LABORATORY CHAPTER №1

1. INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY

Computers have made our life easier with the passage of time. With greater quality and
accuracy, less time taking computers can do a lot in short time while that task can take a lot of
time if we do manually.
You can understand and analyze the importance of computer by seeing a revolution in offline
and online business, online education, online business, online communication and digital
banking online games, and most grooming facility online Earnings. Computers have taken
industries and businesses to a global level. They are used at home for online education,
entertainment, in offices, in hospitals, private firms, Government Sectors, etc.

Evolution of communication
Communication has improved and evolved to facilitate our daily activities. In the 21st
century, everything related to communication utilizes technology to ‘send out’ or disseminate
information to a wider audience. Information can be ‘sent out’ in many ways. The inventions of
cellular phones, television and other electronic devices are important in enhancing
communication.

What is ICT?
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - is the technology required for
information processing, in particular, the use of electronic computers, communication devices
and software applications to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information
from anywhere, anytime.

Information
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or
research. We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example,
scientists can detect the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to
avoid disasters in the affected areas. Information is knowledge and helps us to fulfill our daily
tasks. For example, forecasting the stock exchange market.

Communication
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is
exchanged between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people
communicated through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of
technology, these ‘older’ forms of communication are less utilized as compared to the use of the
Internet, e-mail or video conferencing.

Usage of ICT in daily life

Education
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom
for teacher and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators
benefits from the usage of ICT. The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the
education system:
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
  There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

Banking
The computer is the nerve centre of the banking system around the world. It functions to
control the entire banking system that also includes 'Electronic Banking Services'. Electronic
banking provides 24 hour services. The services include:
 Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
 Electronic Fund Transfer, Direct Deposit
 Pay by phone system
 Personal computer banking/ internet banking, etc.

Industry
Computers are used to facilitate production planning and control systems, to support
chain management and to help in product design in the industrial sector. One of the major areas
is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of
the fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organizations for:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning
and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines. Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are
used:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of
illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer is used to check drug labels,expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery - Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
 Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received
and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Types of Computers
The emergence of computers is one of the essential features of the modern world. The
original meaning of the English word "computer" is man doing the calculations. Widespread
computers led to the fact that more and more people became learn the basics of computing and
programming gradually evolved from a working tool specialist in element of culture. Computers
can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
All computer uses only the binary number system, and any information in the computer is
encoded with two characters: 0 and 1.The electronic signal 0 or 1 is called a bit (from binary
digit - bit). A bit is the smallest unit of information. Technically, in a computer, the smallest bit
combination is 8. This group of 8 bits is called a byte.
1 bit - the smallest unit of information
8 bits = 1 B (byte)
1024 bytes = 1 KB (kilobytes)
1024 kilobytes = 1 MB (megabytes)
1024 megabytes = 1 GB (gigabyte)
1024 gigabytes = 1 TB (terabytes)
1024 terabytes = 1 PB (petabyte)
In kilobytes, megabytes and gigabytes they measure the amount of memory, for
example, the amount of external memory - 512 (MB).
The data transfer rate is measured in bits, kilobytes or megabytes per second, for
example, in a modem it can be 56Kb/s, and in a local network - 10 or 100Mb/s.
1 kbps = 1000 bits

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to
put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management
applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing
Internet.
 Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are
normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, nowadays High-end models of
the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop
publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount
of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

2. HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed
in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Main five generations of computers:

1. First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2. Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3. Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4. Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
5. Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

First Generation Computers

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation
used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central
Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations
used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations
were able to afford it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards,
paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores
were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.
In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable,and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming
operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of third generation are:
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of fourth generation are:
 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
 Fifth Generation Computers
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and
method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and
C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation
The main features of fifth generation are:
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

3. BASICS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING

Serial and parallel programming

Sequential programming can solve many problems. However, in some areas it is convenient
(and even necessary) to run several parts of a program in parallel in order to create the illusion of
their parallel execution — or, if the computer is equipped with several processors, it is true that
they are executed simultaneously. Any operating system running on the single processor is an
example of the serial operating system. Note that one processor complete one task at a given
time and other tasks wait in a queue. In an operating system, there may be running multiple
programs and each program has multiple tasks running.
Parallel programming is used when a sequential program needs to reduce its execution time,
or when a sequential program, due to the large amount of data, ceases to fit into the memory of
one computer. The direction of development in the field of high-performance computing is
aimed at solving these two tasks: the creation of powerful computing systems with a large
amount of RAM (Random Access Memory) on the one hand, which can help to increase system
productivity, and the development of appropriate software on the other. In fact, the whole
question is to minimize the price/performance ratio.

Amdahl’s law is a formula used to find the maximum improvement improvement possible by
improving a particular part of a system. In parallel computing, Amdahl's law is mainly used to
predict the theoretical maximum speedup for program processing using multiple processors.
  is the theoretical speedup
 is the time an algorithm takes to finish when running n threads
 is the fraction of the algorithm that is strictly serial (so 1-B is how much of the
program can be run in parallel)

What this is basically saying is that the amount of speedup a program will see by using
cores is based on how much of the program is serial (can only be run on a single CPU core) and
how much of it is parallel (can be split up among multiple CPU cores).

 is the theoretical speedup

 is the fraction of the algorithm that can be made parallel
 is the number of CPU threads

Example 1
If 30% of the execution time may be the subject of a speedup, p will be 0.3; if the
improvement makes the affected part twice faster, s will be 2. Amdahl's law states that the
overall speedup of applying the improvement will be

Example 2
We are given a serial task which is split into four consecutive parts, whose percentages of
execution time are p1 = 0.11, p2 = 0.18, p3 = 0.23, and p4 = 0.48 respectively. Then we are
told that the 1st part is not sped up, so s1 = 1, while the 2nd part is sped up 5 times, so s2 = 5,
the 3rd part is sped up 20 times, so s3 = 20, and the 4th part is sped up 1.6 times, so s4 = 1.6.
By using Amdahl's law, the overall speedup is

Notice how the 20 times and 5 times speedup on the 2nd and 3rd parts respectively don't
have much effect on the overall speedup when the 4th part (48% of the execution time) is
sped up only 1.6 times.

The point that Amdahl was trying to make was that using lots of parallel processors was
not a viable way of achieving the sort of speed-ups that people were looking for. i.e. it was
essentially an argument in support of investing effort in making single processor systems run
faster.