Hizbe Ethiopia 

    
Quantitative and Qualitative Research techniques
Quantitative research 
A process of inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers,
and analyzed using statistical techniques. That is the results are presented using statistics,
tables and graphs. The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of a theory hold true. 
Quantitative methods
Assumptions underlying quantitative methods
 Reality is objective, "out there" and independent of the researcher, therefore reality is
something that can be studied objectively;  
 The researcher should remain distant and independent of what is being researched;
 Research is based primarily on deductive forms of logic, and theories and hypotheses
are tested in a cause-effect order;  
 The goal is to develop generalizations that contribute to theory that enable the
researcher to predict, explain, and understand a phenomenon. 
Qualitative Research
A process of building a complex and holistic picture of the phenomenon of interest, conducted in
a natural setting. That is, the researcher who uses qualitative methods seeks a deeper truth. It
involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. They aim to “study things in their
natural setting", attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of meanings
people bring to them. The goal of qualitative research is to develop an understanding of a
social or human problem from multiple perspectives.
Assumptions underlying Qualitative methods
 Multiple realities exist in any given situation  
 Researcher interacts with those he/she studies and actively works to minimize the
distance between the researcher and those being researched.   
 Research is based on inductive forms of logic, categories of interest emerge mainly from
informants (subject).  
 The goal is to uncover and discover patterns of theories that help explain a phenomenon
of interest  
 Determination of accuracy involves verifying the information with informants or
triangulation among different sources of information.

Qualitative vs quantitative research 

 Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answer to questions which begin with
why?how? In what way? 
 Quantitative research is concerned with questions about: how much? How many? How
often? To what extent?
 Quantitative research collects numerical data in order to explain, predict and or control
phenomena of interest 
 In this, data analysis is mainly statistical
 It is categorized with descriptive research, correlational research, causal-
comparative research and experimental research.
 The result of research is a number, or a series of numbers, presented in tables, graphs
or other forms of statistics. 
 When conducting qualitative research, the researcher collects data consisting mostly of
words, pictures, observations of events, etc. These may eventually be categorized in
some way, and possibly quantified.  
 Collects narrative data to gain insights into phenomena of interest  
 Data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal synthesis.  
  It offers a lot of freedom in terms of what to study. However, analyzing such data can be
very time consuming, and may be influenced by researcher bias.
More generally 
Quantitative Research: 
 Involves the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose
of describing and explaining the phenomenon that those observations reflect.  
 It is argued that quantification allows for more precision in analysis and ease in
summarizing data and making inferences. 
 Attempts to be very objective and controlled  
 Can lack the depth of some qualitative approaches. 
Qualitative research:  
 Involves the examination and interpretation of observations for the purpose of
discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship.  
 It provides much richer, in depth data, which often provides insights into subtle nuances
that quantitative approaches might miss.  
 Very useful for exploratory research and in the early stages of theory development.
Some key qualitative and quantitative research methods

Quantitative  
 Randomized clinical trial  
 Cohort 
 Case-Control study  
 

Qualitative 
 Participant observation
 Case study  
 Structural observation  
 Content analysis of documents  
 performance data 
  Focus groups

Example
Quantitative question
What proportion of smokers have tried to give up?  
Qualitative  question
What stops people giving up smoking?
Example of a research project: Quantitative
Title: Pregnancy outcomes in foreign-born and US-born women.  
Objective: To compare pregnancy outcomes between foreign-born women and women born in
the United States.  
Method: Retrospective cohort study of all deliveries at Grady hospital in Atlanta between 1991
and 2000.
Example of a research project: Qualitative
Title: The acceptability of contraceptive by women in Pakistan  
Objectives: To find out the reasons why there is such a low acceptability of methods of
contraception in Pakistan, where conventional methods of family planning are failing miserably.
Why aren’t the people of Pakistan using these methods when their immediate neighbors, India
and Bangladesh are slowly and steadily increasing their contraceptive rates  
Method: The project will be conducted as a survey and some focal group discussions will be
held. A total of 1200 women will be interviewed, 600 will be from the urban area and 600 from
the rural areas. 

Table link:https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/24016/04chapter4.pdf?sequ%20ence=5
Main types of quantitative research designs
There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research.
1. Descriptive research 
 Seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. 
 These research projects are designed to provide systematic information about a
phenomenon. 
The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after
collecting data. 
 The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis. 
 Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and
careful measurement of each variable. 
Examples of Descriptive Research: 
 A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation 
 A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers
 A description of how parents feel about the twelve month school year 
 A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming 
 A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and
how frequently each occurs 
 A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives
1.Correlational research 
 Attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using
statistical data. 
 In this type of design, relationships between and among a number of facts are sought
and interpreted. 
 This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far
in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. 
 Cause and effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. 
 The data, relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. 
 Variables are not manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a
natural setting. 
Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and not as its
own type of research, as no variables are manipulated in the study. 

Examples of Correlational Research: 

 The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem
 The relationship between diet and anxiety 
 The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course
 The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades
 The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement 
 The covariance of smoking and lung disease 
1.Causal-comparative/quasi experimental research 
 Attempts to establish cause effect relationships among the variables. 
 These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key
differences. 
 An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and
effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. 
 The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally
formed or pre-existing groups. 
 Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to
groups who are not.
When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other
variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome. A causal comparative
designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00 Kindergarten
Teachers," illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm relationships
amongst variables can be made.
Examples of Correlational Research:
 The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade 
 The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism 
 The effect of gender on algebra achievement 
 The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students 
 The effect of age on lung capacity
1.Experimental research
 Often called true experimentation
 Uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of
variables that make up a study. 
 The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the
case; a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. 
 A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control
over all other variables except one. 
 An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent
variables.
 Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in
naturally occurring groups
Examples of Experimental Research: 
 The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer 
 The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school 
 The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach
on students’ achievement 
 A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on
computational skill
So, what is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design? 
The overall structure for a quantitative design is based on the scientific method. It uses
deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an
investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is
made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false.
The basic procedure of a quantitative design is: 
1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new.
Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue. 
2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations. 
3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your
prediction. 
4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the
hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on
your new knowledge. 
5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate
form for your audience.
Main types of qualitative research designs
1. One-on-one interview:
 Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research
methods. 
 It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely
a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the
respondent.
 One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise
data about what people believe and what their motivations are. If the researcher is well
experienced, asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they
should need more information the researchers should ask such follow up questions that
will help them collect more information.
 These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last
between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is
conducted face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the
respondents and match the responses.
1.Focus groups:
 A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods, used in
data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10)
from within your target market.
 The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how”
questions. One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t necessarily need to interact with
the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on various
devices and responses can be collected at the click of a button.
 Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online qualitative
research methods. Typically they are used to explain complex processes. This method is
very useful when it comes to market research on new products and testing new
concepts.
1.Ethnographic research:
 Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in
their naturally occurring environment.
 This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments
which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here
geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.
 This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and
settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the
natural settings first hand.
 This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-
depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and a time-
consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to
analyze, observe and infer the data.
1.Case study research:
 The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a
valuable qual research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining an
organization or an entity.
 This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social
sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the
simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough
understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.
 Are in-depth examinations of people or groups of people
1.Record keeping:
 This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources
of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar
to going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to collect
relevant data that can likely be used in the research.
1.Process of observation:
 Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to
gather systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the
research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data.
Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.
 Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning –
sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers
but instead characteristics.
1.Phenomenological Studies
 In a phenomenological study, human experiences are examined through the detailed
description of the people being studied 
 The goal is to understand the ‘lived experience’ of the individuals being studied. 
  This approach involves researching a small group of people intensively over a long
period of time.

References 

 https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/:Qualitative
Research: Definition, types, methods and examples
 https://www.wssu.edu/about/offices-and-departments/office-of-sponsored-programs/pre-
award/_Files/documents/develop-quantitative: Key Elements of a Research Proposal
Quantitative Design  
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
https://www.gfmer.ch/Medical_education_En/Afghanistan_2008/pdf/Qualitative_quantitat
ive_research_Abawi_Afghanistan_2008
 
 
 

Maereg Seyoum

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Quantitative research can be of two main types – experimental and descriptive:

o An experimental design focuses on causality, including dependent variables that
have to be measured by means of independent variables several times during an
intervention;
o A descriptive design aims at identifying relationships between dependent and
independent variables, including a single measurement during a study;
 Quantitative research is characterized by a specifically chosen research instrument:
o Surveys may include dichotomous questions (with short YES-NO answers),
multiple choice questions, or rating scales;
o Questionnaires consist of checklists and simple questions;
o Polls can be developed orally, in a written form, or online;
o Interviews are properly structured and organized in person, via telephones, or
online.
 Quantitative research includes different sample sizes and can be repeated as per the needs
of the researcher;
 Quantitative research questions must be developed beforehand and approved;
 All participants are randomly selected for quantitative research;
 Data has to be organized numerically, and arranged in tables, charts, or figures;
 Quantitative data analysis plays an important role in research and includes thorough
explanations, description of statistical procedures, the use of inferential statistics, and the
reduction of causality.
 Reference: https://citetotal.com/writing-guides/quantitative-research/

Habtamu sisay
I describe here one of the quantitative research design methods which is survey research…
Survey Research
Survey Research is the most elementary tool for all sorts of quantitative research techniques. The
very most important purpose of the research is to widely explain the characteristics of a
particular group or a bunch of population. This analysis is most typically employed by both small
and large organizations for a proper understanding of their customers and to understand the
merchandise and product views.
 Multiple queries can be raised by the customers and the analysis can be done for the
same.
 Cross-sectional and longitudinal are two main kinds of surveys that can be used to
conduct the survey quantitative research analysis.
 The cross-sectional survey is conducted specifically on a target population at a given
purpose of time. These types of surveys are used to conduct research mostly in retail
stores, health care trade, etc.
 In a longitudinal survey, research is conducted at various time durations. These are
utilized in medicine and applied sciences.
Advantage and disadvantage of Survey research
Advantages:
 The research produces data based on real-world observations (empirical data).
 The breadth of coverage of many people or events means that it is more likely than some
other approaches to obtain data based on a representative sample, and can therefore be
generalizable to a population.
 Surveys can produce a large amount of data in a short time for a fairly low cost.
Researchers can therefore set a finite time-span for a project, which can assist in planning
and delivering end results.
Disadvantages:
 The significance of the data can become neglected if the researcher focuses too much on
the range of coverage to the exclusion of an adequate account of the implications of those
data for relevant issues, problems, or theories.
 The data that are produced are likely to lack details or depth on the topic being
investigated.
 Securing a high response rate to a survey can be hard to control, particularly when it is
carried out by post, but is also difficult when the survey is carried out face-to-face or over
the telephone.

Essential steps in Survey research

Research question
Good research has the characteristic that its purpose is to address a single clear and explicit
research question; conversely, the end product of a study that aims to answer a number of diverse
questions is often weak. Weakest of all, however, are those studies that have no research
question at all and whose design simply is to collect a wide range of data and then to ‘trawl’ the
data looking for ‘interesting’ or ‘significant’ associations. 
 Be knowledgeable about the area you wish to research.
 Widen the base of your experience, explore related areas, and talk to other researchers
and practitioners in the field you are surveying.
 Consider using techniques for enhancing creativity, for example brainstorming ideas.
 Avoid the pitfalls of: allowing a decision regarding methods to decide the questions to be
asked; posing research questions that cannot be answered; asking questions that have
already been answered satisfactorily.
Research methods
The survey approach can employ a range of methods to answer the research question. Common
survey methods include postal questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews.
Postal questionnaires
This method involves sending questionnaires to a large sample of people covering a wide
geographical area. Postal questionnaires are usually received ‘cold’, without any previous
contact between researcher and respondent. The response rate for this type of method is usually
low, depending on the content and length of the questionnaire. As response rates are low, a large
sample is required when using postal questionnaires, for two main reasons: first, to ensure that
the demographic profile of survey respondents reflects that of the survey population; and
secondly, to provide a sufficiently large data set for analysis.
Face-to-face interviews
Face-to-face interviews involve the researcher approaching respondents personally, either in the
street or by calling at people’s homes. The researcher then asks the respondent a series of
questions and notes their responses. The response rate is often higher than that of postal
questionnaires as the researcher has the opportunity to sell the research to a potential respondent.
Face-to-face interviewing is a more costly and time-consuming method than the postal survey,
however the researcher can select the sample of respondents in order to balance the demographic
profile of the sample.
Data collection 
Researchers should approach data collection in a rigorous and ethical manner. The following
information must be clearly recorded:
 How, where, how many times, and by whom potential respondents were
contacted.
 How many people were approached and how many of those agreed to
participate.
 How did those who agreed to participate differ from those who refused
with regard to characteristics of interest in the study, for example how
they were identified, where they were approached, and what was their
gender, age, and features of their illness or health care.
 How was the survey administered (e.g. telephone interview).
 What was the response rate (i.e. the number of usable data sets as a
proportion of the number of people approached).
Data analysis
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
Reporting
When reporting survey research, it is essential that a number of key points are covered (though
the length and depth of reporting will be dependent upon journal style). These key points are
presented as below:
1. Explain the purpose or aim of the research, with the explicit identification of the research
question.
2. Explain why the research was necessary and place the study in context, drawing upon
previous work in relevant fields (the literature review).
3. Describe in (proportionate) detail how the research was done.
 State the chosen research method or methods, and justify why this method
was chosen.
 Describe the research tool. If an existing tool is used, briefly state its
psychometric properties and provide references to the original
development work. If a new tool is used, you should include an entire
section describing the steps undertaken to develop and test the tool,
including results of psychometric testing.
 Describe how the sample was selected and how data were collected,
including:
1. How were potential subjects identified?
2. How many and what type of attempts were made to contact
subjects?
3. Who approached potential subjects?
4. Where were potential subjects approached?
5. How was informed consent obtained?
6. How many agreed to participate?
7. How did those who agreed differ from those who did not agree?
8. What was the response rate?
4.  Describe and justify the methods and tests used for data analysis.
5.  Present the results of the research. The results section should be clear, factual, and concise.
6. Interpret and discuss the findings. This ‘discussion’ section should not simply reiterate results;
it should provide the author’s critical reflection upon both the results and the processes of data
collection. The discussion should assess how well the study met the research question, should
describe the problems encountered in the research, and should honestly judge the limitations of
the work.
7.  Present conclusions and recommendations.

 
Girma Fikadu
What is quantitative research?
Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data
and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. Quantitative research collects
information from existing and potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online
surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical.
After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make
changes accordingly.
Quantitative research also examines differences in amount or level of the variables being
studied and cause and effect relationships among these variables.
Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the statistical methods
used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In this research method, researchers and
statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity under question.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even investigational.
 The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data collection
happened using a structured method and was conducted on larger samples that represent the entire
population.
Quantitative research characteristics
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:

 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are used to
gather quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and
actionable data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that
represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when
deriving the sample to fortify the research objective
 Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of the
research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence, are extensively used in
quantitative research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting
feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs, or
any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that has been
collected as well as prove the validity of the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to an
entire population to take appropriate actions for improvement.

Best practices to conduct quantitative research

Here are some best practices to conduct quantitative research

 Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative: Understand the difference between

the two methodologies and apply the one that suits your needs best.
 Choose a suitable sample size: Ensure that you have a sample representative of your
population and large enough to be statistically weighty.
 Keep your research goals clear and concise: Know your research goals before you begin
data collection to ensure you collect the right amount and the right quantity of data.
  Keep the questions simple: Remember that you will be reaching out to a
demographically wide audience. Pose simple questions for your respondents to
understand easily.

Quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two methods to conduct quantitative research.
They are:

a. Primary quantitative research methods

b.Secondary quantitative research methods
1.      An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the
amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital.
A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how
much time did a doctor take to see a patient, how often does a patient walk into a
hospital, and other such questions.

Primary quantitative research methods

There are four different types of quantitative research methods:
Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of conducting market research.
The distinct feature of primary research is that the researcher focuses on collecting data directly
rather than depending on data collected from previously done research. Primary quantitative
research design can be broken down into three further distinctive tracks, as well as the process
flow. They are:
A. Techniques and Types of Studies
There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be distinguished into the four
following distinctive methods, which are:

1.      Survey Research:

Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research
methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using
various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys,
etc. Every small and big organization intends to understand what their customers think about
their products and services, how well are new features faring in the market and other such
details.
By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey questions, collect data
from a pool of customers, and analyze this collected data to produce numerical results. It is the
first step towards collecting data for any research.
This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can be
conducted across multiple groups along with comparative analysis. A prerequisite for this type of
research is that the sample of respondents must have randomly selected members. This way, a
researcher can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained results as a huge variety of
respondents will be addressed using random selection. Traditionally, survey research was
conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress made by online mediums such as
email or social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as well.
Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the
progress made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread to
online mediums as well.
There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time in-hand and the
kind of data required:
Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted in
situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target population at a
given point in time. Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data
gathered using this type of survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the
variables which are considered for research. Throughout the survey, this one variable will stay
constant.

·         Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries. Information
is garnered without modifying any parameters in the variable ecosystem.
·         Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be analyzed and
compared.
·         Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.
·         The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect relationship of
variables cannot be established as it usually evaluates variables at a particular time and not
across a continuous time frame.

Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-
sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time durations to observe a
change in respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time can be days, months, years, or
even decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of
teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.

·         Incross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given point in time, and
in longitudinal surveys, different variables can be analyzed at different intervals of time.
·         Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and applied sciences.
Apart from these two fields, they are also used to observe a change in the market trend,
analyze customer satisfaction, or gain feedback on products/services.
·         In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential, longitudinal surveys are
used.
·         Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be thoroughly inspected
before concluding, they rely on longitudinal surveys.
2.      Correlational research:

A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to establish

a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the
changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give value to
naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different groups are required to conduct
this quantitative research method successfully. Without assuming various aspects, a relationship
between two groups or entities must be established.
Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more variables using
mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
concluded as they exist in their original set up. The impact of one of these variables on the other
is observed along with how it changes the relationship between the two variables. Researchers
tend to manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results.
Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on correlational research. This is
because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated.
Example of Correlational Research Questions:

·         The
relationship between stress and depression.
The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.
3.      Causal-comparative research:

This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called quasi-
experimental research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers to conclude the
cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on the
other independent variable. The independent variable is established but not manipulated, and its
impact on the dependent variable is observed. These variables or groups must be formed as they
exist in the natural set up. As the dependent and independent variables will always exist in a
group, it is advised that the conclusions are carefully established by keeping all the factors in
mind.
Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables but
extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change under the influence of the same
changes. This research is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that exists between two or
more variables. Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the outcome obtained using this
quantitative research method.
 
Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

·         The
impact of drugs on a teenager.
The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.
4.      Experimental research:

Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a theory. Experimental
research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not
been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In experimental research, an analysis is done
around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is used in natural
sciences.Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a statement that can be
verified or refuted.
After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is valid or invalid.
This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social sciences as there are
various statements which need to be proved right or wrong.
 ·         Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
·         Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with the course.
·         It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.

B. Data collection methodologies

The second major step in primary quantitative research is data collection. Data collection can be
divided into sampling methods and data collection with the use of surveys and polls.
Secondary quantitative research methods
Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method that involves using already
existing data or secondary data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall
effectiveness of research.
This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from existing data sources like
the internet, government resources, libraries, research reports, etc. Secondary quantitative
research helps to validate the data that is collected from primary quantitative research as well as
aid in strengthening or proving or disproving previously collected data.
 

Example quantitative research:  an organization that conducts an event, collecting feedback

from the event attendees about the value that they see from the event. By using an event survey
template, the organization can collect actionable feedback about satisfaction levels of customers
during various phases of the event such as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of
recommending the organization to their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future
events and other such questions.
Almaz Worku
 Experimental Research Design
 The purpose of experimental research
- Determine the relationship between two variables (dependent and independent). This
relationship is generally causal in nature. The data collected in experimental research has to be
numeric or quantified. It must be measurable, capable of statistical analysis, and comparable.
 The procedures in experimental research:-
-          Consider variables and how they are related
-          Write a specific, testable hypothesis
-          Design experimental treatments to manipulate independent variable
-          Assign subjects to groups, either between-subjects or within-subjects
-          Plan how will measure dependent variable
Research problems that are more appropriate to experimental research are administering exams after the
end of a semester, employee skill evaluation, evaluation of teaching methods etc.
Experimental research is best suited for explanatory research (rather than for descriptive or exploratory
research), where the goal of the study is to examine cause-effect relationships.
Ruth Adisu
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis
What is quantitative research?
Quantitative research measures attitudes, behaviours, opinions and other variables to
support or reject a premise. This is done by collecting numerical data, which is easily
quantifiable to identify “statistical significance”.
“Numerical data” is collected using close ended questions, such as Likert scales or
multiple-choice question types. Once you’ve shared your survey with your target
audience, the responses for each answer option is easily quantified.
The questions you ask must be objective in order to collect and analyze respondent
data.
Choosing between qualitative and quantitative data collection
Before designing a survey, you must determine your research goal. I.e. what you want
the data you collect to help you achieve.
In academic research, this may be to prove or disprove a hypothesis. Whereas, in
market research you might be gauging the popularity of product concepts.
After defining a research goal, you must ask yourself; “what are the expected results
from my survey?”
If you’re expecting in-depth feedback or experiential data, you should consider running
a qualitative survey instead.
If you’re looking to draw conclusions from a representative data set, then a quantitative
survey is for you.
It’s important to determine your research goal and method before writing survey
questions. This way, you ensure everything you ask contributes to your aims, rather
than collecting data for the sake of it.
How to collect quantitative data
Typically, quantitative research requires a large respondent population. This is because
the results of your research will be representative of a larger population.
Quantitative methods
There are several methods by which you can collect quantitative data, which include:

 Experiments
 Controlled observations
 Surveys: paper, kiosk, mobile, questionnaires
 Longitudinal studies
 Polls
 Telephone interviews
 Face-to-face interviews

The method by which you collect quantitative data can impact your participant’s
responses. For example, participants taking part in an experiment are unlikely to make
the same choices as they would in a social context.
How participants respond to stimuli is context-bound, meaning they may respond
differently to each of these methods.
If you plan to conduct your research using more than one of these methods, we’d
recommend doing this in stages.
Firstly, analyze the data for each individual method to identify any contextual trends.
Then, when you take a look at your collated data, you’ll have more information to
explain any inconsistencies.
Quantitative data analysis
There are two types of data that require statistical analysis; descriptive and inferential.
Descriptive statistics enables you to draw conclusions from data the data as a whole.
Inferential statistics highlight “statistically significant” differences between two or more
groups of data. There are two types of inferential data: comparative data and
relationship data.
Types of quantitative data
Descriptive data
Simply put, descriptive statistics allows you to easily quantify a variable (or variables) for
a target group.
For example, transport surveys may look for data concerning how many people aged
18-25 use public transport to get to work.
In this example, the variable is ‘public transport’ and the target group is those aged 18-
25.
Comparative data
This method of data collection allows a comparison two or more target groups based on
one or more variable.
A comparative study may aim to compare the use of public transport between people
aged 18-25 and those aged 26-35.
Relationship data
Relationship data highlights trends, associations and relationships between two or more
variables.
In market research, you may set to find out what the relationship is between customer
gender and loyalty to your brand.
Strengths of quantitative research ( Advantages of quantitative
research)
There are many advantages to quantitative research. Some of the major advantages
of why researchers use this method in market research are:
·        Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and
presented in numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do
not lie. They offer an honest picture of the conducted research without
discrepancies and are also extremely accurate. In situations where a researcher
predicts conflict, quantitative research is conducted.
·        Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative
research method applied to these respondents and the involvement of statistics,
conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-consuming.
·        Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method
provides a wide scope of data collection.
·        Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments
or biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most
cases.
·        Large samples Data: from large samples can be processed and analyzed using
reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.
·        Hypothesis testing Using formalized and established hypothesis testing
procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research
variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a
conclusion.
Objective analysis
Bias is less likely to occur in quantitative analysis, as the data are statistic in nature.
Meaning there is less room for a researcher’s subjective reasoning to effect results.
Easy to analyze
Quantitative data is easier to analyze than its qualitative counterpart. Plus, if you’re
using online survey software, you can apply filters for a more in-depth view of your data.
Conclusions are generalizable
If your sample population is representative of the study population, your findings can be
generalized to that larger group.
Weaknesses of quantitative research (Disadvantages of quantitative research)
Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in
explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:
• Superficiality: Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may
inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may
be represented with just a number in quantitative research but explained with
elaboration in qualitative research.
• Narrow focus: Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can
mean that you ignore other relevant observations.
• Structural bias: Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still
affect quantitative research. Missing data, imprecise measurements or
inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.
• Lack of context: Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like
laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data
collection and results.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative
research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent
reasoning rather than divergent.
 
Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari. Revised on December 8, 2021.
2 Dimensional data
Quantitative data is excellent at providing answers to what, who and when questions.
But isn’t great for how and why questions.
Qualitative research is a better option for exploring participant experiences and
opinions. Combining thise research method with quantitative data provides more
context to participant answers.
Large number of participants needed
For the results of your quantitative research to be representative of a larger population,
you’ll need to distribute to a large sample.
If you don’t have access to a list of respondents, you’ll have to spend time building one
of an appropriate size. You’ll also have to ensure the sample is representative of a
larger demographic or group. Otherwise your results will be meaningless.
Confirmation bias
This form of response bias can occur in quantitative studies, where researchers favour data that
confirms their beliefs or hypothesis.
The researcher may not even be aware of this type of bias. They simply ignore or
misinterpret data because they believe their research goal has already been met.
We find that quantitative and qualitative research methods often yield better results when used in
tandem.
The quantitative approach allows you to draw fact-based conclusions to inform research
or decision making.
Qualitative data can provide further context to participants’ answer choices.
For example, if you were to run a customer satisfaction survey you would ask: “how
likely they were to recommend your product to a friend or colleague?”
This close-ended question will determine the average brand loyalty of your customers
but achieves no more than that.
By following up with an open-ended question, e.g. “what one thing would you change
about our product?”, you give context to those choices. In this way, your survey data is
not only descriptive but actionable.
 Bulcha Melaku
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to

find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to

wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and

analyzing non-numerical data (e.g. text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,

psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

Types of Quantitative Research

There are four main types of quantitative research designs and they are:

1. Descriptive Research Design

 2. Correlational Research Design
3. Quasi-experimental Research Design
4. Experimental Research Design 

Descriptive research 

Descriptive research is used to understand a phenomenon, a situation, or a population. Unlike

experimental research, descriptive research does not involve the manipulation of certain
variables. Rather, it seeks only to observe and measure the variables in order to investigate
them. 
This research design is used when trying to identify characteristics, categories, and trends. The
most common methods of collecting descriptive research is through case studies, observations,
and surveys. 

Correlational Research Design

Correlational research is a non-experimental research method used to identify a relationship

between two variables with no influence from any extraneous variable. 
The correlation between the two variables will reflect the direction and/or strength of their
relationship. The direction of correlation can either be positive or negative, where a positive
correlation denotes that both variables change in the same direction, and a negative correlation
denotes that the variables change in opposite directions. A zero correlation denotes that there is
no relationship between the variables being studied. 

Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Similar to the experimental research design, quasi-experimental research also aims to identify a
cause-and-effect relationship between two variables; an independent variable and a dependent
variable. However, quasi-experiment involves subjects being assigned to groups based on non-
random criteria. This is different from a true experiment that relies on the random assignment of
subjects.
This research design is often employed when true experiments cannot be carried out due to
practical or ethical reasons. A notable advantage of this design is that it has a higher external
validity than most true experiments, as it often involves real-world interventions as opposed to
an artificial laboratory setting. 

Experimental Research 

DesignExperimental research, also known as true experimentation, aims to measure the effect of
one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables with the use of the
scientific method. This is done by manipulating the independent variable to study its effects on
the dependent variable. This experimental research design involves conducting a set of
procedures to test the hypothesis of the study. Subjects within experimental research are
randomly assigned to groups rather than being assigned to groups using non-random criteria.
Quantitative research question examples

 How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?

 Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?

 Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

 Methodologies for Data Collection

The next major step in the primary methods for quantitative research is data collection. A

quantitative research study cannot be completed without a well thought of research design and

survey questions. This can be classified into sampling methods, surveys, and polls. Let us see

these methods in detail.

Sampling Methods
There are two different types of sampling methods for quantitative research and they are:

1. Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, probability theory is employed to filter the individuals from the

population and create the required samples. Participants of the sample are selected through

random selection procedures. Each member of the respondents has an equivalent opportunity to

be chosen in the sample. There are mainly 4 categories of probability sampling. They are as

follows.

1. Stratified random sampling: A huge population is classified into

various strata in stratified random sampling. Here members are selected

randomly. The numerous separate strata should not overlie one another.

2. Systematic Sampling: It is a technique where the beginning point of the

sample is preferred randomly, while other attributes are selected using a

pre-set gap. This gap is planned by dividing the targeted sample size with

the population size.

 3. Simple random Sampling: It is a simple random selection of the aspects

from a given sample. This research method is mainly implied where there

are a considerably huge number of populations present.

4. Cluster sampling: In this method of quantitative research, the main

section is divided into clusters based on the demographic and geographic

segmentation parameters.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, the experience and knowledge of the researcher are used to produce

the samples. Due to the involvement of the researcher, all the participants of the targeted

audience have an opportunity to get selected in the sample. The non-probability sampling is

classified into five types and they are:

1. Convenience sampling: In this type of sampling, attributes of a sample

are chosen based on the proximity of the participants with the researcher.

The samples of this technique are easy and simple to implement since

there are no parameters involved in it.

2. Quota Sampling: Researchers choose elements applying their

knowledge of the personalities and targeted traits for the formation of

strata. Participants from the different strata are chosen to be an integral

part of the sample according to the understanding of the researcher.

3. Judgmental Sampling: In judgmental sampling, samples are generated

based on the skill and experience of the researcher.

 4. Consecutive Sampling: It is very much similar to convenience sampling,

except the researchers can select a group or a single element of the

samples. This method conducts the research consecutively over an

important period and then operates the same process with the other

samples.

5. Snowball Sampling: In snowball sampling, the research is conducted

with those target audiences which are hard to get in contact with and

extract the information.

Quantitative data analysis

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey

and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical

analysis to answer your research questions.

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and

variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and

check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics, you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You

can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter.

Techniques for Data Analysis

The third step of primary quantitative research is data analysis. After raw data collection, it needs
to be analyzed properly to conclude statistical presumptions from the research. It is also
significant to relate the outcomes to the objective and establish the relevance of the results.
In data analysis, those aspects need to be included which are not utilized during data collection.
The difference between the two required to be noted between what has happened vs what was
planned. There are 4 different processes for the statistical analysis and study of quantitative data.
The techniques are:

 Conjoint Analysis: In this type of analysis, researchers learn how to

make complicated decisions related to purchasing.

 TURF analysis: Totally Unduplicated Reach and Frequency analysis are

operated in the circumstances where the source for favorable

communication is analyzed. TURF analysis is implemented to understand

the potentiality of the market.

 SWOT analysis: Organizations implied this SWOT analysis to evaluate

their performance externally and internally. It is also used to create

efficient strategies for improvement.

Advantages of quantitative research

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings.

Strengths of this approach include:

Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible

definitions of abstract concepts.

Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of

participants. Results can be compared statistically.

Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures

through quantitative data analysis.

Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis  testing  procedures means that you have to

carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing

methods before coming to a conclusion.

Disadvantages of quantitative research

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex

research topics. Its limitations include:

Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex

concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in

quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant

observations.
Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing

data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the

wrong conclusions.

Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical

and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

 
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Seven characteristics discriminate qualitative methods of research from qualitative ones. The
characteristics of quantitative research methods are enumerated in the following list.
1. CONTAIN MEASURABLE VARIABLES
Data gathering instruments contain items that solicit measurable characteristics of the population.
These measurable characteristics are referred to as the variables of the study such as age, the
number of children, educational status, and economic status.
 
2. USE STANDARDIZED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
The data collection instruments include questionnaires, polls, or surveys. Standardized, pre-
tested instruments guide data collection thus ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of
data. Pre-testing helps identify areas in the research instruments that need revisions. It makes
sure that respondents provide the expected answers or satisfies the intent of the researcher to
meet the research objectives.
3. ASSUME A NORMAL POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
For more reliable data analysis of quantitative data, a normal population distribution curve is
preferred over a non-normal distribution. This requires a large population, the numbers of which
depend on how the characteristics of the population vary. This requires adherence to the
principle of random sampling to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results that defeat the
purpose of research.
4. PRESENT DATA IN TABLES, GRAPHS, OR FIGURES
The data obtained using quantitative methods are organized using tables, graphs, or figures that
consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or differences among variables.
This fosters understanding to the readers or clients of the research investigation.
 
5. USE REPEATABLE METHOD
Researchers can repeat the quantitative method to verify or confirm the findings in another
setting. This reinforces the validity of groundbreaking discoveries or findings thus eliminating
the possibility of spurious or erroneous conclusions.
6. CAN PREDICT OUTCOMES
Quantitative models or formulas derived from data analysis can predict outcomes. If-then
scenarios can be constructed using complex mathematical computations with the aid of
computers.
7. USE MEASURING DEVICES
Advanced digital or electronic instruments are used to measure or gather quantitative data from
the field. The instruments ensure an objective and accurate collection of data provided that these
are calibrated. Calibration means that the instruments used by the researcher matches the
measurements of a reference instrument that is considered a standard.
 
Descriptive research design
Descriptive research definition: Descriptive research is defined as a research method that
describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses
more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
“describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.
 
Characteristics of descriptive research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data
analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of
the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method

that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the
population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect
and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are
influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the
research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands
of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional
study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected
and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The
data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the
subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before
getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite
following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use
descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways
organizations currently use descriptive research today:

 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is

to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to
derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to
understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon.
For example, understanding from millenials the hours per week they spend on
browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to
make informed business decisions.
 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a
descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel
company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-
45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take
too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and
what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to
understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For
example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that
measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions
like age, income, gender, geographical location, etc. This consumer research
helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the
population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing
fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.
 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to
help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying
patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative
observation and some aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe
each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis. Researchers also use it to
validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.
 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at
different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows
any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing
conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific

methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method.
Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which
provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even
developing a hypothesis of your research object.
  Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a
holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse,
and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be
conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-
quality and honest data is collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in
descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
Disadvantages descriptive research
 If the questions are not well formulated, the answers obtained may not be
entirely reliable, which makes it difficult to carry out a credible
investigation.
 The types of variables that allow the study of descriptive investigations
make it impossible to visualize the causes and effects of the event.
 The data obtained by conducting a descriptive research, being collected
randomly, make it impossible to obtain valid data that represent the entire
population.

 
 
Descriptive research methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers
make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.
A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on
numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results
of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It
implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight,
volume, scale, etc. 
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and
effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For
example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection
and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the
customer.
  Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should
not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there
could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way
of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey.
Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

 Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a
popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data
should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and
close-ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-
to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.
 
Reference
University of Southern California (2015). Quantitative methods. Retrieved on 3 January, 2015
from http://goo.gl/GMiwt
Bhat, A. (2015). Experimental research- definition, types of designs and advantages. Retrieved 
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Sage publications.
Creswell, J. (2008). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Shona McCombes. (September 3, 2020) ,descriptive research designs.
Cite this article as: Regoniel, Patrick (January 3, 2015). Quantitative Research Methods:
Meaning and Characteristics [Blog Post]. In Research-based Articles. Retrieved from
https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/03/quantitative-methods-meaning-and-

Mohammedseid Jemal

Introduction to Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is outlined as a scientific investigation of phenomena by gathering

quantitative information and activity applied mathematics, or procedure techniques. The
gathering of data in quantitative analysis is what makes it aside from other different types.
Quantitative analysis is targeted specifically on numerical data and it conjointly uses
mathematical analysis to research what is being determined, the information collected should be
in numbers. The general structure for quantitative research is predicted by the scientific
approach. It uses the tactic and method of aggregation and uses that information at intervals
within the victimization of the matter for sharing the analysis and conclusions.

Different Types of Quantitative Research

The basic procedures of a quantitative style are:

 Build your own observations regarding one thing that is unknown, unexplained, or totally
new.  Investigate the current scenario and theory encompassing your drawback or issue.
 Hypothesize a proof and an explanation for the observations you had made in step one.
 Build a prediction of outcomes supporting your hypotheses. Formulate a detailed step and
plan to test your prediction from step two.
 Collect and process your information. If your prediction was correct, visit again to step 5.
If not, the hypothesis has been verified false. Return to step 2 to pair a brand new
hypothesis supporting your new data and knowledge collected.
 Verify your new findings, and also make your conclusions from the same. Describe your
findings in an appropriate and acceptable form for your audience.

The following precedes the different types of Quantitative research types with the description of
each.

1. Survey Research

 Survey Research is the most elementary tool for all sorts of quantitative research techniques.
The very most important purpose of the research is to widely explain the characteristics of a
particular group or a bunch of population. This analysis is most typically employed by both small
and large organizations for a proper understanding of their customers and to understand the
merchandise and product views.

 Multiple queries can be raised by the customers and the analysis can be done for the
same.
 Cross-sectional and longitudinal are two main kinds of surveys that can be used to
conduct the survey quantitative research analysis.
 The cross-sectional survey is conducted specifically on a target population at a given
purpose of time. These types of surveys are used to conduct research mostly in retail
stores, health care trade, etc.
 In a longitudinal survey, research is conducted at various time durations. These are
utilized in medicine and applied sciences.
2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to explain the current status of an identified variable. The aim of
descriptive research is to explain and interpret the current status of people, settings, conditions,
or events.

 In descriptive research, the researcher does not usually begin with the hypothesis;
however, it is probably going to develop one after collecting the information.
 A systematic assortment of data needs careful selection of the units and measurement of
every variable.
 Description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulative,
description of global warming with respect to Scientists, description of different kinds of
physical activities that occur in schools, etc. are all examples of descriptive research.

3. Experimental Research

Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. It is based
on one or more than one theory. It is called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to
establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. Multiple
theories can be used to conduct this research. The components of the experimental research
design are prescribed below.

 A comparison group of participants who are randomly selected and assigned to

experimental and control groups.
 An independent variable, which can be referred to as the experimental variable that can
be applied to the experimental group.
 A dependent variable, which can be referred to as the effect or posttest variable that can
be measured in an identical manner for all groups.

4. Correlational Research

 Correlational research is used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to
determine how one impacts the other. For this, a researcher needs at least two separate groups.
This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its
analysis to observe the different patterns.

 Correlational research is sometimes considered a type of descriptive research as no

variables are manipulated in the study.
 Cause and effect are not the basis of this type of observational research.
  Examples of Correlational research include the relationships between the types of
activities of mathematics classrooms and the achievement of students, the relationship
between diet and anxiety.

5. Causal-Comparative Research

 Causal-Comparative research is employed to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or

more variables, where one variable depends on the opposite experimental variable. An
independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter, and the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable are measured.

 This sort of analysis is not restricted to the applied mathematics of two variables but
extends to analyzing different variables and groups.
 Causal-Comparative research is a method that works on the process of comparison.
 Once analysis and conclusions are made, deciding about the causes should be done
fastidiously, as other different variables, each far-famed and unknown, might still have an
effect on the result.
 Examples of this type of research include the effect of preschool attendance on social
maturity at the end of the first grade, the impact of drugs on a teenager.

Quantitative research analysis templates are objective, elaborate, and conjointly investigational.
It is easier to know the various types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the
researcher designs and styles for the management of the variables within the investigation
process. The fundamental procedure of a quantitative design is to hypothesize a proof for those
observations.

Quantitative research characteristics

Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:

 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are used to
gather quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and
actionable data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that
represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when
deriving the sample to fortify the research objective
  Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of the
research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence, are extensively used in
quantitative research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting
feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs, or
any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that has been
collected as well as prove the validity of the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to an
entire population to take appropriate actions for improvement.

Advantages of quantitative research

There are many advantages to quantitative research. Some of the major advantages of why
researchers use this method in market research are:

 Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and presented in
numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They offer
an honest picture of the conducted research without discrepancies and are also extremely
accurate. In situations where a researcher predicts conflict, quantitative research is
conducted.
 Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of respondents
who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative research method applied
to these respondents and the involvement of statistics, conducting, and analyzing results
is quite straightforward and less time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method provides a wide
scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments or biasing
of results. The results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.

Quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two methods to conduct quantitative research.
They are:

 Primary quantitative research methods

 Secondary quantitative research methods
Data collection methodologies: Sampling methods

There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability and Non-probability
sampling.

Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population and
create samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random selection
processes. Each member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be selected in the
sample.

There are four main types of probability sampling:

 Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling is nothing
but a random selection of elements for a sample. This sampling technique is implemented
where the target population is considerably large.
 Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a large
population is divided into groups (strata), and members of a sample are chosen randomly
from these strata. The various segregated strata should ideally not overlap one another.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using which the
main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic and demographic
segmentation parameters.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting point of the
sample is chosen randomly, and all the other elements are chosen using a fixed interval.
This interval is calculated by dividing the population size by the target sample size.

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the researcher’s knowledge and

experience are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the researcher, not all the
members of a target population have an equal probability of being selected to be a part of a
sample.

There are five non-probability sampling models:

 Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a sample are chosen only

due to one prime reason: their proximity to the researcher. These samples are quick and
easy to implement as there is no other parameter of selection involved.
 Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience sampling,
except for the fact that researchers can choose a single element or a group of samples and
conduct research consecutively over a significant period and then perform the same
process with other samples.
  Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements using their
knowledge of target traits and personalities to form strata. Members of various strata can
then be chosen to be a part of the sample as per the researcher’s understanding.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target audiences, which are
difficult to contact and get information. It is popular in cases where the target audience
for research is rare to put together.
 Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method
where samples are created only based on the researcher’s experience and skill.

Data collection methodologies: Using surveys & polls

Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed to collect the data
for quantitative research.

 Using surveys for primary quantitative research

A survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined group of
respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. The ease of survey
distribution and the wide number of people it can be reached depending on the research time and
research objective make it one of the most important aspects of conducting quantitative outcome
research.

Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales

There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice question in
a survey. They are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales without the
fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can be created. Hence, it is crucial to
understand these levels of measurement to be able to develop a robust survey.

Use of different question types

To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey. They can be
a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic differential
scale questions, rating scale questions, etc. 

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection

In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the research design to
conduct primary quantitative research. Survey distribution to collect data is the other important
aspect of the survey process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most
commonly used methods are:

 Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and most effective method of
survey distribution. The response rate is high in this method because the respondents are
aware of your brand. You can use the Question Pro email management feature to send out
and collect survey responses.
 Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct primary
quantitative research is to use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and are
on the panel by their own will, responses are much higher.
 Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high number
of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand when the survey
pops up.
 Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting a
higher number of responses from the people that are aware of the brand.
 QR code: Question Pro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish
this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any object/medium.
 SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high
number of responses is the SMS survey.
 Question Pro app: The Question Pro App allows users to circulate surveys quickly, and
the responses can be collected both online and offline.

Survey example

An example of a survey is a short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that can quickly
be built and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer thinks about a brand and how
satisfied and reference-able the brand is.

 Using polls for primary quantitative research

Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended questions from a sample. The
most commonly used types of polls are election polls and exit polls. Both of these are used to
collect data from a large sample size but using basic question types like a multiple-choice
question.

Data analysis techniques

The third aspect of primary quantitative research design is data analysis. After the collection of
raw data, there has to be an analysis of this data to derive statistical inferences from this research.
It is important to relate the results to the objective of research and establish the statistical
relevance of results.

It is important to consider aspects of research which were not considered for the data collection
process and report the difference between what was planned vs. what was actually executed.

It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods such as SWOT, Conjoint, Cross-
tabulation, etc. to analyze the quantitative data.

 SWOT analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of Strengths, Weakness,
Opportunities, and Threat analysis. Organizations use this statistical analysis technique to
evaluate their performance internally and externally to develop effective strategies for
improvement.
 Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method to learn how
individuals make complicated purchasing decisions. Trade-offs are involved in the daily
activities of an individual, and these reflect their ability to decide from a complex list of
product/service options.
 Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary statistical market analysis
methods which establish relationships, patterns, and trends within the various parameters
of the research study.
 TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally Unduplicated Reach and
Frequency Analysis, is executed in situations where the reach of a favorable
communication source is to be analyzed along with the frequency of this communication.
It is used for understanding the potential of a target market.

Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, margin of error, etc. can then be used
to provide results.

References:

Atlantis, E., Salmon, J., & Bauman, A. (2008). Acute effects of advertisements on children’s choices,
preferences, and ratings of liking for physical activities and seden-tary behaviors: A randomized
controlled pilot study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11, 553–557 

Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approach (2nd
ed.).

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed

approaches (p. 34). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Yonatan Gebreyesus

Quantitative Research
There is a lot of research going on that is leading to the evolution of
something new and unique. Traditional marketing research has two options
for conducting its research: the quantitative method and the qualitative
method. Quantitative research depends on creating hypotheses followed by
precise hypotheses analysis of statistics in order to understand and explain
research results. It focuses more on the quantity of things and their statistical
patterns. Using the number, we come to an analysis to come to a conclusion.
Some of the benefit of quantitative research method is:
  Provides compensation on statistically sound formulation
 Quantitative data provides a macro view with all the required details
and comparatively larger samples.
  Larger sample sizes enable the conclusion to be generalized.
 Evaluation of the multiple data sets can be done at once and that too at
a faster pace and accurately.
 This method is called to be appropriate when there is a need for
systematic and standardized comparisons.
 The manual implementations of ideas can be automated completely
which can save time.
·     

Weaknesses of Quantitative Data

 Quantitative Method reveals what and to what extent but often fails to
answer more on why and how.
 This type of research requires the model performance to be monitored
on a constant basis in order to ensure its compliance with the original
hypotheses.
 The impression of homogeneity in a sample may turn out to be fake in
this method.
  This method involves a limited number of Quants(short for quantitative
analyst) supply and also involves complex disciplines which are hard to
master.

Reference

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p4sodc9v/quantitative-research-fill-in-the-blanks-to-complete-
their-meaning-RESEARCH/

https://www.weetechsolution.com/blog/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-quantitative-and-
qualitative-research

Adanech getu

Quantitative research design

Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering

quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.

Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the
results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful understanding of
these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of
time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient
satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did
a doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other
such questions.
Quantitative research design relates to the design of a research project which uses
quantitative research methods. The design varies depending on the method used, which
could be telephone interviews, face-to-face interviews, online surveys, or surveys by post
for instance. Other methodologies include SMS / Test Message surveys, or physical
counts.
Quantitative research examples
Some examples of quantitative research are:
1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey,
a customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an organization
can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in
the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as product quality, pricing,
customer experience, etc. This data can be collected by asking a net promoter score
(NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that provide data in the form of numbers that
can be analyzed and worked upon.
2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an
event, collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the
event. By using an event survey template, the organization can collect actionable
feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of the event such as
the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of recommending the organization to their
friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such questions.
The purpose or the aim is Quantitative research design is aimed at discovering how
many people think, act or feel in a specific way. Quantitative projects involve large
sample sizes, concentrating on the quantity of responses, as opposed to gaining the more
focused or emotional insight that is the aim of qualitative research.
 Basic Methodology for a Quantitative Research 
Quantitative research is structured around the scientific method. After observing
the situation to be investigated, the researcher forms a hypothesis and then uses
deductive reasoning by predicting how the data should look if the hypothesis is
true, after collecting the data and analyzing it to confirm or reject the hypothesis.
The basic procedure of a quantitative research design is as follows:
1.     Make observations about something unknown, unexplained or new. Investigate
current theories or trends surrounding the problem or issue.
2.     Formulate a hypothesis to explain your observations.
3.     Predict outcomes based on your hypothesis and formulate a plan to test your
predictions.
4.     Collect and process your data using one or more of the methods below.
5.     If your prediction is confirmed, verify your results, draw your final conclusions
and present your findings. If it is disconfirmed, form  a new hypothesis based on
what you have learned and start the process over.
When to Use Quantitative Research
It is also a good method to use when your audience is more receptive to results in
the form of facts, graphs, charts and statistics.
Quantitative research is often performed by professionals in the social science
disciplines, including sociology, psychology, public health and politics. It is also
widely used in the fields of education, economics, marketing and healthcare.
Researchers typically use quantitative data when the objective of their study is to
assess a problem or answer the “what” or “how many” of a research question. In
essence, the goal of quantitative research studies is to understand the relationship
in a population between an independent variable and one or more dependent
variables.
Ideally, when developing a study, researchers should review their goals as well as
the claims they hope to make before deciding whether the quantitative method is
the best approach.
 
 
Reference
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/quantitative-research/
https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-journey/why-quantitative-research-important
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Biniyam Amsalu
An introduction to quantitative research
Quantitative research is outlined as a scientific investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantitative information and activity applied mathematics, or procedure techniques. The
gathering of data in quantitative analysis is what makes it aside from other different
types.
Quantitative analysis is targeted specifically on numerical data and it conjointly uses
mathematical analysis to research what is being determined, the information collected
should be in numbers. The general structure for quantitative research is predicted on the
scientific approach. It uses the tactic and method of aggregation and using that
information at intervals within the victimization of the matter for sharing the analysis and
conclusions.
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be
used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and
generalize results to wider populations.
Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting
and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g. text, video, or audio).
Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology,
chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.
Quantitative research question examples
  What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
 How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
 Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
 Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Advantages of quantitative research

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings.
Strengths of this approach include:

 Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and
tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

 Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of
participants. Results can be compared statistically.

 Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent
procedures through quantitative data analysis.

 Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to
carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and
testing methods before coming to a conclusion.
Disadvantages of quantitative research
Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining
complex research topics. Its limitations include:

 Superficiality
Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex
concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in
quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

 Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other
relevant observations.

 Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research.
Missing data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that
can lead to the wrong conclusions.

 Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider
historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.
Quantitative research: survey research
Survey Research is the most elementary tool for all sorts of quantitative research techniques. The
very most important purpose of the research is to widely explain the characteristics of a
particular group or a bunch of population. This analysis is most typically employed by both small
and large organizations for a proper understanding of their customers and to understand the
merchandise and product views.

 Multiple queries can be raised by the customers and the analysis can be done for the
same.
 Cross-sectional and longitudinal are two main kinds of surveys that can be used to
conduct the survey quantitative research analysis.
 The cross-sectional survey is conducted specifically on a target population at a given
purpose of time. These type of surveys are used to conduct research mostly in retail
stores, health care trade, etc.
 In a longitudinal survey, research is conducted at various time durations. These are
utilized in medicine and applied sciences.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them
questions and analyzing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six
steps:
 1. Determine who will participate in the survey
2. Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
3. Design the survey questions and layout
4. Distribute the survey
5. Analyze the responses
6. Write up the results

What are surveys used for?

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are a good
choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or
beliefs of a group of people.
Common uses of survey research include:

 Social research: investigating the experiences and characteristics of different

social groups
 Market research: finding out what customers think about products, services, and
companies
 Health research: collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
 Politics: measuring public opinion about parties and policies
 Psychology: researching personality traits, preferences and behaviors

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies, where you collect data just once, and
in longitudinal studies, where you survey the same sample several times over an extended
period.
Step one: Define the population and sample
Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a clear research
question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this question, you need to
determine exactly who you will target to participate in the survey.
Step two: Decide on the type of survey
There are two main types of survey:

 A questionnaire, where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in

person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
 An interview, where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person
and records the responses.
Step three: Design the survey questions
Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s
important to consider:

 The type of questions

 The content of the questions
 The phrasing of the questions
 The ordering and layout of the survey

Step four: Distribute the survey and collect responses

Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will
conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you
will gain access to the sample.
When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for
answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of
choice – by mail, online, or in person.
Step five: Analyze the survey results
There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to
process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses.
You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed
responses.
Step six: Write up the survey results
Finally, when you have collected and analyzed all the necessary data, you will write it up
as part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper.
In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You
should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when and where
the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full questionnaire as an
appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.
Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical
methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize the key results from
your analysis.
In the discussion and conclusion, you give your explanations and interpretations of these
results, answer your research question, and reflect on the implications and limitations of
the research.
References : - https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/survey-research/
https://www.educba.com/types-of-quantitative-research/
 
 
 
Fikru Afework
 When do we use quantitative methods?
There are six main types of research questions that quantitative research is
particularly suited to find an answer to:
1. The first is when we want a quantitative answer. For example, `If the
students have their choice, how many of them
choose to study Experiential English I?' or `How many English teachers in the
Language Institute would like to teach Experiential English courses instead of
Foundation English courses?' The reason why we need to use quantitative
research to answer this kind of question is obvious.
2. Numerical change can likewise only accurately be studied using
quantitative methods. For example, ‘Are the numbers of
students in our university rising or falling?’ or ‘Is achievement in English of
are our students going up or down?’
 3. Quantitative research is useful for conducting audience segmentation. It
is done by dividing the population into groups whose members are similar to
each other and distinct from other groups. Quantitative research is used to
estimate the size of an audience segment as a follow-up step to a qualitative
study to quantify results obtained in a qualitative study and to verify data
obtained from qualitative study.
4.Quantitative research is also useful to quantify opinions,attitudes and
behaviors and find out how the whole population feels about a
certain issues. For example, when we want to find out
the exact number of people who think a certain way, to set baselines (e.g., to
measure consumer attitudes regarding an issue prior to a campaign), and to
ensure that the students can share some comments or ideas to a new course.
5. Quantitative research is suitable
to explain some phenomena. For instance, ‘What factors predict the general
English proficiency of fourth year students?’ or ‘What factors are related
to changes in student English achievement over time?’ This kind of question can
be studied successfully using quantitative methods, and many statistical
techniques have been developed to make us predict scores on one factor or
variable (e.g. student English proficiency) from scores on one or more other
factors or variables (e.g. learning habits, motivation, attitude).
6. The final activity for which
quantitative research is especially suited is the testing of hypotheses. We
might want to explain something, for example whether there is a relationship
between students’ achievement and their self esteem and social background.
The types of problem or research
outlined in 1 to 4 are called 'descriptive research' because we are only trying
to describe a situation while those in 5 and 6 are called 'inferential
research' because we are trying to explain something rather than just describe
it. The former uses descriptive statistics whereas the latter uses inferential
statistics. However, the ultimate goal of any quantitative research is to
generalize the “truth” found in the samples to the population (while the
ultimate goal of any qualitative research is to understand a certain
phenomenon.)
When shouldn’t we use quantitative methods?
 As mentioned above, while quantitative methods are good at answering these
four types of questions, there are other types of question that are not well suited
to quantitative methods:
1. The first situation where quantitative research will fail is when we want to
explore a problem in depth. Quantitative research is good at providing
information in breadth from a large number of units. But when we want to explore
a problem or concept in depth, quantitative methods are too shallow. To get
really under the skin of a phenomenon, we need to go for ethnographic methods,
interviews, in-depth case studies and other qualitative techniques.
2. As mentioned earlier, quantitative research is well-suited for the testing
of theories and hypotheses. What quantitative methods cannot do very well is
to develop hypotheses and theories. The hypotheses to be tested may come
from a review of the literature or theory, but can also be developed using
exploratory qualitative research.
3. If issues to be studied are particularly complex, an in-depth qualitative
study (a case study, for example) is more likely to pick up on this than a
quantitative study. This is partly because there is a limit to how many variables
can be looked at in any one quantitative study, and partly because in quantitative
research it is the researcher who defines the variables to be studied. In
qualitative research unexpected variables may emerge.
4. Finally, while quantitative methods are better at looking at cause and
effect (causality, as it is known), qualitative methods are more suited to
looking at the meaning of particular events or circumstances. What then do
we do if we want to look at both breadth and depth, or at both causality and
meaning? In these situations, it is best to use a so-called mixed method design in
which we use both quantitative (for example, a questionnaire) and qualitative (for
example, a number of case studies) methods. Mixed method research is a
flexible approach where the research design is determined by what we want to
find out rather than by any predetermined epistemological position. In mixed
method research, qualitative or quantitative components can predominate or both
can have equal status.  
Reference
Fundamentals of quantitative research (Suphat Sukamolson, Ph.D. Language
Institute Chulalongkorn University)

Ermias Getnet
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm
theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable
facts about a topic. Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations
recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions. 
Used to quantify behaviors, opinions, attitudes, and other variables and make
generalizations from a larger population.
Data collection methods

 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample

(online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t
be controlled.

When to use quantitative research

 Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or

hypothesis)

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical
analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often
reported in graphs and tables.
Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

 Average scores
 The number of times a particular answer was given
 The correlation or causation between two or more variables
 The reliability and validity of the results

 
 

 Why choose Quantitative Research over Qualitative Research?

Quantitative research is more preferred over qualitative research because it is

more scientific, objective, fast, focused and acceptable. However, qualitative
research is used when the researcher has no idea what to expect. It is used to
define the problem or develop an approach to the problem.
  More scientific: A large amount of data is gathered and then analyzed
statistically. This almost erases bias, and if more researchers ran the analysis on
the data, they would always end up with the same numbers at the end of it.
 Control-sensitive: The researcher has more control over how the data is
gathered and is more distant from the experiment. An outside perspective is
gained using this method.
 Less biased/objective: The research aims for objectivity i.e. without bias, and is
separated from the data. Researcher has clearly defined research questions to
which objective answers are sought.
 Focused: The design of the study is determined before it begins and research is
used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
 Deals with larger samples: The results are based on larger sample sizes that
are representative of the population. The large sample size is used to gain
statistically valid results in customer insight.
 Repeatable: The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its
high reliability.
 Arranged in simple analytical methods: Received data are in the form of
numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-
textual forms.
 Generalizable: Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict
future results, or investigate causal relationships. Findings can be generalized if
selection process is well-designed and the sample is representative of a study
population.
 Relatable: Quantitative research aims to make predictions, establish facts and
test hypotheses that have already been stated. It aims to find evidence which
supports or does not support an existing hypothesis. It tests and validates
already constructed theories about how and why phenomena occur.
 More structured: Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment
to collect numerical data.
 Pertinent in later stages of research: Quantitative research is usually
recommended in later stages of research because it produces more reliable
results.
 Consistent with data: With quantitative research, you may be getting data that
is precise, reliable and consistent, quantitative and numerical.
 More acceptable: It may have higher credibility among many influential people
(e.g., administrators, politicians, sponsors, donors)
 Fast: Data collection using quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g.,
telephone interviews). Also, data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using
statistical software).
 Useful for decision making: Data from quantitative research—such as market
size, demographics, and user preferences—provides important information for
business decisions.

Tirufat Abraham 
One type of Qualitative research is  Survey Research:-
According to Neuman (2014), the history of survey can be traced back to the ancient time census
which involved government collection of data from the entire population in a certain
geographical entity. The descriptive nature of survey research approach is dependent on the data
collection procedure that involves gathering of data from a representative sample of the total
respondents in order to generalize the results on the whole population under investigation.
Survey is a data collection instrument for quantitative research and there are two all-
encompassing categories of survey, these are questionnaire and interview. The prompt adoption
of technology has continued to keep transforming survey research dramatically in the past years.
There are automated telephone surveys that employ random dialing methods, computerized
kiosks in public places that give people the chance to ask for input, and completion of online
surveys when we visit websites.
Features of Survey Research
The construction of survey research instruments is rigorous due to the procedures of
designing sound, valid and reliable instruments. The validity and reliability of survey
research instruments are subjected to confirmation through statistical calculation like
Cronbach Alpha to actually ascertain that those instruments measured what they were
designed to measure. The sampling strategies or techniques to be adopted by researchers
under survey research are influenced by several factors like culture, economic, political
and as well as ethical and legal framework of the research. Responses are effectively
captured under survey since they are numerically coded and this in turn gives room for
meaningful summary of data, effective display, analysis, interpretations and reporting of
research findings.
Pros of Survey Research
Cost-effectiveness: Survey is suitable for gathering lots of data from a large number of people
because it can be applied in several forms such as mailing questionnaires to respondents
compared to the cost of arranging respondents for face-to-face interviews and other approaches.
Generalizability: Samples are drawn from the entire population as respondents, data gotten from
the respondents are collated, analyzed and interpreted for generalization on the entire population.
Reliability: The reliability of survey research can be attributed to the well-structured survey
design and questions. It is also essential to note that not all surveys are reliable because a survey
that is not well structured and or ill-phrased questions can also be misinterpreted by respondents.
However, survey results are generally reliable because the instruments are subjected to statistical
reliability and consistency procedural tests. 
Versatility: One of the biggest strengths of survey is its versatility, survey can be applied in any
discipline in as much as the handlers are well equipped and highly skilled for the construction,
design and administering of survey.
Cons of Survey Research
Inflexibility: Despite the fact that the flexibility of survey research has been debated because the
researcher can ask many questions on several topics on the issue under investigation. However,
the inflexibility of survey research can be ascertained through the instrument of data collection
called questionnaire that survey is famously trapped with. For example, let’s assume that the
researcher sends the questionnaire by mail to the participants and they couldn’t understand the
terminology of a question or the question looks confusing to them, it becomes impossible or too
late for the researcher to make amendments on those that are yet to return their survey.
Lack of depth: Another disadvantage of survey research is that this particular research approach
doesn’t evaluate or measure the depth of issues.
Validity: Survey research is prone to validity issues because survey questions are consistent and
standardized and this may make it hard to ask any questions except those that a large number of
respondents will understand. As a result, the results of the survey might not be valid compared to
results obtained from other data collection approaches that will provide avenues for the
researcher to extensively ask questions. 
Meaza Markos
I have chosen to discuss about Descriptive Research Design since the instruction says one
type of quantitative research design
Descriptive research is a type of study that focuses on describing the characteristics of the
population or phenomenon studied. This methodology places a greater emphasis on the "what" of
the research topic rather than the "why" of the research topic.
Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the
behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.
The descriptions, explanations, and validation of findings are the three main goals of research.
Following creative investigation, description emerges to organize the results in order to fit them
with explanations, which are subsequently tested or validated.
Advantage of Descriptive Research Design

 One of the biggest advantages of descriptive research is that it allows you to analyze facts
and helps you in developing an in-depth understanding of the research problem.
 Another benefit of descriptive research is that it enables you to determine the behavior of
people in a natural setting.
 In such a type of investigation, you can utilize both qualitative and quantitative research
methods for gathering facts.
 Descriptive research is cost-effective and quick. It can also be used for many different
purposes, which makes it a very versatile method of gathering data.
 You need less time for performing such types of research.
 With descriptive research, you can get rich data that’s great for future studies. Use it to
develop hypotheses or your research objective too!

 
 
Disadvantage of Descriptive Research Design

 The biggest disadvantage of descriptive research is that you cannot use statistical tools or
techniques for verifying problems.
 Respondents can be affected by the presence of an observer and may engage in
pretending. This is called the “observer effect.” In some cases, respondents are less likely
to give accurate responses if they feel that a question will assess intimate matters.
 There are high chances of biases in the research findings.
 Due to the observational nature, it is quite difficult to repeat the research process.
 By performing descriptive research you can find the root cause of the problem.

The purpose of descriptive research

The purpose of descriptive research design is to describe individuals, events, or conditions by
studying them as they are nature. The researcher does not manipulate any of the variables but
rather only describes the sample or variables, although a descriptive study can explore multiple
variables, it is the only design that can also explore a single variable. Descriptive studies looks at
the characteristics of a population identify problems that exist within a unit, an organization, or a
population or look at variations in characteristics or practices between institutions or even
countries.
It is also used to describe the characteristics or behaviors of a given population in a systematic
and accurate fashion. It's not designed to test hypotheses, but to provide information about the
physical, social, behavioral, economic, or psychological characteristics of some group of people.
 
Below are some benefits of using Descriptive Research Design
1.      To Measure Data Trends: The descriptive method of research can be used to measure
changes in variables over a period of time, allowing trends to be identified and analyzed. 
2.      To Compare Variables: Descriptive research can be used to compare different variables, as
well as how different demographics respond to different variables. 
3.      To Define the Characteristics of Subjects: It can also be used to determine the different
characteristics of the subjects. This can include characteristics such as opinions, traits, behavior,
etc. 
4.      To Verify or Validate Existing Conditions: Descriptive research can prove to be a useful
tool when trying to test the validity of an existing condition as it involves conducting an in-depth
analysis of every variable before drawing conclusions. 
The procedure we follow to use the Descriptive Research Design are.
·         Step 1: Outline the Research Problem
·         Step 2: Outline the Objectives of the Study
 Step 3: Determine the Tools and Techniques to be used for Data Collection
 Step 4: Define Target Population and Sample Group
 Step 5: Select a Method for Data Collection.

 
To answer the question what kind of research problem is more appropriate for Descriptive
Research, we use Descriptive Research
·         When the goal of the study is to discover traits, frequencies, trends, and classifications,
descriptive research is a good option. It's handy when there's not a lot of information on a topic
or problem. Before you can investigate why anything occurs, you must first comprehend how,
when, and where it occurs.
·         Descriptive research design is a good way to learn about a certain topic and to prepare for
larger quantitative studies. While there are some real worries about statistical validity, this form
of study is a useful scientific tool as long as the researcher understands the limitations.
·         These types of experiments are often used by anthropologists, psychologists and social
scientists to observe natural behaviors without affecting them in any way. It is also used by
market researchers to judge the habits of customers, or by companies wishing to judge the
morale of staff.
 Reference
https://www.voxco.com/blog/descriptive-research-design/
https://www.myresearchtopics.com/
 
Mohammed kemal
What is quantitative research ?
It is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering  quantifiable data and
performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.
Collect information from existing and potential customers using sampling methods and
sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires etc.
Advantage of Descriptive Research Design

 It allows us  to analyze facts and helps you in developing an in-depth  understanding of
the research problem.
 It enables us to determine the behavior of people in a natural setting.
 You need less time for performing such  type of research. 
 With descriptive research, you can get rich data that’s great for future studies. Use it to
develop hypotheses or your research objective too!

reference
https://www.myresearchtopics.com/guide/defining-research-problem/
Tewodros Belay
Quantitative Data Analysis
In quantitative data analysis you are expected to turn raw numbers into
meaningful data through the application of rational and critical thinking.
Quantitative data analysis may include the calculation of frequencies of variables
and differences between variables. A quantitative approach is usually associated
with finding evidence to either support or reject hypotheses you have formulated
at the earlier stages of your research process.
A set of analytical software can be used to assist with analysis of quantitative
data. The following table  illustrates the advantages and disadvantages of three
popular quantitative data analysis software: Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access
and SPSS.
 

Advantages Disadvantages
Excel Cost effective or Free of Charge Big Excel files may run slowly
Spreadsheet Can be sent as e-mail attachments & Numbers of rows and columns are
  viewed by most smartphones limited
All in one program Advanced analysis functions are time
Excel files can be secured by a password consuming to be learned by beginners
Virus vulnerability through macros
 

Microsoft Access One of the cheapest amongst premium Difficult in dealing with large database
programs Low level of interactivity
Flexible information retrieval Remote use requires installation of the
Ease of use same version of Microsoft Access
 

SPSS Broad coverage of formulas and Expensive cost

statistical routines Limited license duration
Data files can be imported through other Confusion among the different versions
programs due to regular update
Annually updated to increase
sophistication

Advantages and disadvantages of popular quantitative analytical software

Quantitative data analysis with the application of statistical software consists of
the following stages

1. Preparing and checking the data. Input of data into the computer.
2. Selecting the most appropriate tables and diagrams to use according to
your research objectives.
3. Selecting the most appropriate statistics to describe your data.
4. Selecting the most appropriate statistics to examine relationships and
trends in your data.

[1] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for
Business Students” 6th edition, Pearson Education Limited.
[2] Robson, C. (2011) Real World Research: A Resource for Users of Social
Research Methods in Applied Settings (3rd edn). Chichester: John Wiley.
 
 Amanuel G/mariam
 Quantitative Research Method
Quantitative research is regarded as the organized inquiry about phenomenon
through collection of numerical data and execution of statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The source of quantitative research is positivism
paradigm that advocates for approaches embedded in statistical breakdown that
involves other strategies like inferential statistics, testing of hypothesis,
mathematical exposition, experimental and quasi-experimental design
randomization, blinding, structured protocols, and questionnaires with restricted
variety of prearranged answers (Lee, as cited in Slevitch, 2011).
Quantitative Research Approaches
Quantitative research objectives are measurable and cannot be separated from
variables and hypothesis; variables are concepts that have variations that can
take numerous values while hypothesis are untested assumptions or propositions
of relationship between variables. According to Håkansson (2013), survey, ex-
post facto, case study and experimental research, are the most frequently used
research strategies under quantitative research.
 Survey Research
According to Neuman (2014), the history of survey can be traced back to the
ancient time census which involves government collection of data from the entire
population in a certain geographical entity. The descriptive nature of survey
research approach is dependent on the data collection procedure that involves
gathering of data from a representative sample of the total respondents in order
to generalize the results on the whole population under investigation. Survey is a
data collection instruments for quantitative research and there are two all-
encompassing categories of survey, these are questionnaire and interview. The
prompt adoption of technology has continued to keep transforming survey
research dramatically in the past years. There are automated telephone surveys
that employed random dialing methods, computerized kiosks in public places that
gives people the chance to ask for input, completion of online survey when we
visit websites. 
Ex Post Facto
Kerlinger and Rint (1986) stated that when considering ex post facto with respect
to social science inquiry, it strives to unveil likely relationships by studying
existing social issue or affairs and tracking back in retrospect for potential causal
effects. According to Simon and Goes (2013), ex post facto is perfect for
investigating social phenomenon when it is impossible or acceptable to influence
the attributes of human respondents. When true experimental or quasi-
experimental approach are not acceptable due to ethical issues, ex post facto
served as substitute and can be applied to run hypotheses test on cause-and-
effect or the degree t of relationship between variables (i.e. correlation). These
researchers added the literary meaning of ex post facto as “from what is done
afterwards”.  It is important to state that ex post facto research is another name
for causal-comparative research. Ex post facto research has flexible nature and
independent variables cannot be subjected to manipulations because it has
happened in the past.
Case Study
Case study can be referred to a research approach that is usually used by social scientists when
in-depth inquiry about phenomenon is required in order to discover the causes of underlying
principles. Cavaye (1996) referred to case study as case research and as well argued that there is
absence of generally acceptable definition of case research, but it is acceptable to give detailed
description of case study via the provision of the attributes, advantages and limitations. Crowe et
al (2011) gave the following as the process of case study research, “defining the case; selecting
the case(s); collecting and analyzing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings”.
Experimental Research
According to Ross and Morrison (2004), the evolution of experimental research can be traced to
psychology and education, the emergence of psychology as a novel science in the 1900s
structured its research methods on the conventional paradigms that are dependent on experiments
to provide principals and laws. Experimental research can be regarded as any investigation
performed through a scientific method in which some variables are held constant in order to
measure other variables that are under inquiry.