Network

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Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................................................... 2
OSI Model Layers and Protocols in Computer Network ..................................................................................... 9
What is OSI Model? ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Characteristics of OSI Model ......................................................................................................................... 9
Why of OSI Model?........................................................................................................................................ 9
History of OSI Model...................................................................................................................................... 9
7 Layers of the OSI Model ............................................................................................................................. 9
Physical Layer ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Data Link Layer: .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Important Functions of Datalink Layer: ..................................................................................................... 11
Transport Layer: .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Important functions of Transport Layers: .................................................................................................. 11
Network Layer: ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Session Layer .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Important function of Session Layer: ........................................................................................................ 12
Presentation Layer....................................................................................................................................... 12
The function of Presentation Layers: ........................................................................................................ 12
Application Layer ......................................................................................................................................... 12
The function of the Application Layers are: .............................................................................................. 13
Interaction Between OSI Model Layers ........................................................................................................ 13
Protocols supported at various levels .......................................................................................................... 13
Differences between OSI & TCP/IP ............................................................................................................. 14
Advantages of the OSI Model ...................................................................................................................... 14
Disadvantages of the OSI Model ................................................................................................................. 15
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
TCP/IP Model: What are Layers & Protocol? TCP/IP Stack ............................................................................. 17
What is the TCP/IP Model? .......................................................................................................................... 17
TCP Characteristics ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Four Layers of TCP/IP model ...................................................................................................................... 17
Application Layer ......................................................................................................................................... 18
The function of the Application Layers are: .............................................................................................. 18
Transport Layer ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Important functions of Transport Layers: .................................................................................................. 19
Internet Layer .............................................................................................................................................. 19

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 The Network Interface Layer ........................................................................................................................ 19
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models ............................................................................................. 20
Most Common TCP/IP Protocols ................................................................................................................. 21
TCP: ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
IP: ............................................................................................................................................................ 21
HTTP: ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
SMTP:...................................................................................................................................................... 21
SNMP: ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
DNS: ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
TELNET: .................................................................................................................................................. 22
FTP: ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Advantages of the TCP/IP model ................................................................................................................. 22
Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model ............................................................................................................ 22
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 22
What are the different types of TCP/IP layers? ........................................................................................ 23
TCP 3-Way Handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK,ACK)............................................................................................... 24
What is TCP Three-Way HandShake?......................................................................................................... 24
TCP message types .................................................................................................................................... 24
TCP Three-Way Handshake Process .......................................................................................................... 24
Real-world Example..................................................................................................................................... 25
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 25
What is VLAN? Types, Advantages, Example ................................................................................................. 26
What is VLAN? ............................................................................................................................................ 26
How VLAN works ......................................................................................................................................... 27
VLAN Ranges .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Example of VLAN ........................................................................................................................................ 28
Characteristics of VLAN ............................................................................................................................... 28
Types of VLANs ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Port-Based VLAN ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Protocol Based VLAN ................................................................................................................................. 29
MAC Based VLAN........................................................................................................................................ 29
Difference between LAN and VLAN ......................................................................................................... 29
Advantages of VLAN ................................................................................................................................... 30
Disadvantages of VLAN ............................................................................................................................... 30
Application/Purpose of VLAN ....................................................................................................................... 31
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 Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 31
Types of IP Addresses | What is, Full Form of IP ............................................................................................. 32
What is an IP Address? ............................................................................................................................... 32
Types of IP address ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Public IP Addresses..................................................................................................................................... 32
Private IP Addresses ................................................................................................................................... 32
Dynamic IP address:.................................................................................................................................... 32
Static IP Addresses ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Types of Website IP Addresses ................................................................................................................... 33
Shared IP Addresses: .............................................................................................................................. 33
Dedicated IP Addresses: ......................................................................................................................... 33
Version of IP address .................................................................................................................................. 33
IPV4 ......................................................................................................................................................... 33
IPV6 ......................................................................................................................................................... 33
IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics .................................................................. 33
Unicast addressing: ................................................................................................................................. 33
Broadcast addressing .............................................................................................................................. 34
Multicast IP addresses ............................................................................................................................. 34
Anycast addressing.................................................................................................................................. 34
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 34
IP Packet Header: Format, Fields .................................................................................................................... 35
What is IP header? ...................................................................................................................................... 35
IPv4 Header Components/Fields ................................................................................................................. 35
IP Address Classes ......................................................................................................................................... 37
What is an IP Address? ............................................................................................................................... 37
IP Header Classes: ...................................................................................................................................... 38
How does IP address work? ........................................................................................................................ 38
What is Classful Addressing? ...................................................................................................................... 38
Class A Network ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Class B Network ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Class C Network ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Class D Network ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Class E Network ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Limitations of classful IP addressing ............................................................................................................ 40
Rules for assigning Network ID: ................................................................................................................... 40

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 Summary: ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Straight Through Cables vs Crossover Cables: Key Difference ....................................................................... 41
What is an Ethernet cable? .......................................................................................................................... 41
What is Straight Through Cable? ................................................................................................................. 41
What Is Crossover Cable? ........................................................................................................................... 41
KEY DIFFERENCES: .................................................................................................................................. 42
When to use Straight Through Cable? ......................................................................................................... 42
When to use Crossover Cable? ................................................................................................................... 43
Difference between Crossover and Straight-through cable .......................................................................... 43
Straight Through vs. Crossover Cable, which one to choose? ..................................................................... 44
Ethernet Cables Types: Cat 3, 5, 5e, 6, 6a, 7, 8 Wires Explained .................................................................... 45
What are Ethernet Cables?.......................................................................................................................... 45
Ethernet Cable Categories........................................................................................................................... 45
Category-3 ............................................................................................................................................... 45
Category-5 ............................................................................................................................................... 45
Category-5e ............................................................................................................................................. 45
Category-6 ............................................................................................................................................... 45
Category-6a: ............................................................................................................................................ 46
Category-7: .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Category-8: .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Cat Types: ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Type of Cables: ........................................................................................................................................... 47
Fiber-optic cabling:................................................................................................................................... 47
Coaxial cabling: ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Twisted-pair cabling: ................................................................................................................................ 48
Types of Shielded Ethernet Cables: ............................................................................................................. 48
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 49
What are the different Ethernet categories? ............................................................................................. 49
What are the 3 types of Ethernet cables? ................................................................................................ 49
What are the types of Shielded Ethernet Cables? .................................................................................... 49
Routing Protocols Types: Static, Dynamic, IP, CISCO ..................................................................................... 50
What is Routing Protocols?.......................................................................................................................... 50
Types of Routing Protocols .......................................................................................................................... 50
Static Routing Protocols............................................................................................................................... 50
Advantages .............................................................................................................................................. 50

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 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................................... 50
Dynamic Routing Protocols .......................................................................................................................... 51
Advantage: .............................................................................................................................................. 51
Disadvantage: .......................................................................................................................................... 51
Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DVR) ..................................................................................................... 51
Advantages: ............................................................................................................................................. 51
Disadvantages: ........................................................................................................................................ 51
Internet Routing Protocols: .......................................................................................................................... 51
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) .............................................................................................................. 51
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) ................................................................................................................... 52
Link State Routing Protocol ......................................................................................................................... 52
Routing protocol tables: ........................................................................................................................... 52
Advantages: ............................................................................................................................................. 52
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) ................................................................................................................ 52
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) ................................................................................ 52
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) ................................................................................................................ 53
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) ................................................................................... 53
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) .................................................................................................................. 53
What is the purpose of Routing Protocols? .................................................................................................. 53
Classful Vs. Classless Routing Protocols ..................................................................................................... 54
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 54
Address Resolution Protocol: What is ARP Header in Networking ................................................................... 55
What is ARP? .............................................................................................................................................. 55
How Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works? ......................................................................................... 55
Important ARP terms: .................................................................................................................................. 56
Address Resolution Methods ....................................................................................................................... 56
Types of ARP .............................................................................................................................................. 56
Proxy ARP: .............................................................................................................................................. 57
Gratuitous ARP: ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Reverse ARP (RARP) .............................................................................................................................. 57
Inverse ARP (InARP) ............................................................................................................................... 57
ARP Header: ............................................................................................................................................... 57
Advantages of using ARP ............................................................................................................................ 58
FAQ: ............................................................................................................................................................ 58
❓ What happens if an ARP request is made for a non-existing host?...................................................... 58

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 What if a host sends an ARP request for its IP address? ................................................................... 58
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 58
VLAN Trunking Protocol: What is VTP in Networking & Benefits ..................................................................... 59
What is VLAN? ............................................................................................................................................ 59
What is VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)? ..................................................................................................... 59
Two important VTP techniques are: ......................................................................................................... 59
Requirements for VTP protocol: ............................................................................................................... 59
VTP Components ........................................................................................................................................ 59
VTP Domain: ........................................................................................................................................... 59
VTP Pruning: ........................................................................................................................................... 60
VTP Advertisements: ............................................................................................................................... 60
Request advertisements: ......................................................................................................................... 60
Summary Advertisement: ......................................................................................................................... 60
Subnet Advertisement:............................................................................................................................. 60
VTP Modes .................................................................................................................................................. 60
How VTP Works? ........................................................................................................................................ 61
Advantages of VTP ...................................................................................................................................... 61
VTP Configuration Guidelines ...................................................................................................................... 62
VTP Versions............................................................................................................................................... 62
V3 adds the following features: ................................................................................................................... 62
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 62
Top 70 CCNA Interview Questions & Answers (2022 Update) ......................................................................... 64
2) What is the purpose of the Data Link? ................................................................................................. 64
What is a MAC Address? Full Form, How to Find it on Windows ..................................................................... 73
What is a MAC Address? ............................................................................................................................. 73
Why Use MAC Address? ............................................................................................................................. 73
Architecture of MAC..................................................................................................................................... 73
Types of MAC Addresses ............................................................................................................................ 74
Universally Administered Address............................................................................................................ 74
Locally Administered Address .................................................................................................................. 74
How to find MAC address in Windows? ....................................................................................................... 74
Finding the MAC address with the Command Prompt: ............................................................................. 74
Finding MAC address from Network Connection Settings ........................................................................ 76
How To Change The MAC Address in Windows .......................................................................................... 79
Using the Device Manager to change MAC address ................................................................................ 79
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 Using Registry to change MAC address......................................................................................................... 85
Difference between MAC address and IP address: ...................................................................................... 90
Summary: .................................................................................................................................................... 90
How to Find & Change MAC Address in Mac OS ............................................................................................ 92
This tutorial, into 2 parts ........................................................................................................................... 92
Finding MAC Address in Macintosh OS X using System Preferences.......................................................... 92
Finding MAC Address in Macintosh OS X using Terminal............................................................................ 93
Find Mac Address Using the Toolbar ....................................................................................................... 94
How to Change the MAC Address? ............................................................................................................. 94
Difference between MAC address and IP address........................................................................................... 96
What is the Mac address? ........................................................................................................................... 96
What is the IP address? ............................................................................................................................... 96
Key Differences ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Why need Mac address? ............................................................................................................................. 96
Why need an IP address?............................................................................................................................ 96
Characteristic of mac address...................................................................................................................... 97
Characteristics of IP Address ....................................................................................................................... 97
How to find out your IP address? ............................................................................................................. 97
How to find your MAC address?............................................................................................................... 99
MAC Address and IP Address ................................................................................................................... 101

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OSI Model Layers and Protocols in Computer Network

What is OSI Model?

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication used by systems
open to interconnection and communication with other systems. The Open System Interconnection
(OSI Model) also defines a logical network and effectively describes computer packet transfer by using
various layers of protocols.

Characteristics of OSI Model

Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:

• A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.
• The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally standardized protocols.
• The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not be put in the same
layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so that architecture doesn’t become very
complicated.
• In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform primitive functions. Every
level should able to provide services to the next higher layer
• Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.

Why of OSI Model?

• Helps you to understand communication over a network
• Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into different network layers.
• Helps you to understand new technologies as they are developed.
• Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on various network layers.

History of OSI Model

Here are essential landmarks from the history of OSI model:
• In the late 1970s, the ISO conducted a program to develop general standards and methods of
networking.
• In 1973, an Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK identified the requirement for
defining the higher-level protocols.
• In the year 1983, OSI model was initially intended to be a detailed specification of actual
interfaces.
• In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard.

7 Layers of the OSI Model

OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a specific
function to perform. All these seven layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to
another.
• The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly implemented only in software.
The highest is closest to the end system user. In this layer, communication from one end-user
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 to another begins by using the interaction between the application layer. It will process all the
way to end-user.
• The Lower Layers: These layers handle activities related to data transport. The physical layer
and datalink layers also implemented in software and hardware.
Upper and Lower layers further divide network architecture into seven different layers as below
▪ Application
▪ Presentation
▪ Session
▪ Transport
▪ Network, Data-link
▪ Physical layers

Figure 1: Network Layers Diagram

Let’s Study each layer in detail:

Physical Layer
The physical layer helps you to define the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection.
This level establishes the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium. The
physical layer is not concerned with protocols or other such higher-layer items.
Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network adapters, ethernet, repeaters, networking hubs,
etc.

Data Link Layer:

Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The layer allows you to define the
protocol to establish and terminates a connection between two connected network devices.
It is IP address understandable layer, which helps you to define logical addressing so that any endpoint
should be identified.
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The layer also helps you implement routing of packets through a network. It helps you to define the
best path, which allows you to take data from the source to the destination.
The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:
1. Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It is responsible for controlling how device in a network gain
access to medium and permits to transmit data.
2. Logical link control layer- This layer is responsible for identity and encapsulating network-layer
protocols and allows you to find the error.
Important Functions of Datalink Layer:
• Framing which divides the data from Network layer into frames.
• Allows you to add header to the frame to define the physical address of the source and the
destination machine
• Adds Logical addresses of the sender and receivers
• It is also responsible for the sourcing process to the destination process delivery of the entire
message.
• It also offers a system for error control in which it detects retransmits damage or lost frames.
• Datalink layer also provides a mechanism to transmit data over independent networks which are
linked together.

Transport Layer:
The transport layer builds on the network layer to provide data transport from a process on a source
machine to a process on a destination machine. It is hosted using single or multiple networks, and also
maintains the quality of service functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the message
which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are delivered error-free
and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control, and
segmentation or desegmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends the
next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:
▪ It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers them to
make a sequence.
▪ Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the
destination machine.
▪ It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be
retransmitted.

Network Layer:
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data
sequences from one node to another connected in “different networks”.

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Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network layer
protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
1) routing protocols
2) multicast group management
3) network-layer address assignment.

Session Layer
Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps you to establish starting and
terminating the connections between the local and remote application.
This layer request for a logical connection which should be established on end user’s requirement. This
layer handles all the important log-on or password validation.
Session layer offers services like dialog discipline, which can be duplex or half-duplex. It is mostly
implemented in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Important function of Session Layer:
▪ It establishes, maintains, and ends a session.
▪ Session layer enables two systems to enter into a dialog
▪ It also allows a process to add a checkpoint to steam of data.

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange between the two
communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data compression and data encryption.
This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application. It also formats and
encrypts data which should be sent across all the networks. This layer is also known as a syntax
layer.
The function of Presentation Layers:
• Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be transmitted on the
network.
• Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for example, password
encryption.
• It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file transfer.

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model. The
application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means OSI application layer allows
users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component. The
interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.

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Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
The function of the Application Layers are:
▪ Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource availability,
and synchronizing communication.
▪ It allows users to log on to a remote host
▪ This layer provides various e-mail services
▪ This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

Interaction Between OSI Model Layers

Information sent from a one computer application to another needs to pass through each of the OSI
layers.
This is explained in the below-given example:
• Every layer within an OSI model communicates with the other two layers which are below it and
its peer layer in some another networked computing system.
• In the below-given diagram, you can see that the data link layer of the first system communicates
with two layers, the network layer and the physical layer of the system. It also helps you to
communicate with the data link layer of, the second system.

Figure 2: Interaction Between OSI Model Layers

Protocols supported at various levels

Layer Name Protocols
Layer 7 Application SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP
Layer 6 Presentation MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
Layer 5 Session NetBIOS, SAP
Layer 4 Transport TCP, UDP
Layer 3 Network IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
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 Layer 2 Data Link RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber Cable, etc.
Layer 1 Physical RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN, 11.

Differences between OSI & TCP/IP

Figure 3: Differences between OSI & TCP/IP

Here, are some important differences between the OSI & TCP/IP model:
OSI Model TCP/IP model
OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn’t offer any clear distinguishing
interfaces, services, and protocols. points between services, interfaces, and
protocols.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI model use two separate layers physical and TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
data link to define the functionality of the bottom
layers
OSI model, the transport layer is only connection- A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-
oriented. oriented and connectionless.
In OSI model, data link layer and physical are In TCP data link layer and physical layer are
separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. Minimum header size is 20 bytes.

Advantages of the OSI Model

Here, are major benefits/pros of using the OSI model :
• It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware
• Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces
• Facilitates modular engineering

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 • Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
• Helps you to accelerate the evolution
• Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology changes.
• Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as connectionless service.
• It is a standard model in computer networking.
• Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
• Offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols.

Disadvantages of the OSI Model

Here are some cons/ drawbacks of using OSI Model:
▪ Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.
▪ You can only use it as a reference model.
▪ Doesn’t define any specific protocol.
▪ In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many layers such as the
transport and data link layers
▪ Layers can’t work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from the previous layer.

Summary
• The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication which is
used by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems
• In OSI model, layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.
• OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network
• In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard.
Layer Name Function Protocols
Layer 7 Application To allow access to network resources. SMTP, HTTP, FTP,
POP3, SNMP
Layer 6 Presentation To translate, encrypt and compress data. MPEG, ASCH, SSL,
TLS
Layer 5 Session To establish, manage, and terminate the session NetBIOS, SAP
Layer 4 Transport The transport layer builds on the network layer TCP, UDP
to provide data transport from a process on a
source machine to a process on a destination
machine.
Layer 3 Network To provide internetworking. To move packets IPV5, IPV6, ICMP,
from source to destination IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
Layer 2 Data Link To organize bits into frames. To provide hop-to- RAPA, PPP, Frame
hop delivery Relay, ATM, Fiber
Cable, etc.
Layer 1 Physical To transmit bits over a medium. To provide RS232, 100BaseTX,
mechanical and electrical specifications ISDN, 11.

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16
 TCP/IP Model: What are Layers & Protocol? TCP/IP
Stack
What is the TCP/IP Model?
TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the internet
and how data should be transmitted between them. It helps you to create a virtual network when
multiple computer networks are connected together. The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow
communication over large distances.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. TCP/IP Stack is specifically
designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork.

TCP Characteristics
Here, are the essential characteristics of TCP IP protocol:
• Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture
• Adding more system to a network is easy.
• In TCP IP protocols suite, the network remains intact until the source, and destination machines
were functioning properly.
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
• TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence should put back into
order.
• TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a receiver with data.

Four Layers of TCP/IP model

In this TCP/IP tutorial, we will explain different layers and their functionalities in TCP/IP model:

Figure 4: TCP/IP Conceptual Layers

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The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes specific protocols.
TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a specific
function to perform. All these four TCP IP layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer
to another.
▪ Application Layer
▪ Transport Layer
▪ Internet Layer
▪ Network Interface

Figure 5: Four Layers of TCP/IP model

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model. The
application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means the OSI application layer
allows users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component. The
interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
The function of the Application Layers are:
• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource availability,
and synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

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Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on a source
system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using single or multiple networks,
and also maintains the quality of service functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the message
which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are delivered error-free
and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control, and
segmentation or de-segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends the
next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:
▪ It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers them to
make a sequence.
▪ Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the
destination machine.
▪ It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be
retransmitted.

Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a network
layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any computer still they
reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.
The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable length data
sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network layer
protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
1. Routing protocols
2. Multicast group management
3. Network-layer address assignment.

The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also called a network
access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using the network.
It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly interfaces with
a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair cables.

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A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI reference model. This
layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This layer is responsible for
the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models

Figure 6: Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model

Here, are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Organization) Research Project Agency Network).
OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing
interfaces, services, and protocols. points between services, interfaces, and
protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.

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 OSI model use two separate layers physical TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
and data link to define the functionality of the
bottom layers.
OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.
OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.
In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are both
physical are separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.
Session and presentation layers are not a part There is no session and presentation layer in
of the TCP model. TCP model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. Minimum header size is 20 bytes.

Most Common TCP/IP Protocols

Some widely used most common TCP/IP protocol are:
TCP:
Transmission Control Protocol is an internet protocol suite which breaks up the message into TCP
Segments and reassembling them at the receiving side.
IP:

An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical label. It is assigned to
each device that is connected to a computer network which uses the IP for communication. Its routing
function allows internetworking and essentially establishes the Internet. Combination of IP with a TCP
allows developing a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
HTTP:
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a foundation of the World Wide Web. It is used for transferring
webpages and other such resources from the HTTP server or web server to the web client or the HTTP
client. Whenever you use a web browser like Google Chrome or Firefox, you are using a web client. It
helps HTTP to transfer web pages that you request from the remote servers.
SMTP:
SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol supports the e-mail is known as a simple
mail transfer protocol. This protocol helps you to send the data to another e-mail address.
SNMP:
SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which is used for managing
the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.

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DNS:
DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the connection of a host
to the internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use names instead of addresses for that DNS.
TELNET:
TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local and remote
computer. It established connection in such a manner that you can simulate your local system at the
remote system.
FTP:
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for transmitting the files
from one machine to another.

Advantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:
• It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of computers.
• It operates independently of the operating system.
• It supports many routing-protocols.
• It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
• TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
• It can be operated independently.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:
• TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
• The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).
• In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
• It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

Summary:
• The full form of TCP/IP model explained as Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
• TCP supports flexible architecture
• Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model.
• Internet layer is a second layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a network layer.
• Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on
a source system machine to a process on a destination system.
• Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also called a
network access layer.

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• OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization) whereas TCP/IP model is
developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
• An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical label.
• HTTP is a foundation of the World Wide Web.
• SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol which supports the e-mail is known as a simple
mail transfer
• SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.
• TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local and
remote computer
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for transmitting the
files from one machine to another.
• The biggest benefit of TCP/IP model is that it helps you to establish/set up a connection between
different types of computers.
• TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

What are the different types of TCP/IP layers?

There are four types of TCP/IP layers.
1) Application layer.
2) Transport layer.
3) Internet layer.
4) Network interface.

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 TCP 3-Way Handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK,ACK)
What is TCP Three-Way HandShake?
Three-Way HandShake or a TCP 3-way handshake is a process which is used in a TCP/IP network
to make a connection between the server and client. It is a three-step process that requires both the
client and server to exchange synchronization and acknowledgment packets before the real data
communication process starts.
Three-way handshake process is designed in such a way that both ends help you to initiate, negotiate,
and separate TCP socket connections at the same time. It allows you to transfer multiple TCP socket
connections in both directions at the same time.

TCP message types

Message Description
Syn Used to initiate and establish a connection. It also helps you to synchronize
sequence numbers between devices.
ACK Helps to confirm to the other side that it has received the SYN.
SYN- SYN message from local device and ACK of the earlier packet.
ACK
FIN Used to terminate a connection.

TCP Three-Way Handshake Process

TCP traffic begins with a three-way handshake. In this TCP handshake process, a client needs to
initiate the conversation by requesting a communication session with the Server:

Figure 7: 3 way Handshake Diagram

• Step 1: In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server. It sends a segment
with SYN and informs the server about the client should start communication, and with what
should be its sequence number.
• Step 2: In this step server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal set. ACK helps
you to signify the response of segment that is received and SYN signifies what sequence number
it should able to start with the segments.

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 • Step 3: In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server, and they both
create a stable connection will begin the actual data transfer process.

Real-world Example

Figure 8: Real-world Example

Here is a simple example of the three-way handshake process that is consists of three steps:
▪ Host X begins the connection by sending the TCP SYN packet to its host destination. The
packets contain a random sequence number (For example, 4321) that indicates the beginning
of the sequence numbers for data that the Host X should transmit.
▪ After that, the Server will receive the packet, and it responds with its sequence number. It’s
response also includes the acknowledgment number, that is Host X’s sequence number
incremented with 1 (Here, it is 4322).
▪ Host X responds to the Server by sending the acknowledgment number that is mostly server’s
sequence number that is incremented by 1.
After the data transmission process is over, TCP automatically terminates the connection between two
separate endpoints.

Summary
• TCP 3-way handshake or three-way handshake or TCP 3-way handshake is a process which is
used in a TCP/IP network to make a connection between server and client.
• Syn use to initiate and establish a connection.
• ACK helps to confirm to the other side that it has received the SYN.
• SYN-ACK is a SYN message from local device and ACK of the earlier packet.
• FIN is used for terminating a connection.
• TCP handshake process, a client needs to initiate the conversation by requesting a
communication session with the Server.
• In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server.
• In this second step, the server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal set
• In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server.
• TCP automatically terminates the connection between two separate endpoints.

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 What is VLAN? Types, Advantages, Example
What is VLAN?
VLAN is a custom network which is created from one or more local area networks. It enables a group
of devices available in multiple networks to be combined into one logical network. The result becomes
a virtual LAN that is administered like a physical LAN. The full form of VLAN is defined as Virtual Local
Area Network.
The below topology depicts a network having all hosts inside the same virtual LAN:

Figure 9: network having all hosts inside the same VLAN

Without VLANs, a broadcast sent from a host can easily reach all network devices. Each and every
device will process broadcast received frames. It can increase the CPU overhead on each device and
reduce the overall network security.
In case if you place interfaces on both switches into separate VLAN, a broadcast from host A can reach
only devices available inside the same VLAN. Hosts of VLANs will not even be aware that the
communication took place. This is shown in the below picture:

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 Figure 10: Host A can reach only devices available inside the same VLAN

VLAN in networking is a virtual extension of LAN. A LAN is a group of computer and peripheral devices
which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a
widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other applications.

How VLAN works

Here is step by step details of how VLAN works:
▪ VLANs in networking are identified by a number.
▪ A Valid range is 1-4094. On a VLAN switch, you assign ports with the proper VLAN number.
▪ The switch then allows data which needs to be sent between various ports having the same
VLAN.
▪ Since almost all networks are larger than a single switch, there should be a way to send traffic
between two switches.
▪ One simple and easy way to do this is to assign a port on each network switch with a VLAN and
run a cable between them.

VLAN Ranges
Here are the important ranges of VLAN:
Range Description
VLAN 0-4095 Reserved VLAN, which cannot be seen or used.

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 VLAN 1: This is a default VLAN of switches. You cannot delete or edit this VLAN, but
it can be used.
VLAN 2-1001: It is a normal VLAN range. You can create, edit, and delete it.
VLAN 1002- These ranges are CISCO defaults for token rings and FDDI. You cannot
1005: delete this VLAN.
VLAN 1006- It is an extended range of VLANs.
4094:

Example of VLAN
In the below example, there are 6 hosts on 6 switches having different VLANs. You need 6 ports to
connect switches together. It means, if you have 24 various VLANs, you will have only 24 hosts on 45
port switches.

Figure 11: Example of VLAN

Characteristics of VLAN
Here are the important characteristics of VLAN:
• Virtual LANs offer structure for making groups of devices, even if their networks are different.
• It increases the broadcast domains possible in a LAN.
• Implementing VLANs reduces the security risks as the number of hosts which are connected to
the broadcast domain decreases.
• This is performed by configuring a separate virtual LAN for only the hosts having sensitive
information.
• It has a flexible networking model that groups users depending on their departments instead of
network location.
• Changing hosts/users on a VLAN is relatively easy. It just needs a new port-level configuration.
• It can reduce congestion by sharing traffic as individual VLAN works as a separate LAN.
• A workstation can be used with full bandwidth at each port.
• Terminal reallocations become easy.
• A VLAN can span multiple switches.
• The link of the trunk can carry traffic for multiple LANs.

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Types of VLANs
Here are the important types of VLANs

Figure 12: Types of VLAN

Port-Based VLAN
Port-based VLANs groups virtual local area network by port. In this type of virtual LAN, a switch port
can be configured manually to a member of VLAN.
Devices that are connected to this port will belong to the same broadcast domain that is because all
other ports are configured with a similar VLAN number.
The challenge of this type of network is to know which ports are appropriate to each VLAN. The VLAN
membership can’t be known just by looking at the physical port of a switch. You can determine it by
checking the configuration information.
Protocol Based VLAN
This type of VLAN processes traffic based on a protocol that can be used to define filtering criteria for
tags, which are untagged packets.
In this Virtual Local Area Network, the layer-3 protocol is carried by the frame to determine VLAN
membership. It works in multi-protocol environments. This method is not practical in a predominately
IP based network.
MAC Based VLAN
MAC Based VLAN allows incoming untagged packets to be assigned virtual LAN and, thereby, classify
traffic depending on the packet source address. You define a Mac address to VLAN mapping by
configuring mapping the entry in MAC to the VLAN table.
This entry is specified using source Mac address proper VLAN ID. The configurations of tables are
shared among all device ports.
Difference between LAN and VLAN
Here is an important difference between LAN and VLAN:
LAN VLAN
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 LAN can be defined as a group of computer and A VLAN can be defined as a custom network
peripheral devices which are connected in a which is created from one or more local area
limited area. networks.
The full form of LAN is Local Area Network The full form of VLAN is Virtual Local Area
Network.
The latency of LAN is high. The latency of VLAN is less.
The cost of LAN is high. The cost of a VLAN is less.
In LAN, the network packet is advertised to each In VLAN, the network packet is sent to only a
and every device. specific broadcast domain.
It uses a ring, and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data It uses ISP and VTP as a protocol.
Interface) is a protocol.

Advantages of VLAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of VLAN:
▪ It solves a broadcast problem.
▪ VLAN reduces the size of broadcast domains.
▪ VLAN allows you to add an additional layer of security.
▪ It can make device management simple and easier.
▪ You can make a logical grouping of devices by function rather than location.
▪ It allows you to create groups of logically connected devices that act like they are on their own
network.
▪ You can logically segment networks based on departments, project teams, or functions.
▪ VLAN helps you to geographically structure your network to support the growing companies.
▪ Higher performance and reduced latency.
▪ VLANs provide increased performance.
▪ Users may work on sensitive information that must not be viewed by other users.
▪ VLAN removes the physical boundary.
▪ It lets you easily segment your network.
▪ It helps you to enhance network security.
▪ You can keep hosts separated by VLAN.
▪ You do not require additional hardware and cabling, which helps you to saves costs.
▪ It has operational advantages because of changing the IP subnet of the user is in software.
▪ It reduces the number of devices for particular network topology.
▪ VLAN makes managing physical devices less complex.

Disadvantages of VLAN
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of VLAN:
• A packet can leak from one VLAN to other.
• An injected packet may lead to a cyber-attack.
• Threat in a single system may spread a virus through a whole logical network.
• You require an additional router to control the workload in large networks.

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 • You can face problems in interoperability.
• A VLAN cannot forward network traffic to other VLANs.

Application/Purpose of VLAN
Here are the important uses of VLAN:
• VLAN is used when you have 200+ devices on your LAN.
• It is helpful when you have a lot of traffic on a LAN.
• VLAN is ideal when a group of users need more security or being slow down by many
broadcasts.
• It is used when users are not on one broadcast domain.
• Make a single switch into multiple switches.

Summary:
• VLAN is defined as a custom network which is created from one or more local area networks.
• VLAN in networking are identified by a number.
• A Valid range is 1-4094. On a VLAN switch, you assign ports with the proper VLAN number.
• Virtual LANs offer structure for making groups of devices, even if their networks are different.
• The main difference between LAN and VLAN is that In LAN, the network packet is advertised to
each and every device Whereas in VLAN, the network packet is sent to only a specific broadcast
domain.
• The primary advantage of VLAN is that it reduces the size of broadcast domains.
• The drawback of VLAN is that an injected packet may lead to a cyber-attack.
• VLAN is used when you have 200+ devices on your LAN.

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 Types of IP Addresses | What is, Full Form of IP
What is an IP Address?
An IP address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a computer network that uses
the IP for communication. IP address act as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network.
It also helps you to develop a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
IP Full Form: The IP address stands for Internet Protocol address is also called IP number or internet
address. It helps you to specify the technical format of the addressing and packets scheme. Most
networks combine TCP with IP.

Types of IP address
There are mainly four types of IP addresses:
• Public,
• Private,
• Static
• Dynamic.
Among them, public and private addresses are based on their location of the network private, which
should be used inside a network while the public IP is used outside of a network.
Let us see all these types of IP address in detail.

Public IP Addresses
A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated with your whole network.
In this type of IP address, each of the connected devices has the same IP address.
This type of public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.

Private IP Addresses
A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that connects to your home internet
network, which includes devices like computers, tablets, smartphones, which is used in your household.
It also likely includes all types of Bluetooth devices you use, like printers or printers, smart devices like
TV, etc. With a rising industry of internet of things (IoT) products, the number of private IP addresses
you are likely to have in your own home is growing.

Dynamic IP address:
Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a device every time
it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a collection of IP addresses that are shared
across many computers.
Dynamic IP addresses are another important type of internet protocol addresses. It is active for a
specific amount of time; after that, it will expire.

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Static IP Addresses
A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic IP address will be
assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which is subject to change. Static
IP address never changes, but it can be altered as part of routine network administration.
Static IP addresses are consistent, which is assigned once, that stays the same over the years. This
type of IP also helps you procure a lot of information about a device.

Types of Website IP Addresses

Two types of website IP Addresses are 1) Share IP Address 2) Dedicated IP Address
Shared IP Addresses:
Shared IP address is used by small business websites that do not yet get many visitors or have many
files or pages on their site. The IP address is not unique and it is shared with other websites.
Dedicated IP Addresses:
Dedicated IP address is assigned uniquely to each website. Dedicated IP addresses helps you avoid
any potential backlists because of bad behavior from others on your server. The dedicated IP address
also gives you the option of pulling up your website using the IP address alone, instead of your domain
name. It also helps you to access your website when you are waiting on a domain transfer.

Version of IP address
Two types of IP addresses are 1)IPV4 and 2) IPV6.
IPV4
IPv4 was the first version of IP. It was deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. Today it is the
most widely used IP version. It is used to identify devices on a network using an addressing system.
The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses, which is more than 4 billion
addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.
IPV6
It is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer Taskforce initiated it in early
1994. The design and development of that suite is now called IPv6.
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet addresses. It was
aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340
undecillion unique address space.

IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics

Unicast addressing:
Unicast addressing is the most common concept of an IP address in the Unicast addressing method.
It is available in both IPv4 and IPv6.
This IP address method refers to a single sender/receiver. It can be used for both sending and receiving
the data.
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In most cases, a Unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host that
may have more than one unicast address.
Broadcast addressing
Broadcasting addressing is another addressing method available in IPv4. It allows you to manage data
to all destinations on a network with a single transmission operation.
The IP address 255.255.255.255 is mostly used for network broadcast. Moreover, limited directed-
broadcast uses the all-ones host address with the network prefix.
IPv6 does not provide any implementation and any broadcast addressing. It replaces it with multicast
to the specially defined all-nodes of the multicast address.
Multicast IP addresses
Multicast IP addresses are used mainly for one-to-many communication. Multicast messages are
mostly sent to the IP multicast group address.
In this, routers forward copies of the packet out to every interface with hosts subscribed to that specific
group address. Only the hosts that require receiving the message will process the packets. All other
hosts on that LAN will discard them.
Anycast addressing
In anycast addressing the data, the stream is not transmitted to all receivers. However, just the one
that the router decides is closest to the network.
This IP addressing comes as a built-in feature of IPv6. In IPv4, it is implemented by using the Border
Gateway Protocol by using the shortest-path metric. This method is widely used for global load
balancing and is also used in distributed DNS systems.

Summary:
Type of IP
Description
Address
Public IP A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated
with your whole network.
Private IP A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that
connects to your home internet network.
Dynamic IP Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are
allocated to a device every time it connects to the web.
Static IP Static IP address never changes, but it can be altered as part of routine
network administration.
Shared IP The IP address is not unique and it is shared with other websites.
Dedicated IP Dedicated IP address is assigned uniquely to each website.

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 IP Packet Header: Format, Fields
What is IP header?
IP Header is meta information at the beginning of an IP packet. It displays information such as the IP
version, the packet’s length, the source, and the destination.
IPV4 header format is 20 to 60 bytes in length. It contains information need for routing and delivery. It
consists of 13 fields such as Version, Header length, total distance, identification, flags, checksum,
source IP address, destination IP address. It provides essential data need to transmit the data. LE

IPv4 Header Components/Fields

Figure 13: IP header format

Following are various components/fields of IP packet header

▪ Version: The first IP header field is a 4-bit version indicator. In IPv4, the value of its four bits is
set to 0100, which indicates 4 in binary. However, if the router does not support the specified
version, this packet will be dropped.
▪ Internet Header Length: Internet header length, shortly known as IHL, is 4 bits in size. It is also
called HELEN (Header Length). This IP component is used to show how many 32-bit words are
present in the header.
▪ Type of Service: Type of Service is also called Differentiated Services Code Point or DSCP.
This field is provided features related to the quality of service for data streaming or VoIP calls.
The first 3 bits are the priority bits. It is also used for specifying how you can handle Datagram.
▪ Total length: The total length is measured in bytes. The minimum size of an IP datagram is 20
bytes and the maximum, it can be 65535 bytes . HELEN and Total length can be used to
calculate the dimension of the payload. All hosts are required to be able to read 576-byte
datagrams. However, if a datagram is too large for the hosts in the network, the fragmentation
method is widely used.

35
▪ Identification: Identification is a packet that is used to identify fragments of an IP datagram
uniquely. Some have recommended using this field for other things like adding information for
packet tracing, etc.
▪ IP Flags: Flag is a three-bit field that helps you to control and identify fragments. The following
can be their possible configuration:
Bit 0: is reserved and has to be set to zero
Bit 1: means do not fragment
Bit 2: means more fragments.
▪ Fragment Offset: Fragment Offset represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular
fragment in the specific Datagram. It is specified in terms of the number of 8 bytes, which has a
maximum value of 65,528 bytes.
▪ Time to live: It is an 8-bit field that indicates the maximum time the Datagram will be live in the
internet system. The time duration is measured in seconds, and when the value of TTL is zero,
the Datagram will be erased. Every time a datagram is processed its TTL value is decreased by
one second. TTL are used so that datagrams are not delivered and discarded automatically. The
value of TTL can be 0 to 255.
▪ Protocol: This IPv4 header is reserved to denote that internet protocol is used in the latter
portion of the Datagram. For Example, 6 number digit is mostly used to indicate TCP, and 17 is
used to denote the UDP protocol.
▪ Header Checksum: The next component is a 16 bits header checksum field, which is used to
check the header for any errors. The IP header is compared to the value of its checksum. When
the header checksum is not matching, then the packet will be discarded.
▪ Source Address: The source address is a 32-bit address of the source used for the IPv4 packet.
▪ Destination address: The destination address is also 32 bit in size stores the address of the
receiver.
▪ IP Options: It is an optional field of IPv4 header used when the value of IHL (Internet Header
Length) is set to greater than 5. It contains values and settings related with security, record route
and time stamp, etc. You can see that list of options component ends with an End of Options or
EOL in most cases.
▪ Data: This field stores the data from the protocol layer, which has handed over the data to the
IP layer.

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 IP Address Classes
What is an IP Address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a computer
network that uses the IP for communication.
IP address act as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network. It also helps you to develop
a virtual connection between a destination and a source. The IP address is also called IP number or
internet address. It helps you to specify the technical format of the addressing and packets scheme.
Most networks combine TCP with IP.
An IP address consists of four numbers, each number contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.)
separates each number or set of digits.

Figure 14: Parts of IP address

IP Address is divided into two parts:

▪ Prefix: The prefix part of IP address identifies the physical network to which the computer is
attached. Prefix is also known as a network address.
▪ Suffix: The suffix part identifies the individual computer on the network. The suffix is also called
the host address.
In this networking tutorial, you will learn:

Figure 15: Types of IP4 Classes

37
IP Header Classes:
Max
Address Subnet Example Leading number
IP Class Application
Range masking IP bits of
networks
Class A 1 to 126 255.0.0.0 1.1.1.1 8 128 Used for large
number of hosts.
Class B 128 to 255.255.0.0 128.1.1.1 16 16384 Used for medium
191 size network.
Class C 192 to 255.255.255.0 192.1.11. 24 2097157 Used for local area
223 network.
Class D 224 to NA NA NA NA Reserve for multi-
239 tasking.
Class E 240 to NA NA NA NA This class is
254 reserved for
research and
Development
Purposes.

How does IP address work?

IP address works in an IP network like a postal address. For example, a postal address combines two
addresses, address, or your area your house address.
The address or your area is a group address of all houses that belong to a specific area. The house
address is the unique address of your homes in that area. Here, your area is represented by a PIN
code number.
In this example, the network address comprises all hosts which belong to a specific network. The host
address is the unique address of a particular host in that network.

What is Classful Addressing?

Classful addressing is a network addressing the Internet’s architecture from 1981 till Classless Inter-
Domain Routing was introduced in 1993.
This addressing method divides the IP address into five separate classes based on four address bits.
Here, classes A, B, C offers addresses for networks of three distinct network sizes. Class D is only
used for multicast, and class E reserved exclusively for experimental purposes.
Let’s see each of the network classes in detail:

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Class A Network
This IP address class is used when there are a large number of hosts. In a Class A type of network,
the first 8 bits (also called the first octet) identify the network, and the remaining have 24 bits for the
host into that network.
An example of a Class A address is 102.168.212.226. Here, “102” helps you identify the network and
168.212.226 identify the host.
Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback and
diagnostic functions.
Class B Network
In a B class IP address, the binary addresses start with 10. In this IP address, the class decimal number
that can be between 128 to 191. The number 127 is reserved for loopback, which is used for internal
testing on the local machine. The first 16 bits (known as two octets) help you identify the network. The
other remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.
An example of Class B IP address is 168.212.226.204, where *168 212* identifies the network and
*226.204* helps you identify the Hut network host.
Class C Network
Class C is a type of IP address that is used for the small network. In this class, three octets are used
to indent the network. This IP ranges between 192 to 223.
In this type of network addressing method, the first two bits are set to be 1, and the third bit is set to 0,
which makes the first 24 bits of the address them and the remaining bit as the host address. Mostly
local area network used Class C IP address to connect with the network.
Example for a Class C IP address:
192.168.178.1
Class D Network
Class D addresses are only used for multicasting applications. Class D is never used for regular
networking operations. This class addresses the first three bits set to “1” and their fourth bit set to use
for “0”. Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses. All the values within the range are used to
identify multicast groups uniquely.
Therefore, there is no requirement to extract the host address from the IP address, so Class D does
not have any subnet mask.
Example for a Class D IP address:
227.21.6.173
Class E Network
Class E IP address is defined by including the starting four network address bits as 1, which allows you
two to incorporate addresses from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. However, E class is reserved, and its
usage is never defined. Therefore, many network implementations discard these addresses as
undefined or illegal.
Example for a Class E IP address:
39
243.164.89.28

Limitations of classful IP addressing

Here are the drawbacks/ cons of the classful IP addressing method:
▪ Risk of running out of address space soon
▪ Class boundaries did not encourage efficient allocation of address space

Rules for assigning Network ID:

The network ID will be assigned based on the below-given rules:
▪ The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A address and is reserved
for internal loopback functions.
▪ All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and cannot be
used.
▪ All bits of network ID are set to 0. They are used to denote a particular host on the local network
and should not be routed.
Summary:
• An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a
computer network that uses the IP for communication.
• IP Address is divided into two parts: 1) Prefix 2)Suffix
• IP address works in a network like a postal address. For example, a postal address combines
two addresses, address, or your area your house address.
• In a class A type of network, the first 8 bits (also called the first octet) identify the network, and
the remaining have 24 bits for the host into that network.
• In class B type of network, the first 16 bits (known as two octets) help you identify the network.
The other remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.
• In class C, three octets are used to indent the network. This IP ranges between 192 to 223.
• Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses. All the values within the range are used to
identify multicast groups uniquely.
• Class E IP address is defined by including the starting four network address bits as 1.
• The major drawback of IP address classes is the risk of running out of address space soon.
• Important rule for assigning network id is that the network ID cannot start with 127 as this number
belongs to class A address and reserved for internal loopback functions.

40
 Straight Through Cables vs Crossover Cables: Key
Difference
What is an Ethernet cable?
An Ethernet cable is a network cable used for high-speed wired network connections between two
devices. This network cable is made of four-pair cable, which is consists of twisted pair conductors. It
is used for data transmission at both ends of the cable, which is called RJ45 connector.
The Ethernet cables are categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6, and UTP cable. Cat 5 cable can support
a 10/100 Mbps Ethernet network while Cat 5e and Cat 6 cable to support Ethernet network running at
10/100/1000 Mbps.

What is Straight Through Cable?

Figure 16: Straight Through Cable

Straight-through cable is a type of CAT5 with RJ-45 connectors at each end, and each has the same
pin out. It is in accordance with either the T568A or T568B standards. It uses the same color code
throughout the LAN for consistency. This type of twisted-pair cable is used in LAN to connect a
computer or a network hub such as a router. It is one of the most common types of network cable.

What Is Crossover Cable?

Figure 17: Crossover Cable

41
A Crossover cable is a type of CAT 5 where one end isT568A configuration and the other end as
T568BConfiguration. In this type of cable connection, Pin 1 is crossed with Pin 3, and Pin 2 is crossed
with Pin 6.
Crossover cable is used to connect two or more computing devices. The internal wiring of crossover
cables reverses the transmission and receive signals. It is widely used to connect two devices of the
same type: e.g., two computers or two switches to each other.
In regard to physical appearance, Crossover Ethernet cables are very much similar to regular Ethernet
cables. Still, they are different with regard to the order with which the wires are arranged. This type of
Ethernet cable is made to connect to network devices of the same kind over Ethernet directly.
Crossover cables are mostly used to connect two hosts directly.

KEY DIFFERENCES:
• Crossover cable, Pin 1 is crossed with Pin 3, and Pin 2 is crossed with Pin 6 while in Straight-
through cable Pin connection is one to one.
• Straight-through cables are mainly used for connecting non-similar devices while crossover
cables are mostly used for connecting similar devices.
• Straight through cable connects a computer with a DSL modem while Crossover cable connects
Router to Router and Computer to Computer.

When to use Straight Through Cable?

Figure 18: Computer to network switch/hub

Here are applications where you should use Crossover Cable:

• It helps you to connect a computer to a switch/hub’s normal port.
• You can use it to connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem’s LAN port.
• It allows you to connect a router’s WAN port to a cable/DSL modem’s LAN port.
• Connect 2 switches or hubs with one of the hub or switch using an upline port and the other one
using a normal port.
42
When to use Crossover Cable?

Figure 19: Use of Cross over cable- computer to computer

Figure 20: Router to Router

Here is an application where you should use Crossover Cable:

▪ It can use a computer to a computer with no switch or hub.
▪ Network devise to the network device. For example, the route to the router.
▪ Crossover cable enables one to establish a direct connection between two computing devices
using Ethernet ports.
▪ It Connects two computers directly.
▪ You can connect two hubs/switches by using the normal port in both switches and hubs.

Difference between Crossover and Straight-through cable

Figure 21: Difference between Crossover and Straight-through cable

43
Here are the difference between Crossover and straight-through cable
Straight through Crossover
Straight-through cable is a type of CAT5 A Crossover cable is a type of CAT where one
with RJ-45 connectors at each end, and end is T568A configuration, and the other end as
each has the same pin out. T568B Configuration.
It is one of the most commonly used cable It is used only for certain applications.
formats for network cables.
You can also connect it to the router’s LAN You can connect it to a router’s LAN port to a
port to a switch/hub’s uplink port. switch or hub’s regular port
Straight through cable connects a computer Crossover cable connects with a router’s LAN
with a cable or DSL modem’s LAN port. port with switch/hub normal port.
You should use straight-through cable when You should use a crossover cable when you want
you want to connect two devices of different to connect two devices of the same type.
types.
It helps you connect a router’s WAN port to You can connect two switches/hubs by using the
a cable or DSL modem’s LAN port. normal port in both switches/hubs.
Straight-through cables are mainly used for While crossover cables are mostly used for
connecting, unlike devices. connecting like devices.

Straight Through vs. Crossover Cable, which one to choose?

The selection or network cable should be done based on your application. If you want your cable to
connect to your computer and printer together, you need a crossover cable. If you have several
computers and a printer, you should buy a switch.

All the computers connected to the switch with a straight –through cable and printer should be
connected to the switch with a straight-through cable.
HUB SWITCH ROUTER PC
Hub Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
Switch Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
Router Straight Straight Crossover Crossover
PC Straight Straight Crossover Crossover

44
 Ethernet Cables Types: Cat 3, 5, 5e, 6, 6a, 7, 8 Wires
Explained
What are Ethernet Cables?
Ethernet cables are forms of network cables that are utilized on connected networks. They were created
to link network devices. These cables come in all sizes. Based on your need you can get whatever
length you want. Ethernet cables are mostly used to connect devices located on LAN systems, such
as routers, PCs, and switches.

Ethernet Cable Categories

There are many Ethernet cable options available, and each one of them has its unique purpose and
use. Therefore, It is important to understand each cable and its application if you want to acquire in-
depth knowledge about the types of Ethernet cables. You need to choose the higher quality cable,
which will be stronger, faster, and a better fit for your specific needs.
However, depending on your hardware, you can select your below-given ethernet cabling category.
Category-3
Cat3 cable is an earlier generation of cable, which supports a maximum frequency of 16 MHz. This
cable may have 2, 3, or 4 copper pairs. Cat3 type of Ethernet cable is still used for two-line telephone
systems and 10BASE-T networks. It is also used for alarm system installation or similar kinds of
applications.
Category-5
These cables are slower compared to modern-day hardware requirements. So, you should use this
type of Cable only if you have older hardware that demands outdated hardware.
Category-5e
Cat5e is one of the most popular cabling types of an ethernet cable used for deployments because of
its ability to support Gigabit speeds at a cost-effective price.

Cat 5e can support up to 1000 Mbps speeds, which is flexible enough for small space installations.
Therefore, it is widely used in residential areas. Cat5e is one of the least expensive cabling options
available in the market.
Category-6
Cat6 cabling support up to 10 Gbps and frequencies of up to 250 MHz. These types of cables are more
tightly twisted and feature two or more twists per centimeter. It only supports 37-55 meters when
transmitting 10 Gbps speeds.

45
 Figure 22: Ethernet cable Categories and pinouts

Category-6a:
Cat6a ethernet cable supports bandwidth frequencies of up to 500 MHz. Cat6a cabling is thicker
compared to Cat6, making it less flexible. That is why it is more suited for industrial environments at a
lower price point.
Category-7:
Cat7 has the ability to transmit up to 40 Gb at 50 meters and 100 Gb at 15 meters. This type of ethernet
cable offers extensive shielding to decrease signal attenuation. It is relatively stiff in comparison to
previous generations of cabling.
Cat7 type of Cable is suited for use in Datacenters and large enterprise networks. However, Cat7 has
not been approved as a cable standard for telecommunications.
Category-8:
Category 8 cable is designed for operations of up to 2000 MHz. CAT8 cables work with 25/40GBASE-
T Gigabit Ethernet; this reduces power consumption and is designed for bandwidth-intensive data
center applications.
This type of Cable is ideal to use where the distances between units are short. CAT8 cables are
backward compatible with previous Categories of ethernet cables.

Cat Types:
Cable Type Shielding Maximum Frequency Max Data Rate Speed
Cat 3 No 16Mhz 10Mbps
Cat 5 No 100MHz 100 Mbps 100Mbps
Cat 5e No 100MHz 1,000 Mbps / 1 Gbps 1Gbps
Cat 6 Sometimes 250Mhz 1,000 Mbps / 1 Gbps 1Gbps
Cat 6a Sometimes 500MHz 10,000 Mbps / 10 Gbps 10Gbps
Cat 7 Yes 600Mhz 40,000 Mbps/ 40 Gbps 600 MHz
Cat 8 Yes 2GHz 25 Gbps or 40 Gbps 40Gbps

46
Type of Cables:
Fiber-optic cabling:

Figure 23: Fiber-optic cable

Fiber optic cables mostly consist of a center glass, and different layers of protective materials surround
it. Fiber-optic cabling transmits light in place of electronic signals, which removes the issue of electrical
interference. This makes it an ideal selection for the environments that contain a large amount of
electrical interference.
This type of network cable offers an ability to transmit signals over longer distances. It also provides
the ability to carry information at faster space.
Two types of fiber-optic cables are:
▪ Single-mode fiber (SMF)–This type of fiber optic cable uses only a single ray of light to carry
data. Used for larger distance wiring.
▪ Multi-mode fiber (MMF)–This type of fiber-optic uses multiple rays of light to carry data. Less
expensive than SMF.
Four types of connectors in network that are mostly used for fiber optic cable are:
• ST (Straight-tip Connector)
• SC (Subscriber Connector)
• FC (Fiber Channel)
• LC (Lucent Connector)
Coaxial cabling:

Figure 24: Coaxial Cabling

Coaxial Cable is a standard for 10 Mbps Ethernet cables. These types of cables consist of an inner
copper wire cover with insulation and another shielding.
It has a plastic layer that offers insulation between the draided metal shield and center conductor.
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor in its center.
Types of Coaxial Cable are 1) RG58 2) RG8 3) RG6 4) RG59

47
Twisted-pair cabling:

Figure 25: Twisted-pair cable

Twisted-Pair Cabling is a type of cabling in with pairs of wires are twisted together to stop
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire pairs.
Two types of twisted pair cables are 1) Unshielded Twisted Pari 2) Shielded Twisted pair

Types of Shielded Ethernet Cables:

Here are some important Shielded Ethernet Cables
Cable
Full Form Description
Name

F/UTP Foiled/Unshielded Twisted Pair This type of Cable will have a foil shield
which can be wrapped around unshielded
twisted pairs. It is commonly used in fast
ethernet deployments.

S/UTP Braided/Unshielded Twisted Pair It will cover with a braided shield around
(S/UTP) Cable unshielded twisted pairs.

S/FTP Braided Shielding/Foiled Twisted Pair In this type of shield ethernet cable, each
twisted pair is enveloped covered with foil.

SF/UTP Braided Shielding+Foil/Unshielded This cable braid has a cover around a foil
Twisted Pairs wrap that encloses unshielded twisted
pairs.

F/FTP Foiled/Foiled Twisted Pair This type of FTP cable encloses all copper
pairs in foil.

U/FTP Unshielded/Foiled Twisted Pairs This cable only envelopes the twisted pairs
in foil.

U/UTP Unshielded/Unshielded Twisted Pair. In this type of cable, no sheathing is used.

Standard Cat5e is a common cable
example of U/UTP cables.

48
Summary
What are the different Ethernet categories?
Different types of Ethernet Categories are: Cat 3, 5, 5e, Cat 6, 6a, 7, and Cat 8 that are widely used
worldwide.
What are the 3 types of Ethernet cables?
Three main types of Ethernet cables are:
▪ Fiber-optic cable
▪ Coaxial cable
▪ Twisted-pair cable
What are the types of Shielded Ethernet Cables?
Different types of shielded ethernet cables are: F/UTP, S/UTP, S/FTP, SF/UTP, F/FTP, U/FTP, and
U/UTP that are widely used worldwide.

49
 Routing Protocols Types: Static, Dynamic, IP, CISCO
What is Routing Protocols?
Routing Protocols are the set of defined rules used by the routers to communicate between source
& destination. They do not move the information to the source to a destination, but only update the
routing table that contains the information.
Network Router protocols helps you to specify way routers communicate with each other. It allows the
network to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network.

Types of Routing Protocols

There are mainly two types of Network Routing Protocols
• Static
• Dynamic

Figure 26: Routing Protocols

Static Routing Protocols

Static routing protocols are used when an administrator manually assigns the path from source to the
destination network. It offers more security to the network.
Advantages
▪ No overhead on router CPU.
▪ No unused bandwidth between links.
▪ Only the administrator is able to add routes
Disadvantages
▪ The administrator must know how each router is connected.
50
 ▪ Not an ideal option for large networks as it is time intensive.
▪ Whenever link fails all the network goes down which is not feasible in small networks.

Dynamic Routing Protocols

Dynamic routing protocols are another important type of routing protocol. It helps routers to add
information to their routing tables from connected routers automatically. These types of protocols also
send out topology updates whenever the network changes’ topological structure.
Advantage:
▪ Easier to configure even on larger networks.
▪ It will be dynamically able to choose a different route in case if a link goes down.
▪ It helps you to do load balancing between multiple links.
Disadvantage:
▪ Updates are shared between routers, so it consumes bandwidth.
▪ Routing protocols put an additional load on router CPU or RAM.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DVR)

Distance Vector Protocols advertise their routing table to every directly connected neighbor at specific
time intervals using lots of bandwidths and slow converge.
In the Distance Vector routing protocol, when a route becomes unavailable, all routing tables need to
be updated with new information.
Advantages:
▪ Updates of the network are exchanged periodically, and it is always broadcast.
▪ This protocol always trusts route on routing information received from neighbor routers.
Disadvantages:
▪ As the routing information are exchanged periodically, unnecessary traffic is generated, which
consumes available bandwidth.

Internet Routing Protocols:

The following are types of protocols which help data packets find their way across the Internet:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

RIP is used in both LAN and WAN Networks. It also runs on the Application layer of the OSI model.
The full form of RIP is the Routing Information Protocol. Two versions of RIP are:
1. RIPv1
2. RIPv2
The original version or RIPv1 helps you determine network paths based on the IP destination and the
hop count journey. RIPv1 also interacts with the network by broadcasting its IP table to all routers
connected with the network.
RIPv2 is a little more sophisticated as it sends its routing table on to a multicast address.
51
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)
IGRP is a subtype of the distance-vector interior gateway protocol developed by CISCO. It is introduced
to overcome RIP limitations. The metrics used are load, bandwidth, delay, MTU, and reliability. It is
widely used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system.

This type of routing protocol is the best for larger network size as it broadcasts after every 90 seconds,
and it has a maximum hop count of 255. It helps you to sustain larger networks compared to RIP. IGRP
is also widely used as it is resistant to routing loop because it updates itself automatically when route
changes occur within the specific network. It is also given an option to load balance traffic across equal
or unequal metric cost paths.

Link State Routing Protocol

Link State Protocols take a unique approach to search the best routing path. In this protocol, the route
is calculated based on the speed of the path to the destination and the cost of resources.
Routing protocol tables:
Link state routing protocol maintains below given three tables:
▪ Neighbor table: This table contains information about the neighbors of the router only. For
example, adjacency has been formed.
▪ Topology table: This table stores information about the whole topology. For example, it
contains both the best and backup routes to a particular advertised network.
▪ Routing table: This type of table contains all the best routes to the advertised network.
Advantages:
▪ This protocol maintains separate tables for both the best route and the backup routes, so it has
more knowledge of the inter-network than any other distance vector routing protocol.
▪ Concept of triggered updates are used, so it does not consume any unnecessary bandwidth.
▪ Partial updates will be triggered when there is a topology change, so it does not need to update
where the whole routing table is exchanged.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

EGP is a protocol used to exchange data between gateway hosts that are neighbors with each other
within autonomous systems. This routing protocol offers a forum for routers to share information across
different domains. The full form for EGP is the Exterior Gateway Protocol. EGP protocol includes known
routers, network addresses, route costs, or neighboring devices.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

EIGRP is a hybrid routing protocol that provides routing protocols, distance vector, and link-state routing
protocols. The full form routing protocol EIGRP is Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. It will
route the same protocols that IGRP routes using the same composite metrics as IGRP, which helps
the network select the best path destination.

52
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is a link-state IGP tailor-made for IP networks using the
Shortest Path First (SPF) method.
OSPF routing allows you to maintain databases detailing information about the surrounding topology
of the network. It also uses the Dijkstra algorithm (Shortest path algorithm) to recalculate network
paths when its topology changes. This protocol is also very secure, as it can authenticate protocol
changes to keep data secure.
Here are some main difference between these Distance Vector and Link State routing protocols:

Distance Vector Link State

Distance Vector protocol sends the entire Link State protocol sends only link-state
routing table. information.
It is susceptible to routing loops. It is less susceptible to routing loops.
Updates are sometimes sent using broadcast. Uses only multicast method for routing
updates.
It is simple to configure. It is hard to configure this routing protocol.
Does not know network topology. Know the entire topology.
Example RIP, IGRP. Examples: OSPF IS-IS.

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

ISIS CISCO routing protocol is used on the Internet to send IP routing information. It consists of a range
of components, including end systems, intermediate systems, areas, and domains.
The full form of ISIS is Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System. Under the IS-IS protocol, routers
are organized into groups called areas. Multiple areas are grouped to make form a domain.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP is the last routing protocol of the Internet, which is classified as a DPVP (distance path vector
protocol). The full form of BGP is the Border Gateway Protocol.
This type of routing protocol sends updated router table data when changes are made. Therefore, there
is no auto-discovery of topology changes, which means that the user needs to configure BGP manually.

What is the purpose of Routing Protocols?

Routing protocols are required for the following reasons:
• Allows optimal path selection
• Offers loop-free routing
• Fast convergence
• Minimize update traffic
• Easy to configure

53
 • Adapts to changes
• Scales to a large size
• Compatible with existing hosts and routers
• Supports variable length

Classful Vs. Classless Routing Protocols

Here are some main difference between these routing protocols:

Classful Routing Protocols Classless Routing Protocols

Classful routing protocols never send subnet Classless routing protocols can send IP
mask detail during routing updates. subnet mask information while doing routing
updates.

RIPv1 and IGRP are classful protocols. These RIPv2, OSPF, EIGRP, and IS-IS are all types
two are classful protocols as they do not include of class routing protocols which has subnet
subnet mask information. mask information within updates.

Summary:
Features RIP V1 RIP V2 IGRP OSPF EIGRP
Classful/ Classful Classless Classful Classless Classless
Classless
Metric Hop Hop Composite Bandwidth, Bandwidth Composit,
Delay. Bandwidth,
Delay.
Periodic 30 seconds 30 90 seconds None 30 seconds
seconds
Advertising 255.255.255.255.25 223.0.0.9 255.255.255.255.255 224.0.0.5 224.0.0.10
Address 5 224.0.0.6
Category Distance Vector Distance Distance Vector Link State Hybrid
Vector
Default 120 120 200 110 170
Distance

54
 Address Resolution Protocol: What is ARP Header in
Networking
What is ARP?
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an important protocol of the network layer in the OSI model,
which helps find the MAC (Media Access Control) address given the system’s IP address. The ARP’s
main task is to convert the 32-bit IP address (for IPv4) to a 48-bit MAC address.
This protocol is mostly used to determine the hardware (MAC) address of a device from an IP
address. It is also used when one device wants to communicate with some other device on a local
network. The full form of ARP is Address Resolution Protocol.

How Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works?

All OS in an IPv4 network keeps an ARP cache. When the host requests a MAC address to send a
packet to another host in the LAN, it checks its ARP cache to check that the MAC address translation
already presents.

Figure 27: How Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works?

Let us understand this concept with an example:

• Hosta P resolves protocol address for host U for protocol messages from an application on P
sent to U.
• P does not resolve a protocol address for host U.
• By using the internet layer, host P delivers to host U by routing through T1 and T2.
• Host P resolves the T1 hardware address.

55
 • Network layer on host P passes packet containing destination protocol address for U for delivery
to T1.
• T1 delivers the packet to T2 which in turn forwards the packet to Host U.

Important ARP terms:

▪ ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the cache stored in a table
for future reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.
▪ ARP Cache Timeout: It is the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can reside.
▪ ARP request: Broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came across the
destination MAC address or not.
▪ ARP response/reply: The MAC address response that the source receives from the destination
aids in further communication of the data.

Address Resolution Methods

Association between a protocol address and a hardware address is known as binding.

There are three techniques used for this purpose:

• Table lookup – Bindings stored in memory with protocol address as the key. It uses the data
link layer to check the protocol address to find the hardware address.
• Dynamic–This type of network messaging method is used for “just-in-time” resolution. Data link
layer sends message requests in a hardware address. destination responds.
• Closed-form computation–In this method, a protocol address is based on a hardware
address. Data link layer derives the hardware address from the protocol address.

Types of ARP
Here are four types of Address Resolution Protocol, which is given below:
▪ Proxy ARP
▪ Gratuitous ARP
▪ Reverse ARP
▪ Inverse ARP
Let us learn them all in detail:

Figure 28: Types of ARP

56
Proxy ARP:
In the Proxy ARP method, Layer 3 devices can respond to ARP requests. This ARP type is configured
router will respond to the target IP address and maps the router’s MAC address with the target IP
address and sender when it is reached to its destination.
Gratuitous ARP:
Gratuitous is another type of ARP request of the host. This type of ARP request helps the network to
identify the duplicate IP address. Therefore, when an ARP request is sent by a router or switch to get
its IP address, no ARP responses are received so that no other nodes can use the IP address allocated
to that switch or router.
Reverse ARP (RARP)
Reverse ARP, also now called RARP, is a type of ARP networking protocol which is used by the client
system in a LAN to request its IPv4 address from the ARP router table. The network admin mostly
creates a table in the gateway-router, which helps determine the MAC address to that specific IP
address.
Inverse ARP (InARP)
Inverse ARP is also called InARP, is a type of ARP used to find the nodes’ IP of addresses from the
data link layer addresses. InARP is widely used for ATM networks frame relays where Layer 2 virtual
circuit addressing acquired from Layer 2 signaling.

ARP Header:

Figure 29: ARP header

• Hardware Type–It is 1 for Ethernet.

• Protocol Type–It is a protocol used in the network layer.
• Hardware Address Length–It is the length in bytes so that it would be 6 for Ethernet.
• Protocol Address Length – Its value is 4 bytes.
• Operation Code indicates that the packet is an ARP Request (1) or an ARP Response (2).
• Senders Hardware Address – It is a hardware address of the source node.

57
 • Senders Protocol Address -It is a layer 3 address of the source node.
• Target Hardware Address – It is used in a RARP request, which response impact both the
destination’s hardware and layer 3 addresses.
• Target Protocol Address – It is used in an ARP request when the response carries both
layer 3 addresses and the destination’s hardware.

Advantages of using ARP

Here are the pros/benefits of using ARP
• If you are using ARP, then MAC addresses can easily be known if you know the IP address of
the same system.
• End nodes should not be configured to “know” MAC addresses. It can be found when needed.
• ARP’s goal is to enable each host on a network that allows you to build up a mapping between
IP addresses and physical addresses.
• The set of mappings or table stored in the host is called ARP table or ARP cache.

FAQ:
❓ What happens if an ARP request is made for a non-existing host?
If the several ARP requests are made for a non-existing host, it will increase time intervals between
requests. Eventually, ARP gives up.
⚡ What if a host sends an ARP request for its IP address?
The other machines respond (gratuitous ARP) as a normal ARP request. This helps to detect an IP
address has already been assigned.

Summary:
• ARP protocol helps to find the MAC (Media Access Control) address given the system’s IP
address.
• Important ARP terms are: 1) ARP Cache 2)ARP Cache Timeout 3) ARP request 4) ARP
response/reply
• Three types of ARP resolution techniques are: 1) Table lookup 2) Dynamic 3) Closed-form
computation.
• Important ARP protocols are: 1) Proxy ARP 2) Gratuitous ARP 3) Reverse ARP 4) Inverse ARP.
• The components of ARP header are 1)Hardware Type 2) Protocol Type 3) Hardware Address
Length 4) Protocol Address Length 5) Senders Hardware Address 6) Senders Protocol Address
7) Target Hardware Address 8) Target Protocol Address.

58
 VLAN Trunking Protocol: What is VTP in Networking &
Benefits
What is VLAN?
A VLAN is a custom network that is created from one or more Local Area Networks. It allows a group
of devices available in multiple networks to be combined into one logical network. The result becomes
a virtual LAN that is administered like a physical LAN. The full form of VLAN is Virtual Local Area
Network.

What is VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)?

VTP is a Cisco proprietary protocol is used to exchange VLAN information. This type of protocol was
developed to effectively manage the transfer of frames from different VLANs on a single physical line.
The full form of VTP is the VLAN Trucking Protocol.
Using VTP, you can synchronize VLAN information (like VLAN name or VLAN ID) with switches into
the same VTP domain.
For example, let us consider a large size network with 100 switches. Without VTP protocol, if you try to
create a VLAN on each Switch, you need to enter VLAN configuration commands on every Switch!
Trunking protocol VTP allows you to create the VLAN only on a single switch. Similarly, if you want to
delete a VLAN, you only require deleting it in one switch. After that, it will automatically circulate to
every other switch inside the same VTP domain.
Two important VTP techniques are:

• Frame Filtering: This method examines particular information about each frame (MAC
address or layer 3 protocol.
• Frame Tagging: This method places a unique identifier in each frame’s header as it is
forwarded throughout the network backbone.
Requirements for VTP protocol:
Here are some requirements for VTP to communicate VLAN information between CISCO switches.
• The VTP version needs to be the same on the switches that you want to configure.
• The name of the VTP domain must be the same on the switches.
• Authentication should match if applied.

VTP Components
Here are some important Components of VTP
VTP Domain:
VTP domain limits the extent to which configuration change are propagated in the network if an error
occurs. At a time switch can be a member of only one VTP domain at a time. Until the VTP domain
name is specified, you can’t create or modify VLANs on a VTP server mode. VLAN information is not
propagated over the network. This component consists of single or multiple interconnected switches.

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VTP Pruning:
This component prevents unnecessary flooding of broadcast information from one VLAN across all
trunks in the VTP domain. It allows pruning on one VTP server switch in one domain is disabled by
default. It is enabled by using the VTP pruning global configuration command.
VTP Advertisements:
This VTP mode uses a hierarchy of advertisements to synchronize and distribute VLAN configurations
in the network. This component distributes VTP domain name and VLAN configurator changes to VTP-
enabled switches.
Request advertisements:
Whenever a request for advertisement needs to be sent to a VTP server in the same VTP domain, at
that time VTP server responds by sending a summary advertisement and then a subset advertisement.
Request advertisements are sent when:
• The VTP domain name has been changed.
• A summary advertisement comes with a higher configuration revision number.
• A subset advertisement message is missed.
• When the switch has been reset.
Summary Advertisement:
This type of advertisement component contains the VTP domain name, the current revision number,
and other VTP configuration details.
• A VTP Server sends it every 5 minutes.
• Notify VTP enables switches of the current VTP configuration revision number.
• They are sent immediately after a configuration change.
Subnet Advertisement:
A subset of advertisements contains VLAN information:
• Creating/ deleting a VLAN
• Suspending/ revoking a VLAN
• Changing the name of a VLAN
• Changing the MTU of a VLAN

VTP Modes
You can configure Switch in three modes: 1) Server, 2) Client, or 3) Transparent.
• VTP Server: VTP servers help you to advertise the VTP domain VLAN information.
• VTP Client: VTP clients function in the same way as VTP servers. A VTP client also enables
you to store the VLAN information for the entire domain when the Switch is on.
• VTP Transparent: Transparent switches help you to forward VTP to VTP clients and also to
VTP servers. Whenever Switch is running in the transparent mode, you can create and modify
VLANs on that Switch.

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 VTP Server VTP Client VTP Transparent
Create/Modify/Delete VLANs Yes No Only local
Synchronizes itself Yes Yes No
Forwards advertisements Yes Yes Yes

How VTP Works?

Figure 30: VTP Architecture

In the diagram above, you can see each switch has two VLANs.
Step 1) On the first switch, VLAN P and VLAN Q are sent through a single port (trunked) to the router
and another port to the second switch.
Step 2) VLAN R and VLAN S are trunked from the second switch to the first switch and then the router’s
first switch. This trunk can carry traffic from all four VLANs connections.
Step 3) The trunk link from the first switch to the router should be carried to all four VLANs.
Step 4) VLAN P that needs to get to a computer on VLAN Q (or VLAN R or VLAN S) must travel from
the switch to the router and return to the switch.

Advantages of VTP
Here are the important pros/benefits of VTP:
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 • Helps you to separate the network into smaller network VLAN management.
• It allows you to track and monitoring of VLANs accurately.
• Plug-and-play configuration when adding new VLANs.
• VLAN configuration consistency across the network.
• Accurate tracking and monitoring of VLANs.
• Provide dynamic reporting of added VLANs across a network.
• Offers simplify the management of the VLAN database across multiple switches.
• VLAN management on switches like adding, deleting, and renaming VLANs.
• Configurations are consistent and have fewer errors
• Reduce VLAN management.

VTP Configuration Guidelines

Here are some important VTP Configuration Guidelines

• You need to check for incompatible VTP versions and password related issues.
• Incorrect name of VTP mode
• All switches are set to VTP client mode.

VTP Versions
Three types of VTP versions are V1, V2, and V3.
Among the first two versions are similar except that V2 adds support for token ring VLANs.
V3 adds the following features:
• Enhanced authentication
• Support for extended VLANs (1006 to 4094).
• VTP versions 1 and 2 helps you propagate only VLANs 1 to 1005.
• Support for private VLAN
• VTP primary server and VTP secondary servers
• VTP mode off, which disables VTP.
• V3 version offers backward compatibility.
• VTP v3 version can be configured on a per-port basis.
• Protection from unintended database overrides during the insertion of new switches.
• Provide the option of clear text or hidden password protection.
• Configuration option on a per-port which base instead of only a global scheme.
• Optimized resource handling and a more efficient transfer of information.

Summary:
• A VLAN is a custom network that is created from one or more Local Area Networks.
• VTP is a Cisco proprietary protocol which is used to exchange VLAN information.
• Important VTP components are 1) VTP domain 2) VTP Pruning, 3) VTP Advertisements.

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• Three types of VTP modes are: 1) Server, 2) Client, or 3) Transparent.
• The biggest advantage of VTP is that it helps you to sperate the network into smaller network
VLAN management.
• It is important to check for incompatible VTP versions and password related issues.
• V3 version offers backward compatibility and provides optimized resource handling and a more
efficient transfer of information.

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 Top 70 CCNA Interview Questions & Answers (2022
Update)
1) What is Routing?
Routing is the process of finding a path on which data can pass from source to destination. Routing is
done by a device called routers, which are network layer devices.
2) What is the purpose of the Data Link?
The job of the Data Link layer is to check messages are sent to the right device. Another function of
this layer is framing.
3) What is the key advantage of using switches?
When a switch receives a signal, it creates a frame out of the bits that were from that signal. With this
process, it gains access and reads the destination address, after which it forwards that frame to the
appropriate port. This is a very efficient means of data transmission, instead of broadcasting it on all
ports.
4) When does network congestion occur?
Network congestion occurs when too many users are trying to use the same bandwidth. This is
especially true in big networks that do not resort to network segmentation.
5) What is a Window in networking terms?
A Window refers to the number of segments that are allowed to be sent from source to destination
before an acknowledgment is sent back.
6) Does a bridge divide a network into smaller sections?
Not really. What a bridge actually does is to take the large network and filter it, without changing the
size of the network.
7) Which LAN switching method is used in CISCO Catalyst 5000?
CISCO Catalyst 5000 uses the Store-and-forward switching method. It stores the entire frame to its
buffers and performs a CRC check before deciding whether or not to forward that data frame.
8 ) What is the role of the LLC sublayer?
The LLC sublayer stands for Logical Link Control. It can provide optional services to an application
developer. One option is to provide flow control to the Network layer by using stop/start codes. The
LLC can also provide error correction.
9) How does RIP differ from IGRP?
RIP relies on the number of hops in order to determine the best route to a network. On the other hand,
IGRP takes consideration many factors before it decides the best route to take, such as bandwidth,
reliability, MTU and hop count.
10) What are the different memories used in a CISCO router?
Different memories used in a CISCO router are:

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 – NVRAM stores the startup configuration file.
– DRAM stores the configuration file that is being executed.
– Flash Memory – stores the Cisco IOS.
11) What is BootP?
BootP is a protocol that is used to boot diskless workstations that are connected to the network. It is
short for Boot Program. Diskless workstations also use BootP in order to determine its own IP address
as well as the IP address of the server PC.
12) What is the function of the Application Layer in networking?
The Application Layer supports the communication components of an application and provides network
services to application processes that span beyond the OSI reference model specifications. It also
synchronizes applications on the server and client.
13) Differentiate User Mode from Privileged Mode
User Mode is used for regular task when using a CISCO router, such as to view system information,
connecting to remote devices, and checking the status of the router. On the other hand, privileged
mode includes all options that are available for User Mode, plus more. You can use this mode in order
to make configurations on the router, including making tests and debugging.
14) What is 100BaseFX?
This is Ethernet that makes use of fiber optic cable as the main transmission medium. The 100 stands
for 100Mbps, which is the data speed.
15) Differentiate full-duplex from half-duplex.
In full-duplex, both the transmitting device and the receiving device can communicate simultaneously,
that is, both can be transmitting and receiving at the same time. In the case of half-duplex, a device
cannot receive while it is transmitting, and vice versa.
16) What is MTU?
MTU stands for Maximum Transmission Unit. It refers to the maximum packet size that can be sent out
onto the data line without the need to fragment it.
17) How does cut-through LAN switching work?
In Cut-Through LAN switching, as soon as the router receives the data frame, it will immediately send
it out again and forward it to the next network segment after reading the destination address.
18) What is latency?
Latency is the amount of time delay that measures the point from which a network device receives a
data frame to the time it sends it out again towards another network segment.
19) Utilizing RIP, what is the limit when it comes to the number of hops?
The maximum limit is 15 hop counts. Anything higher than 15 indicates that the network is considered
unreachable.
20) What is a Frame Relay?

65
Frame Relay is a WAN protocol that provides connection-oriented communication by creating and
maintaining virtual circuits. It has a high-performance rating and operates at the Data Link and Physical
Layers.
21) How do you configure a Cisco router to route IPX?
The initial thing to do is to enable IPX routing by using the “IPX routing” command. Each interface that
is used in the IPX network is then configured with a network number and encapsulation method.
22) What are the different IPX access lists?
There are two types of IPX access lists
1. Standard.
2. Extended.
Standard Access List can only filter the source or destination IP address. An Extended Access List
uses the source and destination IP addresses, port, socket, and protocol when filtering a network.
23) Explain the benefits of VLANs.
VLANs allow the creation of collision domains by groups other than just physical location. Using VLANs,
it is possible to establish networks by different means, such as by function, type of hardware, protocol,
among others. This is a big advantage when compared to conventional LANs wherein collision domains
are always tied to physical location.
24) What is subnetting?
Subnetting is the process of creating smaller networks from a big parent network. As a part of a
network, each subnet is assigned some additional parameters or identifier to indicate its subnet number.
25) What are the advantages of a layered model in the networking industry?
A layered network offers many advantages. It allows administrators to make changes in one layer
without the need to make changes in the other layers. Specialization is encouraged, allowing the
network industry to make progress faster. A layered model also lets administrators troubleshoot
problems more efficiently.
26) Why is UDP lease favored when compared to TCP?
It’s because UDP is unreliable and unsequenced. It is not capable of establishing virtual circuits and
acknowledgments.
27) What are some standards supported by the Presentation layer?
Presentation layer supports many standards, which ensures that data is presented correctly. These
include PICT, TIFF, and JPEG for graphics, MIDI, MPEG and QuickTime for Video/Audio.
28) What’s the easiest way to remotely configure a router?
In cases when you need to configure a router remotely, the most convenient is to use the Cisco
AutoInstall Procedure. However, the router must be connected to the WAN or LAN through one of the
interfaces.
29) What does the show protocol display?
– routed protocols that is configured on the router.

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 – the address assigned on each interface.
– the encapsulation method that was configured on each interface.
30) How do you depict an IP address?
It can be done in three possible ways:
– using Dotted-decimal. For example: 192.168.0.1
– using Binary. For example: 10000010.00111011.01110010.01110011
– using Hexadecimal. For example: 82 1E 10 A1
31) How do you go to privileged mode? How do you switch back to user mode?
To access privileged mode, you enter the command “enable” on the prompt. In order to get back to
user mode, enter the command “disable.”
32) What is HDLC?
HDLC stands for High-Level Data Link Control protocol. It is a propriety protocol of CISCO. It is the
default encapsulation operated within CISCO routers.
33) How are internetworks created?
Internetworks are created when networks are connected using routers. Specifically, the network
administrator assigns a logical address to every network that connects to the router.
34) What is Bandwidth?
Bandwidth refers to the transmission capacity of a medium. It is a measure of how much volume a
transmission channel can handle, and it is measured in Kbps.
35) How does Hold-downs work?
Hold-downs prevent regular update messages from reinstating a downed link by removing that link from
update messages. It uses triggered updates to reset the hold-down timer.
36) What are packets?
Packets are the results of data encapsulation. These are data that have been wrapped under the
different protocols of the OSI layers. Packets are also referred to as datagrams.
37) What are segments?
Segments are sections of a data stream that comes from the upper OSI layers and ready for
transmission towards the network. Segments are the logic units at the Transport Layer.
38) Give some benefits of LAN switching.
– allows full duplex data transmission and reception
– media rate adaption
– easy and efficient migration
39) What is Route Poisoning?
Route Poisoning is the process of inserting a table entry of 16 to a route, making it unreachable. This
technique is used in order to prevent problems caused by inconsistent updates on a route.

67
40) How do you find valid hosts in a subnet?
The best way to go about this is to use the equation 256 minus the subnet mask. The hosts that are
considered valid are those that can be found between the subnets.
41) What is DLCI?
DLCI, or Data Link Connection Identifiers, are normally assigned by a frame relay service provider in
order to uniquely identify each virtual circuit that exists on the network.
42) Briefly explain the conversion steps in data encapsulation.
From a data transmitter’s point of reference, data from the end user is converted to segments.
Segments are then passed on to the other layers and converted into packets or datagrams. These
packets are then converted into frames before passing on to the network interface. Finally, frames are
converted to bits prior to actual data transmission.
43) What are the different types of passwords used in securing a CISCO router?
There are actually five types of passwords that can be used. These enable secret, virtual terminal,
console, and auxiliary.
44) Why is network segmentation a good idea when managing a large network?
For a network administration, segmenting a network would help ease network traffic and ensures that
high bandwidth is made available at all times for all users. This translates to better performance,
especially for a growing network.
45) What are the things that can be accessed in a CISCO router’s identifying information?

The hostname and the Interfaces. The hostname is the name of your router. The Interfaces are fixed
configurations that refer to the router ports.
46) Differentiate Logical Topology from Physical Topology
Logical Topology refers to the signal path through the physical topology. Physical Topology is the actual
layout of the network medium.
47) What causes a triggered update to reset the router hold-down timer?
This may happen when the hold-down timer has already expired, or when the router received a
processing task that incidentally was proportional to the number of links in the internetwork.
48) In configuring a router, what command must be used if you want to delete the configuration
data that is stored in the NVRAM?
A. erase running-config
B. erase startup-config

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 C. erase NVRAM
D. delete NVRAM
Correct Answer: B. erase startup-config
49) Referring to the commands shown, what command must next be used on the branch router
prior to traffic being sent to the router?
Hostname: Branch Hostname: Remote
PH# 123-6000, 123-6001 PH# 123-8000, 123-8001
SPID1: 32055512360001 SPID1: 32055512380001
SPID2: 32055512360002 SPID2: 32055512380002
ISDN switch-type basic ni
username Remote password cisco
interface bri0
IP address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation PPP
PPP authentication chap
ISDN spid1 41055512360001
ISDN spid2 41055512360002
dialer map IP 10.1.1.2 name Remote 1238001
dialer-list 1 protocol IP permit
Correct Answer: (config-if)# dialer-group 1
50) When configuring a router utilizing both physical and logical interfaces, what factor must be
considered in determining the OSPF router ID?
▪ The highest IP address of any physical interface.
▪ The lowest IP address of any logical interface.
▪ The middle IP address of any logical interface.
▪ The lowest IP address of any physical interface.
▪ The highest IP address of any interface.
▪ The highest IP address of any logical interface.
▪ The lowest IP address of any interface.
Correct Answer: A. The highest IP address of any physical interface.
51) What is the difference between the switch, hub, and router?
Hub Switch Router
Hub has a single It is a device that filters and forwards packets Router is a device
broadcast domain and between LAN segments. Switches have a which transmits
collision domain. Anything single broadcast domain and multiple collision data packets
domains. It supports any packet protocol, as along networks.
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 comes in one port is sent such it operates at the data link layer 2 and
out to the others. layer 3
52) What is the size of IP address?
Size of IP address is 32 bit for IPv4 and 128 bit for IPv6.
53) Mention what does data packets consist of?
A data packet consists of sender’s information, recipient’s information, and the data contained. It also
has the numeric identification number that defines the packet number and order. When data is sent
across the network, that information is segmented into data packets. In short, data packets carry the
information and routing configuration for your transferred message.
54) What is DHCP stand for?
DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. DHCP assigns an IP address automatically to
a given workstation client. You can also make static IPS for machines like printers, servers, routers,
and scanners.
55) Mention what BOOTP is?
BOOTP is a computer networking protocol used to deploy an IP address to network devices from a
configuration server.
56) Explain why UDP is lease favored when compared to TCP?
It is because UDP is un-sequenced and unreliable. It is not capable of creating virtual circuits and
acknowledgments.
57) State the difference between dynamic IP and static IP addressing?
Dynamically IP addresses are provided by DHCP server, and static IP addresses are given manually.
58) Mention the ranges for the private IP?
Ranges for private IP are
▪ Class A: 10.0.0.0 – 10.0.0.255
▪ Class B: 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.0.0
▪ Class C: 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.255
59) In how many ways you can access the router?
You can access it in three ways
• Telnet (IP)
• AUX (Telephone)
• Console (Cable)
60) What is EIGRP?
EIGRP stands for Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol it is a routing protocol designed by
Cisco Systems. It is availed on a router to share routes with other routers within the same autonomous
system. Unlike other routers like RIP, EIGRP only sends incremental updates, decreasing the workload
on the router and the amount of data that needs to be transferred.
61) Mention what is the matric of EIGRP protocol?
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EIGRP protocol consists of
• Bandwidth
• Load
• Delay
• Reliability
• MTU
• Maximum Transmission Unit
62) Mention what does the clock rate do?
Clockrate enables the routers or DCE equipment to communicate appropriately.
63) Mention what command you must use if you want to delete or remove the configuration data
that is stored in the NVRAM?
Erase startup- coding is the command you must use if you want to delete the configuration data that is
stored in the NVRAM
64) hat is the difference between TCP and UDP?
TCP and UDP both are protocols for sending files across computer networks.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
TCP is connection oriented protocol. When UDP is based on connectionless protocol.
connection lost during transferring files, the server When you send data, there is no
would request the lost part. While transferring a guarantee whether your transferred
message, there is no corruption while transferring message will reach there without any
a message leakage
The message will deliver in the order it is sent The message you sent may not be in the
same order
Data in TCP is read as a stream, where one packet Packets are transmitted individually and
ends, and another begins are guaranteed to be whole if they arrive
Example of TCP includes World Wide Web, file Example for UDP are VOIP (Voice Over
transfer protocol, e-mail, Internet Protocol) TFTP ( Trivial File
Transfer Protocol),
65) Explain the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex?
Full duplex means that the communication can occur in both directions at the same time, while half-
duplex means that the communication can happen in one direction at a time.
66) What are the conversion steps of data encapsulation?
Conversion steps of data encapsulation includes
• Layer one, two and Three ( Application/presentation/session) : Alphanumeric input from the user
is converted into Data
• Layer Four (Transport): Data is converted into small segments
• Layer Five (Network): Data converted into packets or datagrams and Network header is added
• Layer Six (Data Link): Datagrams or packets are built into frames
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 • Layer Seven (Physical): Frames are converted into bits
67) What command do we give if router IOS is stuck?
Cntrl+Shift+F6 and X is the command we give if router IOS is stuck.
68) What is route poisoning?
Route poisoning is a technique of preventing a network from transmitting packets through a route that
has become invalid.
69) What route entry will be assigned to dead or invalid route in case of RIP?
In the case of RIP table entry, 16 hops will be assigned to dead or invalid route making it unreachable.

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 What is a MAC Address? Full Form, How to Find it on
Windows
What is a MAC Address?
MAC address is a unique identifier that is assigned to a NIC (Network Interface Controller/ Card). It
consists of a 48 bit or 64-bit address, which is associated with the network adapter. MAC address can
be in hexadecimal format. The full form of MAC address is Media Access Control address.

Why Use MAC Address?

MAC address is a unique number which is used to track a device in a network. MAC address provides
a secure way to find senders or receivers in the network and helps prevent unwanted network access.
Mac address is also used in Wi-Fi networks at the airport for a specific device in order to identify it.

Architecture of MAC

Figure 31: Architecture of MAC

The above MAC Address example figure shows the architecture of MAC. This figure contains:
1. MAC Address containing 6 outlets.
2. First, three octets (group of eight bits) are Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI). It is a 24-bit
number that identifies the manufacturer, organization, or any vendor. The last three pairs of digits
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 are the number specific to the device, which is known as Network Interface Controller (NIC)
specific.
3. Three octets contain 8 bits like a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, and a7.
4. In a0, there are two bits, 0 and 1. 0 indicates unicast having a unique address of destination
server. 1 bit means multicast MAC address of protocol, data stream, or application.
5. In a1 also, there are two bits, 0 and 1. 0 indicates globally unique (OUI ENFORCED) to identify
manufacturers and vendors worldwide or globally. 1 means LOCALLY ADMINISTERED, which
is similar to LAN (Local Area Network) IP address.

Types of MAC Addresses

Here are the important types of MAC addresses:
Universally Administered Address
UAA is the most used type of MAC address. It is given to the network adapter at the time of
manufacturing. The first three octets of Universally Administered Address find the organization /
manufacturer that issued the identifier. The remaining octets of the MAC address is assigned by
manufacturer.
Locally Administered Address
LAA is an address that changes the MAC address of the adapter. You may assign this address to a
device used by network administrator. It overrides the address assigned by device manufacturers.
Locally Administered Address does not contain OUI (Organizationally Unique Identifier). The full form
of LAA is Locally Administered Address.

How to find MAC address in Windows?

Below is a step by step process on how to find MAC address in Windows:
Finding the MAC address with the Command Prompt:

Step 1) Click on “start” button.

Click on Start Menu Icon

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Step 2) Type command prompt in a “search” box.
Click on the search result

Step 3) In the command prompt

Type ipconfig /all and press enter

Step 4) Output of the command is shown

To find out the physical address of the wired or wireless adapter, you need to scroll down and look for
the values next to “Physical Address,”. This will be your MAC address.

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Finding MAC address from Network Connection Settings
Another finding MAC Address example in windows is to check the details of your network adapter in
Windows operating system.
Step 1) Click on “start” button.
Click on Start Menu Icon

76
Step 2) Type view network status and tasks in a “search” box.
Click on the search result

Step 3) Click on your network connection.

Ethernet 2 as shown in screenshot

77
Step 4) In the next screen
Click on “Details”.

Step 5) Locate the “Physical Address”.

The value for the physical address in the Network Connection Details window is your MAC address.

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How To Change The MAC Address in Windows
Here is a step by step process to change the MAC address in Windows:
Using the Device Manager to change MAC address

Step 1) Click on “start” button.

Click on Start Menu Icon

Step 2) Type device manager in a “search” box.

Click on Search Result

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Step 3) Click on Network Adapters.
Tree will expand

Step 4) Right-click on the network adapter section

Click on “Properties”.

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Step 5) In the next screen
Click on Advanced tab.

Step 6) In “Property”.
Go to “Network Address”

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Step 7) Go to “Value”

Type MAC address you like

82
Step 8) Restart your PC.

This will enable changes.

83
Step 9) Check the change

Type ipconfig/all in command prompt.

84
Using Registry to change MAC address
Step 1) Click on “start” button.

Click Start Menu

Step 2) Type run in a “search” box.

Click on “Run”

85
Step 1) Write REGDIT

Press “OK”.

86
Step 2) Navigate to
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\<network adapter>\Parameters

Step 3) Right-click

Click on “new” -> “String Value”.

87
Step 4) Type a name of Network Address

Press Enter

Step 5) Double-click the new value

88
Enter the adapter’s new MAC value.

Step 6) Press “OK”.

New value is saved

Step 7) Restart your PC.

This will enable the changes

89
Step 8) Check the change.
Type ipconfig/all in command prompt.

Difference between MAC address and IP address:

Following table shows important difference between MAC address and IP address:
MAC Address IP Address
The MAC address stands for Media Access IP address stands for Internet Protocol
Control Address. Address.
It consists of a 48-bit address. It consists of a 32-bit address.
MAC address works at link layer of OSI model. IP address works at network layer of OSI
model.
It is referred as a physical address. It is referred as a logical address.
You can retrieve MAC address of any device You can retrieve MAC address of any device
using ARP protocol. RARP protocol.
Classes are not used in MAC address. In IP, IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E classes.

Summary:
• MAC Address meaning a unique identifier that is assigned to a NIC (Network Interface Controller/
Card).
• It provides a secure way to find senders or receivers in the network.
• MAC Address containing 6 outlets.
• First, three octets (group of eight bits) are Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI).
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• The last three pairs of digits are the number specific to the device, which is known as Network
Interface Controller (NIC) specific.
• Three octets contain 8 bits like a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, and a7.
• The important types of MAC address are: 1) UAA (Universally Administered Address), and 2)
LAA (Locally Administered Address).
• UAA is the most used type of MAC address.
• LAA is an address that changes the MAC address of the adapter.
• MAC address works at link layer of OSI model whereas, IP address works at network layer of
OSI model.

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 How to Find & Change MAC Address in Mac OS
This tutorial, into 2 parts
1. Find Mac Address
2. Change Mac Address

Finding MAC Address in Macintosh OS X using System Preferences

Step 1) Go to System Preferences.
Click on Network

Step 2) In the Network menu

Click on the Advanced button.

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Step 3) Go to Hardware tab.
You can see the MAC address of your MacOS.

Finding MAC Address in Macintosh OS X using Terminal

Here are the ways to find MAC address in Macintosh OS X:

Step 1) Open the Terminal application from Launchpad

Type ifconfig and get your Mac address.

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Find Mac Address Using the Toolbar
Here are the ways to find MAC address in Macintosh OS X:

Step 1) Press Option (Alt) key and click on the Wi-Fi icon available in the toolbar.
You will see the Wi-Fi address.

How to Change the MAC Address?

Here is the way how you can change the MAC address in MacOS:
In order to change the MAC address
Step 1) Click “option” key and then click the Wi-Fi symbol.
You can check the interface name. In the below diagram you can see it is “en0”.

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Step 2) Go to Terminal, and write the below command:
openssl rand -hex 6 | sed 's/\(..\)/\1:/g; s/.$//'
It will show you a new hexadecimal number that can be used as a MAC address.

Step 3) Disconnect from your current Wi-Fi network connection.

By clicking down “option”, pressing on the Wi-Fi icon, which is available in the menu bar and clicking
on “disconnect”.

Step 4) Go to terminal.
Write
sudo ifconfig en0 ether <MAC address>.

Step 5) You have now changed your MAC address.

Connect to your WiFi network and verify your MAC address one more time.

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 Difference between MAC address and IP address
What is the Mac address?
MAC address is a unique identifier that is assigned to a NIC (Network Interface Controller/ Card). It
consists of a 48 bit or 64-bit address, which is associated with the network adapter. MAC address can
be in hexadecimal format. The full form of MAC address is Media Access Control address. A MAC
address is generally in six sets of two-digits/characters that are separated by colons.

What is the IP address?

An IP address is an address that helps you to identify a network connection. It is termed as the ‘Logical
Address,’ which is provided to a connection in a network.
IP address helps you to control how devices on the Internet communicate and defines the behavior of
internet routers.

Key Differences
• MAC address is a unique hardware identification number that is assigned to a NIC (Network
Interface Controller/ Card), whereas the IP address is an address that helps you to identify a
network connection.
• MAC address is assigned by the manufacturer of the hardware interface while the IP address is
assigned by the network administrator or Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• Mac address defines the devices identity, but IP address describes how the devices are
connected to the network.
• MAC addresses can be used for broadcasting, on the other hand, IP address can be used for
broadcasting or multicasting.
• The MAC address is implemented in the Data-Link layer of the OSI or TCP/IP reference model.
In contrast, the IP address is implemented in the Network layer of the TCP/IP or OSI model.

Why need Mac address?

Here are pros/benefits of using MAC address:

• It provides a secure way to find senders or receivers in the network.

• MAC address helps you to prevent unwanted network access.
• MAC address is a unique number; hence it can be used to track the device.
• Wi-Fi networks at the airport use the MAC address of a specific device to identify it.

Why need an IP address?

Here the pros/benefits of using IP address:
• An IP address is assigned to every device on a network so that the device can be located on
that network.
• It helps you to develop a virtual connection between a destination and a source.

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 • IP address is one type of numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer
network that uses the IP for communication.
• It acts as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network.
• It helps you to specify the technical format of the addressing and packaging scheme.

Characteristic of mac address

Here, are some important characteristic of mac address:
• TCP/IP networks can use MAC addresses in the communication
• It helps you to Identify a specific NIC in a computer on a network
• Network devices cannot efficiently route traffic using MAC addresses
• Not provide information about physical or logical network configuration.

Characteristics of IP Address
Here, are an essential characteristic of IP address:
• IP address is a numeral label assigned to each device
• IP helps you to controls how devices on the Internet communicate and identifies the behavior of
internet routers.
• It is assigned by the network admin or internet service provider (ISP).
• It can be either 32-bit long (4 bytes) or 128-bits (16 bytes).
How to find out your IP address?
Here is a way to find the IP address in Windows:
Step 1) Click on the “start” button.
Click on Start Menu Icon

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Step 2) Type command prompt in a “search” box.
Click on the search result.

Step 3) In the command prompt type ipconfig and press enter. You can see a field called IPv4 Address.

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How to find your MAC address?
Here is a way to find the MAC address in Windows

Step 1) Click on the “start” button.

Click on Start Menu Icon

Step 2) Type command prompt in a “search” box.

Click on the search result.

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Step 3) In the command prompt
Type ipconfig /all and press enter

Step 4) Output of the command is shown.

To find out the physical address of the wired or wireless adapter, you need to scroll down and look for
the values next to “Physical Address”. This will be your MAC address.

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MAC Address and IP Address
Here are the main differences between MAC and IP address:

MAC Address IP Address

MAC address is a unique identifier that is An IP address is an address that helps you to
assigned to a Network Interface Controller/ identify a network connection.
Card.
The full form of MAC address is Media Access The full form of IP address is an Internet
Control Address. Protocol Address.
It is assigned by the manufacturer of the It is assigned by the network administrator or
interface hardware. internet service provider (ISP).
Information is send by Ethernet using the mac Information is send by the Internet using the IP
address. address.
The Mac filtering feature helps to prevent The IP address does not have any specific
security threats by hackers. filter.
Mac defines the device identify. IP address define how the device are
connected to the network.
Mac address is separated by colons. Ip address is separated by dots.
Mac address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.
You can’t hide the mac address from the It is possible to hide IP addresses using the
device. router or VPN.
The MAC addresses are not flexible and not The IP address is flexible. It gets changed
remains constant for a device. every time whenever it connects to some other
network.
Mac address helps you to identify the device IP address helps you to identify the device in
in the local network. the global network.
MAC addresses can be used for The IP address can be used for broadcasting
broadcasting. or multicasting.

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The MAC address is implemented in the Data- The IP address is implemented in the Network
Link layer of the OSI or TCP/IP reference layer of the TCP/IP or OSI model.
model.
Mac address help to solve IP address issues. IP never addresses able to solve Mac address
issues.

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