States of Matter

Solid- fixed shape and fixed volume

- particles closely packed together in a fixed orderly position
- high density level
- Strong forces of attraction

Liquid - no fixed shape but has a fixed volume

- clusters and move around each other
- Moderate force of attraction
Gas - does not have a shape and volume
- Very weak forces of attraction
- Be easily compressed because they move about freely and quickly
Particle Theory
- tells us that matter is made up of particles that move in a state of random motion.
Evidence that proves the particle theory
1. Diffusion - Movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration.
Examples: perfume in room(gas), a drop of ink in water or potassium manganate (VII) in
water(liquid).
2. Osmosis- movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region
of lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
Example: potato strip in water. The water molecules will move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semi permeable membrane which is
the membrane of the potato strip causing the potato strip to expand. Now let’s say the potato
was placed in salt water, then the water molecules will move from a region of higher
concentration which is the potato itself to a region of lower concentration which is the salt water.
This leads to shrinkage of the potato.
Note: Both are forms of passive transport since they do not require energy to facilitate the
process.
3. Brownian Motion - Haphazard movement of particles within a medium.
Examples: movement of particles when sunlight shines through your window.
: by the lab you can see this in a smoke cell.
An experiment to show diffusion via gases
1. Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram
2. Soak a piece of cotton in concentrated HCl and insert it into the glass tube.
3. Soak a next piece of cotton on concentrated NH3 and insert it on the other end of the
glass tube.
4. Seal the both ends of the glass tube with rubber bungs and place the tube horizontally
on the bench.
5. Observe and you will see that a powdery white substance called ammonium chloride is
formed closer to the cotton dab that contains HCl. The reason behind this is that
ammonia less dense than HCl so it will travel faster in the glass tube during the reaction.
Importance of Diffusion
- respiration where there is the exchange of gases with oxygen and carbon dioxide
 - Digestive system in the ileum
Importance of Osmosis
- Osmoregulation in our bodies
- Aquatic life for salt water and fresh water fishes in terms of let’s say it’s salt water fishes
they have to take in water frequently but pass little but concentrated urine since their
goal is to preserve water within their bodies. In terms of the fresh water fishes they will
take in little water and pass frequent but dilute urine.
Experiment on osmosis:
1. Secure a piece of cellophane paper tightly over the mouth of a thistle funnel using a
rubber band.
2. Fill the funnel with 5% sucrose solution. Mark the level of the solution in the funnel.
3. Lower the funnel into a beaker of water and hold it in place using a retort stand and
clamp. Set up a second experiment in a similar way but with distilled water inside of the
funnel instead of the sucrose solution.
4. Observe and take note of the level of solution inside each funnel.
Activity:
1. What will happen to the level of sucrose solution inside the funnel in the experiment
above?
2. What is the role of the cellophane paper in this experiment?
3. If inside of the funnel was water instead of the sucrose solution and the beaker was filled
with sucrose solution, what would happen to the level of the distilled water inside the
funnel?
Changes of State
Melting: solid to a liquid and the point at which a solid melts is called it’s melting point.
Freezing: liquid to a solid. The point at which a liquid freezes is called it’s freezing point.
Boiling: change of a liquid to a gas. The point at which a liquid boils is called the boiling point.
Condensation: is the change of a gas to a liquid.
Sublimation: solid changes directly to a gas without melting. Example: dry ice, mud ball.
Evaporation and Boiling
- both are the change of a liquid to a gas but they have some differences
Differences
1. Boiling takes place within a liquid while evaporation takes place on the surface of a
liquid.
2. Boiling occurs at 100 degrees Celsius while evaporation occurs below 100 degrees
Celsius.
3. Boiling takes place rapidly while evaporation takes place slowly.
4. Evaporation creates a cooling effect while boiling remains at the same temperature.
Email: heating curve and cooling curve.
Atomic Structure
Atom
- the smallest indivisible particle of an element which retains the property of the element.
Subatomic Particles
1. Protons- relative mass of 1, electric charge of +1 and are found within the nucleus of an
atom.
 2. Neutrons- relative mass of 1 and np charge and are found within the nucleus of the
atom.
3. Electrons- have a negligible mass, a mass of 0 and a charge of -1. The are found within
the shell of an atom.
Atomic number
- is the number of protons in an atom. The number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.
Mass number
- the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
So let’s say you have an atomic number of 26 and a mass number/nucleon number of 56.
To find the number of neutrons:
56 - 26 = 30 neutrons
The number of protons will be 26 and electrons will also be 26.

Activity:
1. An atom of lithium has 3 protons and 4 neutrons in its nucleus.

a) What is the atomic number and mass number?

Atomic number- 3
Mass number - 3 + 4 = 7
b) How many electrons will a lithium atom have?
Number of electrons is equal to the number of protons and we get the number of protons from
the atomic number. Therefore, the number of electrons will be 3.
2. The atomic number of Zirconium is 40 and nucleon number/mass number is 91.
a) How many protons and electrons does a zirconium atom have?
Protons- 40
Electrons - 40
b) How many neutrons does a zirconium atom have?
Neutrons
Mass number - Atomic number
91-40 = 51