements. in the outermost shell of
6. C
7. B the atoms belongings to
P-Type Semiconductors:
8. B group IV
9. B - charge carriers are “holes” 5. The absence of an
10. B electron creates a hole. As
-doped materials are from another electron from an
group III of the periodic adjacent atom fills it.it
table of the elements. leaves another hole. As a
consequence, the hole
Similarities: seems to move through
the semiconductor
Both n-and p-type semi material like the electrons
conductors conduct and form part of the
electricity when impurities electric current due to
are added. positive charges.
6. Temperature affects
intrinsic conduction.

References
Science and Technology IV (SEMP) Physics Textbook
Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 12 of 20
https://ALekk01wggavdlew6aQAYDWX9kfE1v5-g:1605716600645&tbm
https://www.google.com/search

- quora. Com, byjus.com, difference between.info,

CANKAYA UNIVERSITY ECE.246Fun…. ,hyperphysics. phy-astr, gsu,edu
slide player.com, File:Silicon matrix electron flow png, Commons.wikimedia.org.
researchgate.net . ,En.wikipedia.org, Physicsopenlab.org,
https://study.com/academy/lesson/crystal-lattice-definition-structure.html
https://rfcafe.com/references/electrical/NEETS-modules/NEETS-module-07-1-1-1-10.htm

Q2_STE_Electronics_ Module 1 Page 13 of 20

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