C H A P T E R 1 5

Oscillations
15-1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
15.01 Distinguish simple harmonic motion from other types of 15.10 Sketch a graph of an oscillator’s velocity v versus time t,
periodic motion. identifying the velocity amplitude vm.
15.02 For a simple harmonic oscillator, apply the relationship 15.11 Apply the relationship between velocity amplitude vm,
between position x and time t to calculate either if given a angular frequency v, and (displacement) amplitude xm.
value for the other. 15.12 Given an oscillator’s velocity v(t) as a function of time,
15.03 Relate period T, frequency f, and angular frequency v. calculate its acceleration a(t) as a function of time, identify
15.04 Identify (displacement) amplitude xm, phase constant the acceleration amplitude am in the result, and calculate
(or phase angle) f, and phase vt  f. the acceleration at any given time.
15.05 Sketch a graph of the oscillator’s position x versus time 15.13 Sketch a graph of an oscillator’s acceleration a versus
t, identifying amplitude xm and period T. time t, identifying the acceleration amplitude am.
15.06 From a graph of position versus time, velocity versus 15.14 Identify that for a simple harmonic oscillator the acceler-
time, or acceleration versus time, determine the amplitude ation a at any instant is always given by the product of a
of the plot and the value of the phase constant f. negative constant and the displacement x just then.
15.07 On a graph of position x versus time t describe the ef- 15.15 For any given instant in an oscillation, apply the relation-
fects of changing period T, frequency f, amplitude xm, or ship between acceleration a, angular frequency v, and dis-
phase constant f. placement x.
15.08 Identify the phase constant f that corresponds to the 15.16 Given data about the position x and velocity v at one
starting time (t  0) being set when a particle in SHM is instant, determine the phase vt  f and phase constant f.
at an extreme point or passing through the center point. 15.17 For a spring–block oscillator, apply the relationships be-
15.09 Given an oscillator’s position x(t) as a function of time, tween spring constant k and mass m and either period T or
find its velocity v(t) as a function of time, identify the veloc- angular frequency v.
ity amplitude vm in the result, and calculate the velocity at 15.18 Apply Hooke’s law to relate the force F on a simple har-
any given time. monic oscillator at any instant to the displacement x of the
oscillator at that instant.
Key Ideas
● The frequency f of periodic, or oscillatory, motion is the v  vxm sin(vt  f) (velocity)
number of oscillations per second. In the SI system, it is
and a  v2xm cos(vt  f) (acceleration).
measured in hertz: 1 Hz  1 s1.
● The period T is the time required for one complete oscilla- In the velocity function, the positive quantity vxm is the veloc-
tion, or cycle. It is related to the frequency by T  1/f. ity amplitude vm. In the acceleration function, the positive
● In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x(t) of a quantity v 2xm is the acceleration amplitude am.
particle from its equilibrium position is described by the equation ● A particle with mass m that moves under the influence of a
x  xm cos(vt  f) (displacement), Hooke’s law restoring force given by F  kx is a linear sim-
in which xm is the amplitude of the displacement, vt  f is ple harmonic oscillator with
the phase of the motion, and f is the phase constant. The k
angular frequency v is related to the period and frequency of v (angular frequency)
Am
the motion by v  2p/T  2pf.
m
● Differentiating x(t) leads to equations for the particle’s and T  2p (period).
SHM velocity and acceleration as functions of time: A k

413
414 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

What Is Physics?
Our world is filled with oscillations in which objects move back and forth repeat-
edly. Many oscillations are merely amusing or annoying, but many others are
dangerous or financially important. Here are a few examples: When a bat hits a
baseball, the bat may oscillate enough to sting the batter’s hands or even to break
apart. When wind blows past a power line, the line may oscillate (“gallop” in elec-
trical engineering terms) so severely that it rips apart, shutting off the power
supply to a community. When an airplane is in flight, the turbulence of the air
flowing past the wings makes them oscillate, eventually leading to metal fatigue
and even failure. When a train travels around a curve, its wheels oscillate horizon-
tally (“hunt” in mechanical engineering terms) as they are forced to turn in new
directions (you can hear the oscillations).
When an earthquake occurs near a city, buildings may be set oscillating so
severely that they are shaken apart. When an arrow is shot from a bow, the feathers
at the end of the arrow manage to snake around the bow staff without hitting it be-
cause the arrow oscillates. When a coin drops into a metal collection plate, the coin
oscillates with such a familiar ring that the coin’s denomination can be determined
from the sound. When a rodeo cowboy rides a bull, the cowboy oscillates wildly as
the bull jumps and turns (at least the cowboy hopes to be oscillating).
The study and control of oscillations are two of the primary goals of both
physics and engineering. In this chapter we discuss a basic type of oscillation
called simple harmonic motion.
Heads Up. This material is quite challenging to most students. One reason is
that there is a truckload of definitions and symbols to sort out, but the main reason
is that we need to relate an object’s oscillations (something that we can see or even
experience) to the equations and graphs for the oscillations. Relating the real, visi-
ble motion to the abstraction of an equation or graph requires a lot of hard work.

Simple Harmonic Motion

x
Figure 15-1 shows a particle that is oscillating about the origin of an x axis, repeat-
–xm +xm edly going left and right by identical amounts. The frequency f of the oscillation is
0
the number of times per second that it completes a full oscillation (a cycle) and
Figure 15-1 A particle repeatedly oscillates
left and right along an x axis, between has the unit of hertz (abbreviated Hz), where
extreme points xm and xm. 1 hertz  1 Hz  1 oscillation per second  1 s1. (15-1)
The time for one full cycle is the period T of the oscillation, which is

1
T . (15-2)
f

Any motion that repeats at regular intervals is called periodic motion or har-
monic motion. However, here we are interested in a particular type of periodic
motion called simple harmonic motion (SHM). Such motion is a sinusoidal func-
tion of time t. That is, it can be written as a sine or a cosine of time t. Here we
arbitrarily choose the cosine function and write the displacement (or position) of
the particle in Fig. 15-1 as

x(t)  xm cos(vt  f) (displacement), (15-3)

in which xm, v, and f are quantities that we shall define.

Freeze-Frames. Let’s take some freeze-frames of the motion and then arrange
them one after another down the page (Fig. 15-2a). Our first freeze-frame is at t  0
when the particle is at its rightmost position on the x axis. We label that coordi-
nate as xm (the subscript means maximum); it is the symbol in front of the cosine
 15-1 SI M PLE HAR M ON IC M OTION 415

A particle oscillates left The speed

and right in simple is zero at the The speed is greatest
harmonic motion. extreme points. at the midpoint.
–xm 0 +xm –xm 0 +xm
t=0 t=0
v
t = T/4 t = T/4

v
t = T/2 t = T/2

t = 3T/4 t = 3T/4 v

t=T t=T
v
–xm 0 +xm –xm 0 +xm
(a) (b)

Rotating the figure reveals

that the motion forms a
cosine function.
This is a graph of the motion,
xm
x with the period T indicated.
Displacement

xm

0 Time (t)
T
–xm

0
(d)
The speed is zero at
x extreme points.
Displacement

xm

0 Time (t)

–xm –xm
The speed is greatest
at x = 0.
0 T/2 T (e)
(c)

Figure 15-2 (a) A sequence of “freeze-frames” (taken at equal time intervals) showing the position of a par-
ticle as it oscillates back and forth about the origin of an x axis, between the limits xm and xm. (b) The
vector arrows are scaled to indicate the speed of the particle.The speed is maximum when the particle is at
the origin and zero when it is at xm. If the time t is chosen to be zero when the particle is at xm, then the
particle returns to xm at t  T, where T is the period of the motion.The motion is then repeated. (c)
Rotating the figure reveals the motion forms a cosine function of time, as shown in (d). (e) The speed (the
slope) changes.
416 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Displacement function in Eq. 15-3. In the next freeze-frame, the particle is a bit to the left of xm.
at time t It continues to move in the negative direction of x until it reaches the leftmost po-
Phase
sition, at coordinate xm. Thereafter, as time takes us down the page through
x(t) = xm cos(ω t + φ ) more freeze-frames, the particle moves back to xm and thereafter repeatedly os-
cillates between xm and xm. In Eq. 15-3, the cosine function itself oscillates be-
Amplitude Time tween 1 and l. The value of xm determines how far the particle moves in its os-
Angular Phase
cillations and is called the amplitude of the oscillations (as labeled in the handy
frequency constant guide of Fig. 15-3).
or phase Figure 15-2b indicates the velocity of the particle with respect to time, in the se-
angle
ries of freeze-frames. We’ll get to a function for the velocity soon, but for now just
Figure 15-3 A handy guide to the quantities notice that the particle comes to a momentary stop at the extreme points and has
in Eq. 15-3 for simple harmonic motion. its greatest speed (longest velocity vector) as it passes through the center point.
Mentally rotate Fig. 15-2a counterclockwise by 90 , so that the freeze-frames
then progress rightward with time. We set time t  0 when the particle is at xm.
The particle is back at xm at time t  T (the period of the oscillation), when it
starts the next cycle of oscillation. If we filled in lots of the intermediate freeze-
frames and drew a line through the particle positions, we would have the cosine
curve shown in Fig. 15-2d. What we already noted about the speed is displayed in
Fig. 15-2e. What we have in the whole of Fig. 15-2 is a transformation of what we
can see (the reality of an oscillating particle) into the abstraction of a graph. (In
WileyPLUS the transformation of Fig. 15-2 is available as an animation with
voiceover.) Equation 15-3 is a concise way to capture the motion in the abstrac-
tion of an equation.
More Quantities. The handy guide of Fig. 15-3 defines more quantities
about the motion. The argument of the cosine function is called the phase of the
motion. As it varies with time, the value of the cosine function varies. The con-
stant f is called the phase angle or phase constant. It is in the argument only be-
cause we want to use Eq. 15-3 to describe the motion regardless of where the par-
ticle is in its oscillation when we happen to set the clock time to 0. In Fig. 15-2, we set
t  0 when the particle is at xm. For that choice, Eq. 15-3 works just fine if we also
set f  0. However, if we set t  0 when the particle happens to be at some other
location, we need a different value of f. A few values are indicated in Fig. 15-4.
For example, suppose the particle is at its leftmost position when we happen to
start the clock at t  0. Then Eq. 15-3 describes the motion if f  p rad. To check,
substitute t  0 and f  p rad into Eq. 15-3. See, it gives x  xm just then. Now
check the other examples in Fig. 15-4.
The quantity v in Eq. 15-3 is the angular frequency of the motion. To relate it
to the frequency f and the period T, let’s first note that the position x(t) of the
particle must (by definition) return to its initial value at the end of a period. That
is, if x(t) is the position at some chosen time t, then the particle must return to that
same position at time t  T. Let’s use Eq. 15-3 to express this condition, but let’s
also just set f  0 to get it out of the way. Returning to the same position can
then be written as
xm cos vt  xm cos v(t  T). (15-4)
The cosine function first repeats itself when its argument (the phase, remember)
has increased by 2p rad. So, Eq. 15-4 tells us that
v(t  T)  vt  2p
3
2
p rad or vT  2p.
p rad 0 Thus, from Eq. 15-2 the angular frequency is
1
2
p rad

2p
–xm 0 +xm v  2pf. (15-5)

Figure 15-4 Values of f corresponding to
the position of the particle at time t  0. The SI unit of angular frequency is the radian per second.
 15-1 SI M PLE HAR M ON IC M OTION 417

The amplitudes are different, The amplitudes are the

but the frequency and same, but the frequencies
period are the same. and periods are different.
x x

x'm T

Displacement
Displacement

xm xm

0 t 0 t

–xm –xm
–x'm T' T'

(a) (b)

Figure 15-5 In all three cases, the blue curve is obtained

This negative value
from Eq. 15-3 with f  0. (a) The red curve differs from x shifts the cosine
the blue curve only in that the red-curve amplitude xm is curve rightward.
φ=–π
_

Displacement
greater (the red-curve extremes of displacement are high- xm 4
er and lower). (b) The red curve differs from the blue
0 t
curve only in that the red-curve period is T  T/2 (the red
curve is compressed horizontally). (c) The red curve dif- –xm φ=0
fers from the blue curve only in that for the red curve
This zero gives a
f  p/4 rad rather than zero (the negative value of f
shifts the red curve to the right). (c) regular cosine curve.

We’ve had a lot of quantities here, quantities that we could experimentally

change to see the effects on the particle’s SHM. Figure 15-5 gives some examples.
The curves in Fig. 15-5a show the effect of changing the amplitude. Both curves
have the same period. (See how the “peaks” line up?) And both are for f  0. (See
how the maxima of the curves both occur at t  0?) In Fig. 15-5b, the two curves
have the same amplitude xm but one has twice the period as the other (and thus half
the frequency as the other). Figure 15-5c is probably more difficult to understand.
The curves have the same amplitude and same period but one is shifted relative to
the other because of the different f values. See how the one with f  0 is just a reg-
ular cosine curve? The one with the negative f is shifted rightward from it.That is a
general result: negative f values shift the regular cosine curve rightward and posi-
tive f values shift it leftward. (Try this on a graphing calculator.)

Checkpoint 1
A particle undergoing simple harmonic oscillation of period T (like that in Fig. 15-2) is
at xm at time t  0. Is it at xm, at xm, at 0, between xm and 0, or between 0 and
xm when (a) t  2.00T, (b) t  3.50T, and (c) t  5.25T ?

The Velocity of SHM

We briefly discussed velocity as shown in Fig. 15-2b, finding that it varies in magni-
tude and direction as the particle moves between the extreme points (where the
speed is momentarily zero) and through the central point (where the speed is maxi-
mum). To find the velocity v(t) as a function of time, let’s take a time derivative of
the position function x(t) in Eq. 15-3:
dx(t) d
v(t)   [xm cos(vt  f)]
dt dt

or v(t)  vxm sin(vt  f) (velocity). (15-6)

The velocity depends on time because the sine function varies with time,
between the values of 1 and 1. The quantities in front of the sine function
 418 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

x
+xm determine the extent of the variation in the velocity, between vxm and vxm.
Displacement

Extreme
We say that vxm is the velocity amplitude vm of the velocity variation. When the
values
0 t particle is moving rightward through x  0, its velocity is positive and the magni-
here
–xm tude is at this greatest value. When it is moving leftward through x  0, its veloc-
T mean ...
ity is negative and the magnitude is again at this greatest value. This variation
(a)
v with time (a negative sine function) is displayed in the graph of Fig. 15-6b for a
+ω xm
zero phase constant of f  0, which corresponds to the cosine function for the dis-
Velocity

t
values placement versus time shown in Fig. 15-6a.
0
here Recall that we use a cosine function for x(t) regardless of the particle’s posi-
–ω xm and ... tion at t  0. We simply choose an appropriate value of f so that Eq. 15-3 gives us
(b) the correct position at t  0. That decision about the cosine function leads us to a
a
+ω 2xm negative sine function for the velocity in Eq. 15-6, and the value of f now gives
Acceleration

extreme the correct velocity at t  0.

0 t values
–ω 2xm here. The Acceleration of SHM
(c) Let’s go one more step by differentiating the velocity function of Eq. 15-6 with
respect to time to get the acceleration function of the particle in simple harmonic
Figure 15-6 (a) The displacement x(t) of a
motion:
particle oscillating in SHM with phase
angle f equal to zero. The period T marks dv(t) d
one complete oscillation. (b) The velocity a(t)   [vxm sin(vt  f)]
dt dt
v(t) of the particle. (c) The acceleration
a(t) of the particle. or a(t)  v 2xm cos(vt  f) (acceleration). (15-7)

We are back to a cosine function but with a minus sign out front. We know the
drill by now. The acceleration varies because the cosine function varies with time,
between 1 and 1. The variation in the magnitude of the acceleration is set by
the acceleration amplitude am, which is the product v2xm that multiplies the co-
sine function.
Figure 15-6c displays Eq. 15-7 for a phase constant f  0, consistent with
Figs. 15-6a and 15-6b. Note that the acceleration magnitude is zero when the
cosine is zero, which is when the particle is at x  0. And the acceleration mag-
nitude is maximum when the cosine magnitude is maximum, which is when the
particle is at an extreme point, where it has been slowed to a stop so that its
motion can be reversed. Indeed, comparing Eqs. 15-3 and 15-7 we see an extremely
neat relationship:

a(t)  v 2x(t). (15-8)

This is the hallmark of SHM: (1) The particle’s acceleration is always oppo-
site its displacement (hence the minus sign) and (2) the two quantities are al-
ways related by a constant (v 2). If you ever see such a relationship in an oscil-
lating situation (such as with, say, the current in an electrical circuit, or the
rise and fall of water in a tidal bay), you can immediately say that the motion
is SHM and immediately identify the angular frequency v of the motion. In a
nutshell:

In SHM, the acceleration a is proportional to the displacement x but opposite in

sign, and the two quantities are related by the square of the angular frequency v.

Checkpoint 2
Which of the following relationships between a particle’s acceleration a and its
position x indicates simple harmonic oscillation: (a) a  3x2, (b) a  5x, (c) a  4x,
(d) a  2/x? For the SHM, what is the angular frequency (assume the unit of rad/s)?
 15-1 SI M PLE HAR M ON IC M OTION 419

The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion k

m
Now that we have an expression for the acceleration in terms of the displacement
in Eq. 15-8, we can apply Newton’s second law to describe the force responsible x
for SHM: –xm x=0 +xm
F  ma  m(v 2x)  (mv 2)x. (15-9) Figure 15-7 A linear simple harmonic oscil-
The minus sign means that the direction of the force on the particle is opposite the di- lator. The surface is frictionless. Like the
rection of the displacement of the particle.That is, in SHM the force is a restoring force particle of Fig. 15-2, the block moves in
simple harmonic motion once it has been
in the sense that it fights against the displacement, attempting to restore the particle to
either pulled or pushed away from the
the center point at x  0. We’ve seen the general form of Eq. 15-9 back in Chapter 8
x  0 position and released. Its displace-
when we discussed a block on a spring as in Fig. 15-7.There we wrote Hooke’s law, ment is then given by Eq. 15-3.
F  kx, (15-10)
for the force acting on the block. Comparing Eqs. 15-9 and 15-10, we can now re-
late the spring constant k (a measure of the stiffness of the spring) to the mass of
the block and the resulting angular frequency of the SHM:
k  mv 2. (15-11)
Equation 15-10 is another way to write the hallmark equation for SHM.

Simple harmonic motion is the motion of a particle when the force acting on it is
proportional to the particle’s displacement but in the opposite direction.

The block–spring system of Fig. 15-7 is called a linear simple harmonic oscillator
(linear oscillator, for short), where linear indicates that F is proportional to x to
the first power (and not to some other power).
If you ever see a situation in which the force in an oscillation is always pro-
portional to the displacement but in the opposite direction, you can immediately
say that the oscillation is SHM. You can also immediately identify the associated
spring constant k. If you know the oscillating mass, you can then determine the
angular frequency of the motion by rewriting Eq. 15-11 as

k
v (angular frequency). (15-12)
Am

(This is usually more important than the value of k.) Further, you can determine
the period of the motion by combining Eqs. 15-5 and 15-12 to write

m
T  2p (period). (15-13)
A k

Let’s make a bit of physical sense of Eqs. 15-12 and 15-13. Can you see that a
stiff spring (large k) tends to produce a large v (rapid oscillations) and thus a
small period T? Can you also see that a large mass m tends to result in a small v
(sluggish oscillations) and thus a large period T?
Every oscillating system, be it a diving board or a violin string, has some
element of “springiness” and some element of “inertia” or mass. In Fig. 15-7, these
elements are separated: The springiness is entirely in the spring, which we assume
to be massless, and the inertia is entirely in the block, which we assume to be rigid.
In a violin string, however, the two elements are both within the string.

Checkpoint 3
Which of the following relationships between the force F on a particle and the parti-
cle’s position x gives SHM: (a) F  5x, (b) F  400x2, (c) F  10x, (d) F  3x2?
420 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Sample Problem 15.01 Block–spring SHM, amplitude, acceleration, phase constant

A block whose mass m is 680 g is fastened to a spring whose This maximum speed occurs when the oscillating block is
spring constant k is 65 N/m. The block is pulled a distance rushing through the origin; compare Figs. 15-6a and 15-6b,
x  11 cm from its equilibrium position at x  0 on a fric- where you can see that the speed is a maximum whenever
tionless surface and released from rest at t  0. x  0.
(a) What are the angular frequency, the frequency, and the (d) What is the magnitude am of the maximum acceleration
period of the resulting motion? of the block?

KEY IDEA KEY IDEA

The block–spring system forms a linear simple harmonic The magnitude am of the maximum acceleration is the accel-
oscillator, with the block undergoing SHM. eration amplitude v2xm in Eq. 15-7.
Calculations: The angular frequency is given by Eq. 15-12: Calculation: So, we have
k 65 N/m am  v2xm  (9.78 rad/s)2(0.11 m)
v   9.78 rad/s
Am A 0.68 kg  11 m/s2. (Answer)
 9.8 rad/s. (Answer)
This maximum acceleration occurs when the block is at the
The frequency follows from Eq. 15-5, which yields ends of its path, where the block has been slowed to a stop
v 9.78 rad/s so that its motion can be reversed. At those extreme
f   1.56 Hz  1.6 Hz. (Answer) points, the force acting on the block has its maximum mag-
2p 2p rad
nitude; compare Figs. 15-6a and 15-6c, where you can see
The period follows from Eq. 15-2, which yields that the magnitudes of the displacement and acceleration
1 1 are maximum at the same times, when the speed is zero, as
T   0.64 s  640 ms. (Answer) you can see in Fig. 15-6b.
f 1.56 Hz
(b) What is the amplitude of the oscillation? (e) What is the phase constant f for the motion?

Calculations: Equation 15-3 gives the displacement of the

KEY IDEA block as a function of time. We know that at time t  0,
the block is located at x  xm. Substituting these initial
With no friction involved, the mechanical energy of the spring–
conditions, as they are called, into Eq. 15-3 and canceling xm
block system is conserved.
give us
Reasoning: The block is released from rest 11 cm from its 1  cos f. (15-14)
equilibrium position, with zero kinetic energy and the
Taking the inverse cosine then yields
elastic potential energy of the system at a maximum. Thus,
the block will have zero kinetic energy whenever it is f  0 rad. (Answer)
again 11 cm from its equilibrium position, which means it
(Any angle that is an integer multiple of 2p rad also satisfies
will never be farther than 11 cm from that position. Its
Eq. 15-14; we chose the smallest angle.)
maximum displacement is 11 cm:
xm  11 cm. (Answer) (f) What is the displacement function x(t) for the
spring – block system?
(c) What is the maximum speed vm of the oscillating block,
and where is the block when it has this speed?
Calculation: The function x(t) is given in general form by
Eq. 15-3. Substituting known quantities into that equation
KEY IDEA
gives us
The maximum speed vm is the velocity amplitude vxm in Eq. 15-6. x(t)  xm cos(vt  f)
Calculation: Thus, we have  (0.11 m) cos[(9.8 rad/s)t  0]
vm  vxm  (9.78 rad/s)(0.11 m)  0.11 cos(9.8t), (Answer)
 1.1 m/s. (Answer) where x is in meters and t is in seconds.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

 15-2 E N E RGY I N SI M PLE HAR M ON IC M OTION 421

Sample Problem 15.02 Finding SHM phase constant from displacement and velocity

At t  0, the displacement x(0) of the block in a linear oscil- Calculations: We know v and want f and xm. If we divide
lator like that of Fig. 15-7 is 8.50 cm. (Read x(0) as “x at Eq. 15-16 by Eq. 15-15, we eliminate one of those unknowns
time zero.”) The block’s velocity v(0) then is 0.920 m/s, and reduce the other to a single trig function:
and its acceleration a(0) is 47.0 m/s2.
v(0) vxm sin f
(a) What is the angular frequency v of this system?   v tan f.
x(0) xm cos f
KEY IDEA Solving for tan f, we find

With the block in SHM, Eqs. 15-3, 15-6, and 15-7 give its dis- v(0) 0.920 m/s
tan f   
placement, velocity, and acceleration, respectively, and each vx(0) (23.5 rad/s)(0.0850 m)
contains v.  0.461.
Calculations: Let’s substitute t  0 into each to see This equation has two solutions:
whether we can solve any one of them for v. We find
f  25 and f  180  (25 )  155 .
x(0)  xm cos f, (15-15)
Normally only the first solution here is displayed by a calcu-
v(0)  vxm sin f, (15-16) lator, but it may not be the physically possible solution. To
and a(0)  v2xm cos f. (15-17) choose the proper solution, we test them both by using them
to compute values for the amplitude xm. From Eq. 15-15, we
In Eq. 15-15, v has disappeared. In Eqs. 15-16 and 15-17, we find that if f  25 , then
know values for the left sides, but we do not know xm and f.
However, if we divide Eq. 15-17 by Eq. 15-15, we neatly elim- x(0) 0.0850 m
inate both xm and f and can then solve for v as xm    0.094 m.
cos f cos(25 )
a(0) 47.0 m/s2 We find similarly that if f  155 , then xm  0.094 m.
v   
A x(0) A 0.0850 m Because the amplitude of SHM must be a positive constant,
 23.5 rad/s. (Answer) the correct phase constant and amplitude here are

(b) What are the phase constant f and amplitude xm? f  155 and xm  0.094 m  9.4 cm. (Answer)

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15-2 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . . 15.21 Sketch a graph of the kinetic energy, potential energy,
15.19 For a spring–block oscillator, calculate the kinetic energy and total energy of a spring–block oscillator, first as a func-
and elastic potential energy at any given time. tion of time and then as a function of the oscillator’s position.
15.20 Apply the conservation of energy to relate the total en- 15.22 For a spring–block oscillator, determine the block’s po-
ergy of a spring–block oscillator at one instant to the total sition when the total energy is entirely kinetic energy and
energy at another instant. when it is entirely potential energy.

Key Ideas
● A particle in simple harmonic motion has, at any time, ki- friction is present, the mechanical energy E  K  U
netic energy K  12mv2 and potential energy U  12kx2. If no remains constant even though K and U change.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Let’s now examine the linear oscillator of Chapter 8, where we saw that the energy
transfers back and forth between kinetic energy and potential energy, while the sum
of the two— the mechanical energy E of the oscillator—remains constant. The
 422 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

U(t) + K(t)
potential energy of a linear oscillator like that of Fig. 15-7 is associated entirely
E with the spring. Its value depends on how much the spring is stretched or com-
U(t) pressed — that is, on x(t). We can use Eqs. 8-11 and 15-3 to find
Energy

U(t)  12 kx2  12kx2m cos2(vt  f). (15-18)

K(t) Caution: A function written in the form cos2 A (as here) means (cos A)2 and is not
0 t the same as one written cos A2, which means cos(A2).
T/2 T
(a) The kinetic energy of the system of Fig. 15-7 is associated entirely with the
As time changes, the block. Its value depends on how fast the block is moving — that is, on v(t). We can
energy shifts between use Eq. 15-6 to find
the two types, but the
total is constant. K(t)  12 mv2  12 mv2x2m sin2(vt  f). (15-19)

U(x) + K(x) If we use Eq. 15-12 to substitute k/m for v2, we can write Eq. 15-19 as
E
U(x) K(t)  12 mv2  12kx2m sin2(vt  f). (15-20)
Energy

The mechanical energy follows from Eqs. 15-18 and 15-20 and is
K(x)
EUK
x  12kx2m cos2(vt  f)  12kx2m sin2(vt  f)
–xm 0 +xm
(b)
As position changes, the  12kx2m [cos2(vt  f)  sin2(vt  f)].
energy shifts between For any angle a,
the two types, but the cos2 a  sin2 a  1.
total is constant.
Thus, the quantity in the square brackets above is unity and we have
Figure 15-8 (a) Potential energy U(t), kinet-
ic energy K(t), and mechanical energy E E  U  K  12 kx2m. (15-21)
as functions of time t for a linear harmon-
ic oscillator. Note that all energies are The mechanical energy of a linear oscillator is indeed constant and independent of
positive and that the potential energy and time. The potential energy and kinetic energy of a linear oscillator are shown as
the kinetic energy peak twice during functions of time t in Fig. 15-8a and as functions of displacement x in Fig. 15-8b. In
every period. (b) Potential energy U(x), any oscillating system, an element of springiness is needed to store the potential en-
kinetic energy K(x), and mechanical energy
ergy and an element of inertia is needed to store the kinetic energy.
E as functions of position x for a linear
harmonic oscillator with amplitude xm.
For x  0 the energy is all kinetic, and for Checkpoint 4
x  xm it is all potential.
In Fig. 15-7, the block has a kinetic energy of 3 J and the spring has an elastic potential
energy of 2 J when the block is at x  2.0 cm. (a) What is the kinetic energy when
the block is at x  0? What is the elastic potential energy when the block is at (b)
x  2.0 cm and (c) x  xm?

Sample Problem 15.03 SHM potential energy, kinetic energy, mass dampers

Many tall buildings have mass dampers, which are anti-sway (a) What is the total mechanical energy E of the spring –
devices to prevent them from oscillating in a wind. The de- block system?
vice might be a block oscillating at the end of a spring and
KEY IDEA
on a lubricated track. If the building sways, say, eastward,
the block also moves eastward but delayed enough so that
The mechanical energy E (the sum of the kinetic energy
when it finally moves, the building is then moving back
K  12mv2 of the block and the potential energy U  12kx2 of
westward. Thus, the motion of the oscillator is out of step
the spring) is constant throughout the motion of the oscillator.
with the motion of the building.
Thus, we can evaluate E at any point during the motion.
Suppose the block has mass m  2.72  105 kg and is de-
signed to oscillate at frequency f  10.0 Hz and with ampli- Calculations: Because we are given amplitude xm of the os-
tude xm  20.0 cm. cillations, let’s evaluate E when the block is at position x  xm,
 15-3 AN ANG U L AR SI M PLE HAR M ON IC OSCI LL ATOR 423

where it has velocity v  0. However, to evaluate U at that (b) What is the block’s speed as it passes through the equi-
point, we first need to find the spring constant k. From librium point?
Eq. 15-12 (v  2k/m) and Eq.15-5 (v  2pf ),we find Calculations: We want the speed at x  0, where the
k  mv2  m(2pf )2 potential energy is U  12kx 2  0 and the mechanical energy
 (2.72  105 kg)(2p)2(10.0 Hz)2 is entirely kinetic energy. So, we can write
 1.073  109 N/m. E  K  U  12mv2  12kx2
We can now evaluate E as 2.147  107 J  12(2.72  105 kg)v2  0,
E  K  U  12mv2  12kx2 or v  12.6 m/s. (Answer)
 0  12(1.073  109 N/m)(0.20 m)2 Because E is entirely kinetic energy, this is the maximum
 2.147  107 J  2.1  107 J. (Answer) speed vm.

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15-3 AN ANGULAR SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
15.23 Describe the motion of an angular simple harmonic 15.25 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator, apply the re-
oscillator. lationship between the period T (or frequency f ), the rota-
15.24 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator, apply the re- tional inertia I, and the torsion constant k.
lationship between the torque t and the angular displace- 15.26 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator at any instant,
ment u (from equilibrium). apply the relationship between the angular acceleration a, the
angular frequency v, and the angular displacement u.
Key Idea
● A torsion pendulum consists of an object suspended on a wire. When the wire is twisted and then released, the object oscil-
lates in angular simple harmonic motion with a period given by
I
T  2p ,
Ak
where I is the rotational inertia of the object about the axis of rotation and k is the torsion constant of the wire.

Fixed end
An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Figure 15-9 shows an angular version of a simple harmonic oscillator; the element
of springiness or elasticity is associated with the twisting of a suspension wire Suspension wire
rather than the extension and compression of a spring as we previously had. The
device is called a torsion pendulum, with torsion referring to the twisting. Reference line
If we rotate the disk in Fig. 15-9 by some angular displacement u from its rest
position (where the reference line is at u  0) and release it, it will oscillate about
that position in angular simple harmonic motion. Rotating the disk through an
angle u in either direction introduces a restoring torque given by + θm
– θm 0
t  ku. (15-22)
Figure 15-9 A torsion pendulum is an angular
Here k (Greek kappa) is a constant, called the torsion constant, that depends on
version of a linear simple harmonic oscilla-
the length, diameter, and material of the suspension wire. tor. The disk oscillates in a horizontal plane;
Comparison of Eq. 15-22 with Eq. 15-10 leads us to suspect that Eq. 15-22 is the reference line oscillates with angular
the angular form of Hooke’s law, and that we can transform Eq. 15-13, which amplitude um. The twist in the suspension
gives the period of linear SHM, into an equation for the period of angular SHM: wire stores potential energy as a spring does
We replace the spring constant k in Eq. 15-13 with its equivalent, the constant and provides the restoring torque.
424 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

k of Eq. 15-22, and we replace the mass m in Eq. 15-13 with its equivalent, the
rotational inertia I of the oscillating disk. These replacements lead to


T  2p (torsion pendulum). (15-23)
Ak

Sample Problem 15.04 Angular simple harmonic oscillator, rotational inertia, period

Figure 15-10a shows a thin rod whose length L is 12.4 cm and Ia Ib

whose mass m is 135 g, suspended at its midpoint from a long Ta  2p and Tb  2p .
Ak Ak
wire. Its period Ta of angular SHM is measured to be 2.53 s.
The constant k, which is a property of the wire, is the same for
An irregularly shaped object, which we call object X, is then
both figures; only the periods and the rotational inertias differ.
hung from the same wire, as in Fig. 15-10b, and its period Tb is
Let us square each of these equations, divide the second
found to be 4.76 s. What is the rotational inertia of object X
by the first, and solve the resulting equation for Ib.The result is
about its suspension axis?
Tb2 4
(4.76 s)2
KEY IDEA Ib  Ia  (1.73  10 kg m2
)
Ta2 (2.53 s)2
The rotational inertia of either the rod or object X is related  6.12  104 kg m2. (Answer)
to the measured period by Eq. 15-23.
Suspension
Calculations: In Table 10-2e, the rotational inertia of a thin wire
rod about a perpendicular axis through its midpoint is given as
1 2
12mL .Thus, we have, for the rod in Fig. 15-10a,
Rod
Ia  121 mL2  (121 )(0.135 kg)(0.124 m)2 Figure 15-10 Two torsion pen-
L
 1.73  104 kg m2. dulums, consisting of (a) a
wire and a rod and (b) the
Now let us write Eq. 15-23 twice, once for the rod and once same wire and an irregularly
for object X: shaped object. (a) (b) Object X

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15-4 PENDULUMS, CIRCULAR MOTION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
15.27 Describe the motion of an oscillating simple pendulum. 15.33 Distinguish between a pendulum’s angular frequency
15.28 Draw a free-body diagram of a pendulum bob with the v (having to do with the rate at which cycles are com-
pendulum at angle u to the vertical. pleted) and its du/dt (the rate at which its angle with the
15.29 For small-angle oscillations of a simple pendulum, relate vertical changes).
the period T (or frequency f ) to the pendulum’s length L. 15.34 Given data about the angular position u and rate of
15.30 Distinguish between a simple pendulum and a physical change du/dt at one instant, determine the phase constant f
pendulum. and amplitude um.
15.31 For small-angle oscillations of a physical pendulum, re- 15.35 Describe how the free-fall acceleration can be mea-
late the period T (or frequency f ) to the distance h be- sured with a simple pendulum.
tween the pivot and the center of mass. 15.36 For a given physical pendulum, determine the location
15.32 For an angular oscillating system, determine the angu- of the center of oscillation and identify the meaning of that
lar frequency v from either an equation relating torque t phrase in terms of a simple pendulum.
and angular displacement u or an equation relating angular 15.37 Describe how simple harmonic motion is related to uni-
acceleration a and angular displacement u. form circular motion.
 15-4 PE N DU LU M S, CI RCU L AR M OTION 425

Key Ideas
● A simple pendulum consists of a rod of negligible mass that ● A physical pendulum has a more complicated distribution
pivots about its upper end, with a particle (the bob) attached of mass. For small angles of swinging, its motion is simple
at its lower end. If the rod swings through only small angles, harmonic motion with a period given by
its motion is approximately simple harmonic motion with a pe- I
riod given by T  2p (physical pendulum),
A mgh
I where I is the pendulum’s rotational inertia about the pivot, m
T  2p (simple pendulum), is the pendulum’s mass, and h is the distance between the
A mgL
pivot and the pendulum’s center of mass.
where I is the particle’s rotational inertia about the pivot, m is ● Simple harmonic motion corresponds to the projection of
the particle’s mass, and L is the rod’s length. uniform circular motion onto a diameter of the circle.

Pendulums
We turn now to a class of simple harmonic oscillators in which the springiness is
associated with the gravitational force rather than with the elastic properties of
a twisted wire or a compressed or stretched spring.

The Simple Pendulum

If an apple swings on a long thread, does it have simple harmonic motion? If so,
what is the period T ? To answer, we consider a simple pendulum, which consists
of a particle of mass m (called the bob of the pendulum) suspended from one end
Pivot
of an unstretchable, massless string of length L that is fixed at the other end, as in point L
Fig. 15-11a. The bob is free to swing back and forth in the plane of the page, to the
left and right of a vertical line through the pendulum’s pivot point.
:
The Restoring Torque. The forces acting on the bob are the force T from the
:
string and the gravitational force Fg, as shown in Fig. 15-11b, where the string makes m
:
an angle u with the vertical. We resolve Fg into a radial component Fg cos u and a
component Fg sin u that is tangent to the path taken by the bob.This tangential com-
ponent produces a restoring torque about the pendulum’s pivot point because the (a)
component always acts opposite the displacement of the bob so as to bring the bob
back toward its central location. That location is called the equilibrium position
(u  0) because the pendulum would be at rest there were it not swinging.
From Eq. 10-41 (t  rF), we can write this restoring torque as θ L
T
t  L(Fg sin u), (15-24)
where the minus sign indicates that the torque acts to reduce u and L is the moment s = Lθ
m
arm of the force component Fg sin u about the pivot point. Substituting Eq. 15-24 into Fg cos θ
Eq. 10-44 (t  Ia) and then substituting mg as the magnitude of Fg, we obtain
θ This
L(mg sin u)  Ia, (15-25) Fg sinθ
component
where I is the pendulum’s rotational inertia about the pivot point and a is its This merely
angular acceleration about that point. component Fg pulls on
We can simplify Eq. 15-25 if we assume the angle u is small, for then we can brings the the string.
approximate sin u with u (expressed in radian measure). (As an example, if u  bob back
5.00  0.0873 rad, then sin u  0.0872, a difference of only about 0.1%.) With to center.
that approximation and some rearranging, we then have (b)
mgL Figure 15-11 (a) A simple pendulum. (b) The
a u. (15-26) forces acting on the bob are the gravitational
I : :
force Fg and the force T from the string.
This equation is the angular equivalent of Eq. 15-8, the hallmark of SHM. It tells The tangential component Fg sin u of the
us that the angular acceleration a of the pendulum is proportional to the angular gravitational force is a restoring force that
displacement u but opposite in sign. Thus, as the pendulum bob moves to the tends to bring the pendulum back to its cen-
right, as in Fig. 15-11a, its acceleration to the left increases until the bob stops and tral position.
426 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

begins moving to the left. Then, when it is to the left of the equilibrium position,
its acceleration to the right tends to return it to the right, and so on, as it swings
back and forth in SHM. More precisely, the motion of a simple pendulum swing-
ing through only small angles is approximately SHM. We can state this
restriction to small angles another way: The angular amplitude um of the motion
(the maximum angle of swing) must be small.
Angular Frequency. Here is a neat trick. Because Eq. 15-26 has the same
form as Eq. 15-8 for SHM, we can immediately identify the pendulum’s angular
frequency as being the square root of the constants in front of the displacement:
mgL
v .
A I
In the homework problems you might see oscillating systems that do not seem to
resemble pendulums. However, if you can relate the acceleration (linear or angu-
lar) to the displacement (linear or angular), you can then immediately identify
the angular frequency as we have just done here.
Period. Next, if we substitute this expression for v into Eq. 15-5 (v  2p/T),
we see that the period of the pendulum may be written as
I
O T  2p . (15-27)
A mgL
θ h All the mass of a simple pendulum is concentrated in the mass m of the particle-
like bob, which is at radius L from the pivot point. Thus, we can use Eq. 10-33
(I  mr 2) to write I  mL2 for the rotational inertia of the pendulum.
Fg sin θ
Substituting this into Eq. 15-27 and simplifying then yield
C Fg cos θ
This component L
brings the θ T  2p (simple pendulum, small amplitude). (15-28)
A g
pendulum
back to center. We assume small-angle swinging in this chapter.
Fg

Figure 15-12 A physical pendulum. The The Physical Pendulum

restoring torque is hFg sin u. When u  0,
center of mass C hangs directly below
A real pendulum, usually called a physical pendulum, can have a complicated
pivot point O. distribution of mass. Does it also undergo SHM? If so, what is its period?
Figure 15-12 shows an arbitrary physical pendulum displaced to one side
:
by angle u. The gravitational force Fg acts at its center of mass C, at a distance h
from the pivot point O. Comparison of Figs. 15-12 and 15-11b reveals only one
important difference between an arbitrary physical pendulum and a simple
pendulum. For a physical pendulum the restoring component Fg sin u of the grav-
itational force has a moment arm of distance h about the pivot point, rather than
of string length L. In all other respects, an analysis of the physical pendulum
would duplicate our analysis of the simple pendulum up through Eq. 15-27.
Again (for small um), we would find that the motion is approximately SHM.
If we replace L with h in Eq. 15-27, we can write the period as

I
T  2p (physical pendulum, small amplitude). (15-29)
A mgh

As with the simple pendulum, I is the rotational inertia of the pendulum about O.
However, now I is not simply mL2 (it depends on the shape of the physical pen-
dulum), but it is still proportional to m.
A physical pendulum will not swing if it pivots at its center of mass.
Formally, this corresponds to putting h  0 in Eq. 15-29. That equation then pre-
dicts T : , which implies that such a pendulum will never complete one swing.
 15-4 PE N DU LU M S, CI RCU L AR M OTION 427

Corresponding to any physical pendulum that oscillates about a given pivot

point O with period T is a simple pendulum of length L0 with the same period T.
We can find L0 with Eq. 15-28. The point along the physical pendulum at distance
L0 from point O is called the center of oscillation of the physical pendulum for the
given suspension point.

Measuring g
We can use a physical pendulum to measure the free-fall acceleration g at a par-
ticular location on Earth’s surface. (Countless thousands of such measurements
have been made during geophysical prospecting.)
To analyze a simple case, take the pendulum to be a uniform rod of length L,
suspended from one end. For such a pendulum, h in Eq. 15-29, the distance
between the pivot point and the center of mass, is 12L. Table 10-2e tells us that the
rotational inertia of this pendulum about a perpendicular axis through its center
of mass is 121 mL2. From the parallel-axis theorem of Eq. 10-36 (I  Icom  Mh2),
we then find that the rotational inertia about a perpendicular axis through one
end of the rod is

I  Icom  mh2  121 mL2  m(21L)2  13mL2. (15-30)

If we put h  21L and I  31mL2 in Eq. 15-29 and solve for g, we find

8p 2L
g . (15-31)
3T 2

Thus, by measuring L and the period T, we can find the value of g at the pendu-
lum’s location. (If precise measurements are to be made, a number of refine-
ments are needed, such as swinging the pendulum in an evacuated chamber.)

Checkpoint 5
Three physical pendulums, of masses m0, 2m0, and 3m0, have the same shape and size
and are suspended at the same point. Rank the masses according to the periods of the
pendulums, greatest first.

Sample Problem 15.05 Physical pendulum, period and length

In Fig. 15-13a, a meter stick swings about a pivot point at O

one end, at distance h from the stick’s center of mass.
(a) What is the period of oscillation T?
h
KEY IDEA L0

C
The stick is not a simple pendulum because its mass is not
concentrated in a bob at the end opposite the pivot point — P
so the stick is a physical pendulum.

Calculations: The period for a physical pendulum is

given by Eq. 15-29, for which we need the rotational (a) (b)
inertia I of the stick about the pivot point. We can treat Figure 15-13 (a) A meter stick suspended from one end as a
the stick as a uniform rod of length L and mass m. Then physical pendulum. (b) A simple pendulum whose length L0 is
Eq. 15-30 tells us that I  13 mL2, and the distance h in chosen so that the periods of the two pendulums are equal.
Eq. 15-29 is 12L. Substituting these quantities into Eq. 15-29, Point P on the pendulum of (a) marks the center of oscillation.
428 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

we find lum (drawn in Fig. 15-13b) that has the same period as the
1 physical pendulum (the stick) of Fig. 15-13a. Setting Eqs.
I mL 2
T  2p  2p 3 (15-32) 15-28 and 15-33 equal yields
A mgh A mg(12L)
L0 2L
2L T  2p  2p . (15-34)
 2p (15-33) A g A 3g
A 3g
You can see by inspection that
(2)(1.00 m)
 2p  1.64 s. (Answer) L0  23L (15-35)
A (3)(9.8 m/s2)
Note the result is independent of the pendulum’s mass m.  (23)(100 cm)  66.7 cm. (Answer)

(b) What is the distance L0 between the pivot point O of the In Fig. 15-13a, point P marks this distance from suspension
stick and the center of oscillation of the stick? point O. Thus, point P is the stick’s center of oscillation for
the given suspension point. Point P would be different for a
Calculations: We want the length L0 of the simple pendu- different suspension choice.

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Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion

In 1610, Galileo, using his newly constructed telescope, discovered the four prin-
cipal moons of Jupiter. Over weeks of observation, each moon seemed to him to
be moving back and forth relative to the planet in what today we would call
simple harmonic motion; the disk of the planet was the midpoint of the motion.
The record of Galileo’s observations, written in his own hand, is actually still
available. A. P. French of MIT used Galileo’s data to work out the position of the
moon Callisto relative to Jupiter (actually, the angular distance from Jupiter as
seen from Earth) and found that the data approximates the curve shown in Fig.
15-14. The curve strongly suggests Eq. 15-3, the displacement function for simple
harmonic motion. A period of about 16.8 days can be measured from the plot, but
it is a period of what exactly? After all, a moon cannot possibly be oscillating back
and forth like a block on the end of a spring, and so why would Eq. 15-3 have
anything to do with it?
Actually, Callisto moves with essentially constant speed in an essentially cir-
cular orbit around Jupiter. Its true motion — far from being simple harmonic —
is uniform circular motion along that orbit. What Galileo saw — and what you can
see with a good pair of binoculars and a little patience — is the projection of this
uniform circular motion on a line in the plane of the motion. We are led by
Galileo’s remarkable observations to the conclusion that simple harmonic

12
Angle (arc minutes)

0
0 10 20 30 40

⫺12
t (days)

Figure 15-14 The angle between Jupiter and its moon Callisto as seen from Earth. Galileo’s 1610
measurements approximate this curve, which suggests simple harmonic motion. At Jupiter’s
mean distance from Earth, 10 minutes of arc corresponds to about 2  106 km. (Based on A. P.
French, Newtonian Mechanics, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1971, p. 288.)
 15-4 PE N DU LU M S, CI RCU L AR M OTION 429

y y v y
P ´ is a particle
ω xm
moving in a circle.
ωt + φ

P' P' ω 2xm P'

xm a
ωt + φ ωt + φ
ωt + φ x
x x O
O x(t) P O v(t) P a(t) P

P is a projection This relates the

This relates the
moving in SHM. velocities of
accelerations of
P and P ´.
P and P ´.
(a ) (b ) (c )

Figure 15-15 (a) A reference particle P moving with uniform circular motion in a reference
circle of radius xm. Its projection P on the x axis executes simple harmonic motion. (b) The
projection of the velocity v: of the reference particle is the velocity of SHM. (c) The projec-
:
tion of the radial acceleration a of the reference particle is the acceleration of SHM.

motion is uniform circular motion viewed edge-on. In more formal language:

Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular motion on a diame-

ter of the circle in which the circular motion occurs.

Figure 15-15a gives an example. It shows a reference particle P moving in

uniform circular motion with (constant) angular speed v in a reference circle. The
radius xm of the circle is the magnitude of the particle’s position vector. At any
time t, the angular position of the particle is vt  f, where f is its angular posi-
tion at t  0.
Position. The projection of particle P onto the x axis is a point P, which we
take to be a second particle. The projection of the position vector of particle P
onto the x axis gives the location x(t) of P. (Can you see the x component in the
triangle in Fig. 15-5a?) Thus, we find
x(t)  xm cos(vt  f), (15-36)
which is precisely Eq. 15-3. Our conclusion is correct. If reference particle P
moves in uniform circular motion, its projection particle P moves in simple
harmonic motion along a diameter of the circle.
Velocity. Figure 15-15b shows the velocity v: of the reference particle. From
Eq. 10-18 (v  vr), the magnitude of the velocity vector is vxm; its projection on
the x axis is
v(t)  vxm sin(vt  f), (15-37)
which is exactly Eq. 15-6. The minus sign appears because the velocity component
of P in Fig. 15-15b is directed to the left, in the negative direction of x. (The minus
sign is consistent with the derivative of Eq. 15-36 with respect to time.)
Acceleration. Figure 15-15c shows the radial acceleration : a of the reference
particle. From Eq. 10-23 (ar  v2 r), the magnitude of the radial acceleration vec-
tor is v2xm; its projection on the x axis is
a(t)  v2xm cos(vt  f), (15-38)
which is exactly Eq. 15-7. Thus, whether we look at the displacement, the velocity,
or the acceleration, the projection of uniform circular motion is indeed simple
harmonic motion.
430 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

15-5 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
15.38 Describe the motion of a damped simple harmonic oscil- 15.41 Calculate the angular frequency of a damped simple
lator and sketch a graph of the oscillator’s position as a func- harmonic oscillator in terms of the spring constant, the
tion of time. damping constant, and the mass, and approximate the
15.39 For any particular time, calculate the position of a angular frequency when the damping constant is small.
damped simple harmonic oscillator. 15.42 Apply the equation giving the (approximate) total
15.40 Determine the amplitude of a damped simple harmonic energy of a damped simple harmonic oscillator as a func-
oscillator at any given time. tion of time.

Key Ideas
● The mechanical energy E in a real oscillating system de- where v, the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is
creases during the oscillations because external forces, such given by
as a drag force, inhibit the oscillations and transfer mechani- k b2
   .
cal energy to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion Am 4m2
are then said to be damped.
: ● If the damping constant is small (b  1km), then v  v,
● If the damping force is given by F d  b v:, where v: is the
where v is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping constant, then the
For small b, the mechanical energy E of the oscillator is given by
displacement of the oscillator is given by
x(t)  xm ebt/2m cos(vt  f), E(t)  12kx2m ebt/m.

x Rigid support
Damped Simple Harmonic Motion
A pendulum will swing only briefly underwater, because the water exerts on the
Springiness, k pendulum a drag force that quickly eliminates the motion. A pendulum swinging
in air does better, but still the motion dies out eventually, because the air exerts
a drag force on the pendulum (and friction acts at its support point), transferring
energy from the pendulum’s motion.
Mass m When the motion of an oscillator is reduced by an external force, the oscil-
lator and its motion are said to be damped. An idealized example of a damped
oscillator is shown in Fig. 15-16, where a block with mass m oscillates vertically on
a spring with spring constant k. From the block, a rod extends to a vane (both
Vane assumed massless) that is submerged in a liquid. As the vane moves up and down,
the liquid exerts an inhibiting drag force on it and thus on the entire oscillating
Damping, b system. With time, the mechanical energy of the block – spring system decreases,
as energy is transferred to thermal energy of the liquid and vane.
:
Let us assume the liquid exerts a damping force Fd that is proportional to the
:
Figure 15-16 An idealized damped simple velocity v of the vane and block (an assumption that is accurate if the vane
harmonic oscillator. A vane immersed in a moves slowly). Then, for force and velocity components along the x axis in Fig.
liquid exerts a damping force on the block 15-16, we have
as the block oscillates parallel to the x axis.
Fd  bv, (15-39)
where b is a damping constant that depends on the characteristics of both the
vane and the liquid and has the SI unit of kilogram per second. The minus sign
:
indicates that F d opposes the motion.
Damped Oscillations. The force on the block from the spring is Fs  kx.
Let us assume that the gravitational force on the block is negligible relative to Fd
and Fs. Then we can write Newton’s second law for components along the x axis
(Fnet,x  max) as
bv  kx  ma. (15-40)
 15-5 DAM PE D SI M PLE HAR M ON IC M OTION 431
x

+xm xme–bt/2m
x(t)

0 t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6

–xm
xme–bt/2m

Figure 15-17 The displacement function x(t) for the damped oscillator of Fig. 15-16. The ampli-
tude, which is xm ebt/2m, decreases exponentially with time.

Substituting dx/dt for v and d 2x/dt 2 for a and rearranging give us the differential
equation
d 2x dx
m b  kx  0. (15-41)
dt 2 dt

The solution of this equation is

x(t)  xm ebt/2m cos(vt  f), (15-42)

where xm is the amplitude and v is the angular frequency of the damped oscilla-
tor. This angular frequency is given by

k b2
v   . (15-43)
Am 4m2

If b  0 (there is no damping), then Eq. 15-43 reduces to Eq. 15-12 (v  1k/m)

for the angular frequency of an undamped oscillator, and Eq. 15-42 reduces to
Eq. 15-3 for the displacement of an undamped oscillator. If the damping constant
is small but not zero (so that b  1km), then v  v.
Damped Energy. We can regard Eq. 15-42 as a cosine function whose amplitude,
which is xm ebt/2m, gradually decreases with time, as Fig. 15-17 suggests. For an un-
damped oscillator, the mechanical energy is constant and is given by Eq. 15-21 (E 
1 2
2kx m). If the oscillator is damped, the mechanical energy is not constant but decreases
with time. If the damping is small, we can find E(t) by replacing xm in Eq. 15-21 with
xm ebt/2m, the amplitude of the damped oscillations. By doing so, we find that

E(t)  12kx2m ebt/m, (15-44)

which tells us that, like the amplitude, the mechanical energy decreases exponen-
tially with time.

Checkpoint 6
Here are three sets of values for the spring constant, damping constant, and mass
for the damped oscillator of Fig. 15-16. Rank the sets according to the time re-
quired for the mechanical energy to decrease to one-fourth of its initial value,
greatest first.

Set 1 2k0 b0 m0
Set 2 k0 6b0 4m0
Set 3 3k0 3b0 m0
432 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Sample Problem 15.06 Damped harmonic oscillator, time to decay, energy

For the damped oscillator of Fig. 15-16, m  250 g, k  on the left side. Thus,
85 N/m, and b  70 g/s. 2m ln 2
1
(2)(0.25 kg)(ln 2)
1
t 
(a) What is the period of the motion? b 0.070 kg/s

KEY IDEA  5.0 s. (Answer)

Because T  0.34 s, this is about 15 periods of oscillation.
Because b  1km  4.6 kg/s, the period is approximately
that of the undamped oscillator. (c) How long does it take for the mechanical energy to drop
to one-half its initial value?
Calculation: From Eq. 15-13, we then have
KEY IDEA
m 0.25 kg
T  2p  2p  0.34 s. (Answer)
A k A 85 N/m From Eq. 15-44, the mechanical energy at time t is 12kx2m ebt/m.
(b) How long does it take for the amplitude of the damped
oscillations to drop to half its initial value? Calculations: The mechanical energy has the value
1 2
at t  0. Thus, we must find the value of t for which
2 kx m
KEY IDEA
1 2
2 kxm ebt/m  12(12kx2m).
bt/2m
The amplitude at time t is displayed in Eq. 15-42 as xm e .
If we divide both sides of this equation by 12kx2m and solve for
Calculations: The amplitude has the value xm at t  0. Thus, t as we did above, we find
we must find the value of t for which 1
m ln 2 (0.25 kg)(ln 2)
1
t   2.5 s. (Answer)
xm ebt/2m  12 xm. b 0.070 kg/s
Canceling xm and taking the natural logarithm of the equa- This is exactly half the time we calculated in (b), or about
tion that remains, we have ln 12 on the right side and 7.5 periods of oscillation. Figure 15-17 was drawn to illus-
ln(ebt/2m)  bt/2m trate this sample problem.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

15-6 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . . quency to natural angular frequency, identify the approxi-
15.43 Distinguish between natural angular frequency v and mate location of resonance, and indicate the effect of in-
driving angular frequency vd. creasing the damping constant.
15.44 For a forced oscillator, sketch a graph of the oscillation 15.45 For a given natural angular frequency v, identify the ap-
amplitude versus the ratio vd/v of driving angular fre- proximate driving angular frequency vd that gives resonance.

Key Ideas
● If an external driving force with angular frequency vd acts
vd  v,
on an oscillating system with natural angular frequency v, the
system oscillates with angular frequency vd. a condition called resonance. The amplitude xm of the system
● The velocity amplitude vm of the system is greatest when is (approximately) greatest under the same condition.

Forced Oscillations and Resonance

A person swinging in a swing without anyone pushing it is an example of free
oscillation. However, if someone pushes the swing periodically, the swing has
 15-6 FORCE D OSCI LL ATIONS AN D R ESONANCE 433

forced, or driven, oscillations. Two angular frequencies are associated with a sys- b = 50 g/s
tem undergoing driven oscillations: (1) the natural angular frequency v of the (least
damping)
system, which is the angular frequency at which it would oscillate if it were

Amplitude
suddenly disturbed and then left to oscillate freely, and (2) the angular frequency b = 70 g/s
vd of the external driving force causing the driven oscillations. b = 140 g/s
We can use Fig. 15-16 to represent an idealized forced simple harmonic oscil-
lator if we allow the structure marked “rigid support” to move up and down at
a variable angular frequency vd. Such a forced oscillator oscillates at the angular
frequency vd of the driving force, and its displacement x(t) is given by 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
ωd/ω
x(t)  xm cos(vd t  f), (15-45)
Figure 15-18 The displacement amplitude xm
where xm is the amplitude of the oscillations. of a forced oscillator varies as the angular
How large the displacement amplitude xm is depends on a complicated frequency vd of the driving force is varied.
function of vd and v. The velocity amplitude vm of the oscillations is easier to The curves here correspond to three val-
describe: it is greatest when ues of the damping constant b.

vd  v (resonance), (15-46)

a condition called resonance. Equation 15-46 is also approximately the condition

at which the displacement amplitude xm of the oscillations is greatest. Thus, if you
push a swing at its natural angular frequency, the displacement and velocity
amplitudes will increase to large values, a fact that children learn quickly by trial
and error. If you push at other angular frequencies, either higher or lower, the
displacement and velocity amplitudes will be smaller.
Figure 15-18 shows how the displacement amplitude of an oscillator de-
pends on the angular frequency vd of the driving force, for three values of
the damping coefficient b. Note that for all three the amplitude is approxi-
mately greatest when vd /v  1 (the resonance condition of Eq. 15-46). The
curves of Fig. 15-18 show that less damping gives a taller and narrower reso-
nance peak.
Examples. All mechanical structures have one or more natural angular fre-
quencies, and if a structure is subjected to a strong external driving force that
matches one of these angular frequencies, the resulting oscillations of the struc-
ture may rupture it. Thus, for example, aircraft designers must make sure that
none of the natural angular frequencies at which a wing can oscillate matches the
angular frequency of the engines in flight. A wing that flaps violently at certain
engine speeds would obviously be dangerous.
Resonance appears to be one reason buildings in Mexico City collapsed in
September 1985 when a major earthquake (8.1 on the Richter scale) occurred
on the western coast of Mexico. The seismic waves from the earthquake should
have been too weak to cause extensive damage when they reached Mexico
City about 400 km away. However, Mexico City is largely built on an ancient
lake bed, where the soil is still soft with water. Although the amplitude of the
seismic waves was small in the firmer ground en route to Mexico City, their
amplitude substantially increased in the loose soil of the city. Acceleration am-
plitudes of the waves were as much as 0.20g, and the angular frequency was
(surprisingly) concentrated around 3 rad/s. Not only was the ground severely
oscillated, but many intermediate-height buildings had resonant angular fre-
quencies of about 3 rad/s. Most of those buildings collapsed during the shaking
(Fig. 15-19), while shorter buildings (with higher resonant angular frequen-
John T. Barr/Getty Images, Inc.
cies) and taller buildings (with lower resonant angular frequencies) remained
standing. Figure 15-19 In 1985, buildings of intermedi-
During a 1989 earthquake in the San Francisco–Oakland area, a similar ate height collapsed in Mexico City as a
resonant oscillation collapsed part of a freeway, dropping an upper deck result of an earthquake far from the city.
onto a lower deck. That section of the freeway had been constructed on a Taller and shorter buildings remained
loosely structured mudfill. standing.
434 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Review & Summary

Frequency The frequency f of periodic, or oscillatory, motion is Pendulums Examples of devices that undergo simple
the number of oscillations per second. In the SI system, it is mea- harmonic motion are the torsion pendulum of Fig. 15-9, the simple
sured in hertz: pendulum of Fig. 15-11, and the physical pendulum of Fig. 15-12.
Their periods of oscillation for small oscillations are, respectively,
1 hertz  1 Hz  1 oscillation per second  1 s1. (15-1)
T  2p 2I/k (torsion pendulum), (15-23)
Period The period T is the time required for one complete oscil-
lation, or cycle. It is related to the frequency by T  2p 2L/g (simple pendulum), (15-28)
1
T . (15-2) T  2p 2I/mgh (physical pendulum). (15-29)
f
Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion In simple harmonic motion (SHM),
Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular
the displacement x(t) of a particle from its equilibrium position is
motion onto the diameter of the circle in which the circular motion
described by the equation
occurs. Figure 15-15 shows that all parameters of circular motion
x  xm cos(vt  f) (displacement), (15-3) (position, velocity, and acceleration) project to the corresponding
in which xm is the amplitude of the displacement, vt  f is the values for simple harmonic motion.
phase of the motion, and f is the phase constant. The angular fre-
Damped Harmonic Motion The mechanical energy E in a real
quency v is related to the period and frequency of the motion by
oscillating system decreases during the oscillations because external
2p forces, such as a drag force, inhibit the oscillations and transfer me-
v  2p f (angular frequency). (15-5)
T chanical energy to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion
:
Differentiating Eq. 15-3 leads to equations for the particle’s SHM are then said to be damped. If the damping force is given by F d 
velocity and acceleration as functions of time: b v , where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping con-
: :

stant, then the displacement of the oscillator is given by

v  vxm sin(vt  f) (velocity) (15-6)
x(t)  xm ebt/2m cos(vt  f), (15-42)
and a  v xm cos(vt  f)
2
(acceleration). (15-7)
where v, the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is
In Eq. 15-6, the positive quantity vxm is the velocity amplitude vm given by
of the motion. In Eq. 15-7, the positive quantity v 2xm is the acceler- k b2
ation amplitude am of the motion. v   . (15-43)
Am 4m2
The Linear Oscillator A particle with mass m that moves un- If the damping constant is small (b  1km), then v  v, where v
der the influence of a Hooke’s law restoring force given by F  is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator. For small b,
kx exhibits simple harmonic motion with the mechanical energy E of the oscillator is given by
k E(t)  12kx2m ebt/m. (15-44)
v (angular frequency) (15-12)
Am
Forced Oscillations and Resonance If an external
m driving force with angular frequency vd acts on an oscillating sys-
and T  2p (period). (15-13)
A k tem with natural angular frequency v, the system oscillates with
angular frequency vd. The velocity amplitude vm of the system is
Such a system is called a linear simple harmonic oscillator.
greatest when
Energy A particle in simple harmonic motion has, at any time, vd  v, (15-46)
kinetic energy K  12mv2 and potential energy U  12kx2. If no fric-
a condition called resonance. The amplitude xm of the system is
tion is present, the mechanical energy E  K  U remains con-
(approximately) greatest under the same condition.
stant even though K and U change.

Questions
1 Which of the following describe f for the SHM of Fig. 15-20a: and (d) point B? Is the speed of the particle increasing or decreas-
(a) p  f  p/2, ing at (e) point A and (f) point B?
x v
(b) p  f  3p/2,
B
(c) 3p/2  f  p?
t t
2 The velocity v(t) of a particle undergoing SHM is graphed in A
Fig. 15-20b. Is the particle momentarily stationary, headed toward
xm, or headed toward xm at (a) point A on the graph and (b)
point B? Is the particle at xm, at xm, at 0, between xm and 0, or (a) (b)
between 0 and xm when its velocity is represented by (c) point A Figure 15-20 Questions 1 and 2.
 QU ESTIONS 435

3 The acceleration a(t) of a parti- a Rank the plots according to (a) the K
cle undergoing SHM is graphed in 2
corresponding spring constant and A
Fig. 15-21. (a) Which of the labeled 1
(b) the corresponding period of the B
points corresponds to the particle 3 oscillator, greatest first.
at xm? (b) At point 4, is the veloc- 4 8 t 9 Figure 15-26 shows three physical
ity of the particle positive, negative, 7 pendulums consisting of identical uni- C
5
or zero? (c) At point 5, is the parti- form spheres of the same mass that
cle at xm, at xm, at 0, between 6
are rigidly connected by identical rods –x x
xm and 0, or between 0 and xm? m xm
Figure 15-21 Question 3. of negligible mass. Each pendulum is
4 Which of the following relationships between the acceleration vertical and can pivot about suspen- Figure 15-25 Question 8.
a and the displacement x of a particle involve SHM: (a) a  0.5x, sion point O. Rank the pendulums ac-
(b) a  400x2, (c) a  20x, (d) a  3x2? cording to their period of oscillation, O
greatest first.
5 You are to complete Fig. 15-22a
so that it is a plot of velocity v versus 10 You are to build the oscillation O O
time t for the spring – block oscillator t
transfer device shown in Fig. 15-27. It
that is shown in Fig. 15-22b for t  0. A B C D E consists of two spring – block systems
(a) In Fig. 15-22a, at which lettered hanging from a flexible rod. When
point or in what region between the the spring of system 1 is stretched (a) (b) (c)
(a)
points should the (vertical) v axis in- and then released, the resulting SHM Figure 15-26 Question 9.
tersect the t axis? (For example, of system 1 at frequency f1 oscillates
should it intersect at point A, or t=0 the rod. The rod then exerts a driving force on system 2, at the same
maybe in the region between points frequency f1. You can choose from four springs with spring constants
A and B?) (b) If the block’s veloc- x k of 1600, 1500, 1400, and 1200 N/m, and four blocks with masses m of
–xm 0 xm 800, 500, 400, and 200 kg. Mentally determine which spring should go
ity is given by v  vm sin(vt  f),
what is the value of f? Make it pos- (b) with which block in each of the two systems to maximize the ampli-
itive, and if you cannot specify the Figure 15-22 Question 5. tude of oscillations in system 2.
value (such as p/2 rad), then give Rod
a range of values (such as between
0 and p/2 rad).
6 You are to complete Fig. 15-23a t
so that it is a plot of acceleration a A B C D E
versus time t for the spring – block
oscillator that is shown in Fig. 15- (a) System 1 System 2
23b for t  0. (a) In Fig. 15-23a, at Figure 15-27 Question 10.
which lettered point or in what re-
t=0
gion between the points should the 11 In Fig. 15-28, a spring – block
(vertical) a axis intersect the t axis? system is put into SHM in two ex-
x
(For example, should it intersect at –xm 0 xm periments. In the first, the block is
point A, or maybe in the region be- pulled from the equilibrium position d1
(b)
tween points A and B?) (b) If the through a displacement d1 and then d2
block’s acceleration is given by a  Figure 15-23 Question 6.
released. In the second, it is pulled
am cos(vt  f), what is the value Figure 15-28 Question 11.
from the equilibrium position
of f? Make it positive, and if you cannot specify the value (such as through a greater displacement d2 and then released. Are the
p/2 rad), then give a range of values (such as between 0 and p/2). (a) amplitude, (b) period, (c) frequency, (d) maximum kinetic en-
7 Figure 15-24 shows
x ergy, and (e) maximum potential energy in the second experiment
the x(t) curves for three greater than, less than, or the same as those in the first experiment?
experiments involving a 12 Figure 15-29 gives, for three situations, the displacements x(t)
1
particular spring – box 2 of a pair of simple harmonic oscillators (A and B) that are identical
system oscillating in except for phase. For each pair, what phase shift (in radians and in
SHM. Rank the curves t degrees) is needed to shift the curve for A to coincide with the
according to (a) the sys- 3 curve for B? Of the many possible answers, choose the shift with
tem’s angular frequency, the smallest absolute magnitude.
(b) the spring’s poten-
x x x
tial energy at time t  0,
A B A B
(c) the box’s kinetic en- Figure 15-24 Question 7.
ergy at t  0, (d) the t t t
box’s speed at t  0, and (e) the box’s maximum kinetic energy, great- B A
est first.
(a) (b) (c)
8 Figure 15-25 shows plots of the kinetic energy K versus
position x for three harmonic oscillators that have the same mass. Figure 15-29 Question 12.
436 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Problems
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS and WebAssign
SSM Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual WWW Worked-out solution is at
http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday
• – ••• Number of dots indicates level of problem difficulty ILW Interactive solution is at
Additional information available in The Flying Circus of Physics and at flyingcircusofphysics.com

Module 15-1 Simple Harmonic Motion are attached to a block of mass 0.245 kg. What is the frequency of
•1 An object undergoing simple harmonic motion takes 0.25 s to oscillation on the frictionless floor?
travel from one point of zero velocity to the next such point. The v (cm/s)
•12 What is the phase constant for
distance between those points is 36 cm. Calculate the (a) period, the harmonic oscillator with the veloc-
vs
(b) frequency, and (c) amplitude of the motion. ity function v(t) given in Fig. 15-32 if
•2 A 0.12 kg body undergoes simple harmonic motion of ampli- the position function x(t) has the form t
tude 8.5 cm and period 0.20 s. (a) What is the magnitude of the x  xm cos(vt  f)? The vertical axis
maximum force acting on it? (b) If the oscillations are produced by scale is set by vs  4.0 cm/s. –vs
a spring, what is the spring constant?
•13 SSM An oscillator consists of a Figure 15-32 Problem 12.
•3 What is the maximum acceleration of a platform that block of mass 0.500 kg connected to
oscillates at amplitude 2.20 cm and frequency 6.60 Hz? a spring. When set into oscillation with amplitude 35.0 cm, the os-
•4 An automobile can be considered to be mounted on four identical cillator repeats its motion every 0.500 s. Find the (a) period, (b)
springs as far as vertical oscillations are concerned.The springs of a cer- frequency, (c) angular frequency, (d) spring constant, (e) maxi-
tain car are adjusted so that the oscillations have a frequency of 3.00 mum speed, and (f) magnitude of the maximum force on the
Hz. (a) What is the spring constant of each spring if the mass of the car block from the spring.
is 1450 kg and the mass is evenly distributed over the springs? (b) What ••14 A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a block of mass
will be the oscillation frequency if five passengers, averaging 73.0 kg 2.00 kg attached to a spring of spring constant 100 N/m. When
each, ride in the car with an even distribution of mass? t  1.00 s, the position and velocity of the block are x  0.129
•5 SSM In an electric shaver, the blade moves back and forth over m and v  3.415 m/s. (a) What is the amplitude of the oscilla-
a distance of 2.0 mm in simple harmonic motion, with frequency tions? What were the (b) position and (c) velocity of the block
120 Hz. Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the maximum blade speed, and at t  0 s?
(c) the magnitude of the maximum blade acceleration. ••15 SSM Two particles oscillate in simple harmonic motion along
20
•6 A particle with a mass of 1.00 10 kg is oscillating with a common straight-line segment of length A. Each particle has a pe-
simple harmonic motion with a period of 1.00 105 s and a maxi- riod of 1.5 s, but they differ in phase by p/6 rad. (a) How far apart
mum speed of 1.00 103 m/s. Calculate (a) the angular frequency are they (in terms of A) 0.50 s after the lagging particle leaves one
and (b) the maximum displacement of the particle. end of the path? (b) Are they then moving in the same direction,
toward each other, or away from each other?
•7 SSM A loudspeaker produces a musical sound by means of the
oscillation of a diaphragm whose amplitude is limited to 1.00 mm. (a) ••16 Two particles execute simple harmonic motion of the same
At what frequency is the magnitude a of the diaphragm’s acceleration amplitude and frequency along close parallel lines. They pass each
equal to g? (b) For greater frequencies, is a greater than or less than g? other moving in opposite directions each time their displacement
is half their amplitude. What is their phase difference?
•8 What is the phase constant for
x (cm)
the harmonic oscillator with the po- xs ••17 ILW An oscillator consists of a block attached to a spring (k 
sition function x(t) given in Fig. 15- 400 N/m). At some time t, the position (measured from the sys-
30 if the position function has the tem’s equilibrium location), velocity, and acceleration of the block
form x  xm cos(vt  f)? The ver- are x  0.100 m, v  13.6 m/s, and a  123 m/s2. Calculate (a) the
t
tical axis scale is set by xs  6.0 cm. frequency of oscillation, (b) the mass of the block, and (c) the am-
plitude of the motion.
•9 The position function x 
(6.0 m) cos[(3p rad/s)t  p/3 rad] ••18 At a certain harbor, the tides cause the ocean surface to
–xs
gives the simple harmonic motion rise and fall a distance d (from highest level to lowest level) in
of a body. At t  2.0 s, what are the Figure 15-30 Problem 8. simple harmonic motion, with a period of 12.5 h. How long does
(a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) it take for the water to fall a distance 0.250d from its highest
acceleration, and (d) phase of the motion? Also, what are the (e) level?
frequency and (f ) period of the motion? ••19 A block rides on a piston (a squat cylindrical piece) that is
•10 An oscillating block – spring system takes 0.75 s to begin re- moving vertically with simple harmonic motion. (a) If the SHM
peating its motion. Find (a) the pe- has period 1.0 s, at what amplitude of motion will the block and
riod, (b) the frequency in hertz, and piston separate? (b) If the piston has an amplitude of 5.0 cm,
(c) the angular frequency in radians m what is the maximum frequency for which the block and piston
per second. will be in contact continuously?
•11 In Fig. 15-31, two identical Figure 15-31 ••20 Figure 15-33a is a partial graph of the position function
springs of spring constant 7580 N/m Problems 11 and 21. x(t) for a simple harmonic oscillator with an angular frequency of
 PROB LE M S 437

1.20 rad/s; Fig. 15-33b is a par- x (cm)

a spring (k  200 N/m) are ar-
tial graph of the corresponding ranged on a horizontal, frictionless m
xs
velocity function v(t). The ver- surface. The coefficient of static k
tical axis scales are set by xs  M
friction between the two blocks is
5.0 cm and vs  5.0 cm/s. What t 0.40. What amplitude of simple har-
is the phase constant of the monic motion of the spring – blocks Figure 15-37 Problem 26.
SHM if the position function system puts the smaller block on
x(t) is in the general form x  –xs the verge of slipping over the larger block?
xm cos(vt  f)?
(a) Module 15-2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
••21 ILW In Fig. 15-31, two
springs are attached to a block •27 SSM When the displacement in SHM is one-half the ampli-
v (cm/s)
that can oscillate over a fric- vs tude xm, what fraction of the total energy is (a) kinetic energy and
tionless floor. If the left spring (b) potential energy? (c) At what displacement, in terms of the am-
is removed, the block oscil- plitude, is the energy of the system half kinetic energy and half po-
lates at a frequency of 30 Hz. tential energy?
t
U (J)
If, instead, the spring on the •28 Figure 15-38 gives the one- Us
right is removed, the block os- dimensional potential energy well
cillates at a frequency of 45 –vs for a 2.0 kg particle (the function
Hz. At what frequency does U(x) has the form bx 2 and the ver-
(b)
the block oscillate with both tical axis scale is set by Us  2.0 J).
springs attached? Figure 15-33 Problem 20. (a) If the particle passes through
••22 Figure 15-34 shows the equilibrium position with a ve-
block 1 of mass 0.200 kg slid- locity of 85 cm/s, will it be turned –20 –10 0 10 20
2 k
ing to the right over a friction-
1 back before it reaches x  15 cm? x (cm)
less elevated surface at a (b) If yes, at what position, and if
h Figure 15-38 Problem 28.
speed of 8.00 m/s. The block no, what is the speed of the parti-
undergoes an elastic collision cle at x  15 cm?
d
with stationary block 2, which •29 SSM Find the mechanical energy of a block – spring system
is attached to a spring of spring Figure 15-34 Problem 22. with a spring constant of 1.3 N/cm and an amplitude of 2.4 cm.
constant 1208.5 N/m. (Assume
•30 An oscillating block – spring system has a mechanical energy of
that the spring does not affect the collision.) After the collision,
1.00 J, an amplitude of 10.0 cm, and a maximum speed of 1.20 m/s.
block 2 oscillates in SHM with a period of 0.140 s, and block 1
Find (a) the spring constant, (b) the mass of the block, and (c) the
slides off the opposite end of the elevated surface, landing a dis-
frequency of oscillation.
tance d from the base of that surface after falling height h  4.90
m. What is the value of d? •31 ILW A 5.00 kg object on a horizontal frictionless surface is at-
tached to a spring with k  1000 N/m. The object is displaced from
••23 SSM WWW A block is on a horizontal surface (a shake
equilibrium 50.0 cm horizontally and given an initial velocity of 10.0
table) that is moving back and forth horizontally with simple har-
m/s back toward the equilibrium position. What are (a) the motion’s
monic motion of frequency 2.0 Hz. The coefficient of static friction
frequency, (b) the initial potential energy of the block – spring sys-
between block and surface is 0.50. How great can the amplitude of
tem, (c) the initial kinetic energy, and (d) the motion’s amplitude?
the SHM be if the block is not to slip along the surface?
•32 Figure 15-39 shows the ki-
•••24 In Fig. 15-35, two springs are
k k netic energy K of a simple K (J)
joined and connected to a block of m harmonic oscillator versus its po-
mass 0.245 kg that is set oscillating
sition x. The vertical axis scale is
over a frictionless floor. The springs Ks
set by Ks  4.0 J. What is the
each have spring constant k  Figure 15-35 Problem 24.
spring constant?
6430 N/m. What is the frequency of
the oscillations? ••33 A block of mass M  5.4
k kg, at rest on a horizontal
•••25 In Fig. 15-36, a block –12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12
frictionless table, is attached to a
weighing 14.0 N, which can slide x (cm)
rigid support by a spring of con-
without friction on an incline at an- Figure 15-39 Problem 32.
stant k  6000 N/m. A bullet of
gle u  40.0
, is connected to the
mass m  9.5 g and velocity v of:

top of the incline by a massless

magnitude 630 m/s strikes and is
spring of unstretched length 0.450 v
θ embedded in the block (Fig. 15-
m and spring constant 120 N/m. (a) k
40). Assuming the compression of m M
How far from the top of the incline Figure 15-36 Problem 25.
the spring is negligible until the
is the block’s equilibrium point? (b)
bullet is embedded, determine (a)
If the block is pulled slightly down the incline and released, what is Figure 15-40 Problem 33.
the speed of the block immedi-
the period of the resulting oscillations?
ately after the collision and (b)
•••26 In Fig. 15-37, two blocks (m  1.8 kg and M  10 kg) and the amplitude of the resulting simple harmonic motion.
438 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

••34 In Fig. 15-41, block 2 of the center of mass of the pendulum? (c) Calculate the period of
mass 2.0 kg oscillates on the end of a 1 2 k oscillation.
spring in SHM with a period of 20
•42 Suppose that a simple pendulum consists of a small 60.0 g
ms. The block’s position is given by
Figure 15-41 Problem 34. bob at the end of a cord of negligible mass. If the angle u between
x  (1.0 cm) cos(vt  p/2). Block 1
the cord and the vertical is given by
of mass 4.0 kg slides toward block 2
with a velocity of magnitude 6.0 m/s, directed along the spring’s u  (0.0800 rad) cos[(4.43 rad/s)t  f],
length. The two blocks undergo a completely inelastic collision at what are (a) the pendulum’s length and (b) its maximum kinetic
time t  5.0 ms. (The duration of the collision is much less than energy?
the period of motion.) What is the amplitude of the SHM after the
•43 (a) If the physical pendulum of Fig. 15-13 and the associated
collision?
sample problem is inverted and suspended at point P, what is its
••35 A 10 g particle undergoes SHM with an amplitude of 2.0 mm, period of oscillation? (b) Is the period now greater than, less than,
a maximum acceleration of magnitude 8.0 103 m/s2, and an or equal to its previous value?
unknown phase constant f. What are (a) the period of the motion,
(b) the maximum speed of the particle, and (c) the total mechani- •44 A physical pendulum consists of two me- A
cal energy of the oscillator? What is the magnitude of the force on ter-long sticks joined together as shown in Fig.
the particle when the particle is at (d) its maximum displacement 15-43. What is the pendulum’s period of oscilla-
and (e) half its maximum displacement? tion about a pin inserted through point A at the
center of the horizontal stick?
••36 If the phase angle for a block – spring system in SHM is p/6
rad and the block’s position is given by x  xm cos(vt  f), what is •45 A performer seated on a trapeze is Figure 15-43
the ratio of the kinetic energy to the potential energy at time t  0? swinging back and forth with a period of 8.85 s. Problem 44.
If she stands up, thus raising the center of mass of
•••37 A massless spring hangs from the ceiling with a small ob- the trapeze  performer system by 35.0 cm, what will be the new pe-
ject attached to its lower end. The object is initially held at rest in a riod of the system? Treat trapeze  performer as a simple pendulum.
position yi such that the spring is at its rest length. The object is
then released from yi and oscillates up and down, with its lowest •46 A physical pendulum has a center of oscillation at distance
position being 10 cm below yi. (a) What is the frequency of the os- 2L/3 from its point of suspension. Show that the distance be-
cillation? (b) What is the speed of the object when it is 8.0 cm be- tween the point of suspension and the center of oscillation for a
low the initial position? (c) An object of mass 300 g is attached to physical pendulum of any form is I/mh, where I and h have the
the first object, after which the system oscillates with half the origi- meanings in Eq. 15-29 and m is the mass of the pendulum.
nal frequency. What is the mass of the first object? (d) How far be- •47 In Fig. 15-44, a physical pendulum
low yi is the new equilibrium (rest) position with both objects at- consists of a uniform solid disk (of radius
Pivot
tached to the spring? R  2.35 cm) supported in a vertical plane d
by a pivot located a distance d  1.75 cm
Module 15-3 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator R
from the center of the disk. The disk is dis-
•38 A 95 kg solid sphere with a 15 cm radius is suspended by a
placed by a small angle and released.
vertical wire. A torque of 0.20 N m is required to rotate the sphere
What is the period of the resulting simple
through an angle of 0.85 rad and then maintain that orientation.
harmonic motion?
What is the period of the oscillations that result when the sphere is Figure 15-44
then released? ••48 A rectangular block, with face Problem 47.
lengths a  35 cm and b  45 cm, is to be
••39 SSM WWW The balance wheel of an old-fashioned watch
suspended on a thin horizontal rod running through a narrow hole in
oscillates with angular amplitude p rad and period 0.500 s. Find
the block. The block is then to be set swinging about the rod like a
(a) the maximum angular speed of the wheel, (b) the angular speed
pendulum, through small angles so that it is in SHM. Figure 15-45
at displacement p/2 rad, and (c) the magnitude of the angular
shows one possible position of the hole, at distance r from the block’s
acceleration at displacement p/4 rad.
center, along a line connecting the center with a corner. (a) Plot the
Module 15-4 Pendulums, Circular Motion period versus distance r along that
•40 ILW A physical pendulum consists of a meter stick that is piv- line such that the minimum in the
a
oted at a small hole drilled through curve is apparent. (b) For what value
the stick a distance d from the 50 of r does that minimum occur? There
cm mark. The period of oscillation is a line of points around the block’s r
is 2.5 s. Find d. center for which the period of swing-
ing has the same minimum value. (c)
•41 SSM In Fig. 15-42, the pendu-
What shape does that line make?
lum consists of a uniform disk with b
radius r  10.0 cm and mass 500 g L ••49 The angle of the pendulum
attached to a uniform rod with of Fig. 15-11b is given by u 
length L  500 mm and mass 270 um cos[(4.44 rad/s)t  f]. If at t  0,
g. (a) Calculate the rotational iner- u  0.040 rad and du/dt  0.200 Figure 15-45 Problem 48.
tia of the pendulum about the r rad/s, what are (a) the phase con-
pivot point. (b) What is the dis- stant f and (b) the maximum angle um? (Hint: Don’t confuse the
tance between the pivot point and Figure 15-42 Problem 41. rate du/dt at which u changes with the v of the SHM.)
 PROB LE M S 439

••50 A thin uniform rod (mass  0.50 kg) swings about an sen to minimize the period and then L is increased, does the pe-
axis that passes through one end of the rod and is perpendicu- riod increase, decrease, or remain the same? (c) If, instead, m is in-
lar to the plane of the swing. The creased without L increasing, does
rod swings with a period of 1.5 s L/2 the period increase, decrease, or re-
and an angular amplitude of 10
. main the same?
(a) What is the length of the rod? O
x •••56 In Fig. 15-50, a 2.50 kg disk
(b) What is the maximum kinetic
of diameter D  42.0 cm is sup-
energy of the rod as it swings?
ported by a rod of length L  76.0 L
••51 In Fig. 15-46, a stick of cm and negligible mass that is piv-
length L  1.85 m oscillates as a L/2 oted at its end. (a) With the massless
physical pendulum. (a) What value torsion spring unconnected, what is
of distance x between the stick’s the period of oscillation? (b) With
center of mass and its pivot point O the torsion spring connected, the rod D
gives the least period? (b) What is is vertical at equilibrium. What is the
Figure 15-46 Problem 51.
that least period? torsion constant of the spring if the
••52 The 3.00 kg cube in Fig. 15-47 has edge period of oscillation has been de- Figure 15-50 Problem 56.
lengths d  6.00 cm and is mounted on an axle creased by 0.500 s?
through its center. A spring (k  1200 N/m) con- d Module 15-5 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion
nects the cube’s upper corner to a rigid wall. •57 The amplitude of a lightly damped oscillator decreases by
Initially the spring is at its rest length. If the cube 3.0% during each cycle. What percentage of the mechanical energy
d
is rotated 3
and released, what is the period of of the oscillator is lost in each cycle?
the resulting SHM?
Figure 15-47 •58 For the damped oscillator system shown in Fig. 15-16, with
••53 SSM ILW In the overhead view of Fig. 15- m  250 g, k  85 N/m, and b  70 g/s, what is the ratio of the oscil-
48, a long uniform rod of mass 0.600 kg is free to Problem 52.
lation amplitude at the end of 20 cycles to the initial oscillation
rotate in a horizontal plane about a Wall amplitude?
vertical axis through its center. A
spring with force constant k  1850 •59 SSM WWW For the damped oscillator system shown in Fig.
N/m is connected horizontally be- k 15-16, the block has a mass of 1.50 kg and the spring constant is
tween one end of the rod and a 8.00 N/m. The damping force is given by b(dx/dt), where b  230
Rotation axis g/s. The block is pulled down 12.0 cm and released. (a) Calculate
fixed wall. When the rod is in equi-
librium, it is parallel to the wall. Figure 15-48 Problem 53. the time required for the amplitude of the resulting oscillations to
What is the period of the small os- fall to one-third of its initial value. (b) How many oscillations are
cillations that result when the rod is rotated slightly and released? made by the block in this time?
••54 In Fig. 15-49a, a metal plate is mounted on an axle through ••60 The suspension system of a 2000 kg automobile “sags” 10 cm
its center of mass. A spring with k  2000 N/m connects a wall with a when the chassis is placed on it. Also, the oscillation amplitude
point on the rim a distance r  2.5 cm from the center of mass. decreases by 50% each cycle. Estimate the values of (a) the
Initially the spring is at its rest length. If the plate is rotated by 7
and spring constant k and (b) the damping constant b for the spring
released, it rotates about the axle in SHM, with its angular position and shock absorber system of one wheel, assuming each wheel
given by Fig. 15-49b.The horizontal axis scale is set by ts  20 ms.What supports 500 kg.
is the rotational inertia of the plate about its center of mass?
Module 15-6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
•61 For Eq. 15-45, suppose the amplitude xm is given by
θ (deg)
8 Fm
xm  ,
[m2(v 2d  v 2)2  b2v d2]1/2
4
where Fm is the (constant) amplitude of the external oscillating
force exerted on the spring by the rigid support in Fig. 15-16. At
r 0 t (ms)
0 ts resonance, what are the (a) amplitude and (b) velocity amplitude
of the oscillating object?
–4
•62 Hanging from a horizontal beam are nine simple pendulums
–8 of the following lengths: (a) 0.10, (b) 0.30, (c) 0.40, (d) 0.80, (e) 1.2,
(a) (b) (f) 2.8, (g) 3.5, (h) 5.0, and (i) 6.2 m. Suppose the beam undergoes
horizontal oscillations with angular frequencies in the range from
Figure 15-49 Problem 54. 2.00 rad/s to 4.00 rad/s. Which of the pendulums will be (strongly)
set in motion?
•••55 A pendulum is formed by pivoting a long thin rod ••63 A 1000 kg car carrying four 82 kg people travels over a
about a point on the rod. In a series of experiments, the period is “washboard” dirt road with corrugations 4.0 m apart. The car
measured as a function of the distance x between the pivot point bounces with maximum amplitude when its speed is 16 km/h.
and the rod’s center. (a) If the rod’s length is L  2.20 m and its When the car stops, and the people get out, by how much does the
mass is m  22.1 g, what is the minimum period? (b) If x is cho- car body rise on its suspension?
440 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Additional Problems is hung from its end. (a) Calculate the spring constant. This block
64 Although California is known for earthquakes, it has is then displaced an additional 5.0 cm downward and released
large regions dotted with precariously balanced rocks that would from rest. Find the (b) period, (c) frequency, (d) amplitude, and
be easily toppled by even a mild earthquake. Apparently no major (e) maximum speed of the resulting SHM.
earthquakes have occurred in those regions. If an earthquake were 74 A massless spring with spring constant 19 N/m hangs vertically.
to put such a rock into sinusoidal oscillation (parallel to the A body of mass 0.20 kg is attached to its free end and then released.
ground) with a frequency of 2.2 Hz, an oscillation amplitude of 1.0 Assume that the spring was unstretched before the body was re-
cm would cause the rock to topple. What would be the magnitude leased. Find (a) how far below the initial position the body descends,
of the maximum acceleration of the oscillation, in terms of g? and the (b) frequency and (c) amplitude of the resulting SHM.
65 A loudspeaker diaphragm is oscillating in simple harmonic 75 A 4.00 kg block is suspended from a spring with k  500 N/m. A
motion with a frequency of 440 Hz and a maximum displacement 50.0 g bullet is fired into the block from directly below with a speed of
of 0.75 mm. What are the (a) angular frequency, (b) maximum 150 m/s and becomes embedded in the block. (a) Find the amplitude
speed, and (c) magnitude of the maximum acceleration? of the resulting SHM. (b) What percentage of the original kinetic en-
66 A uniform spring with k  8600 N/m is cut into pieces 1 and 2 ergy of the bullet is transferred to mechanical energy of the oscillator?
of unstretched lengths L1  7.0 cm and L2  10 cm. What are 76 A 55.0 g block oscillates in SHM on the end of a spring with
(a) k1 and (b) k2? A block attached to the original spring as in k  1500 N/m according to x  xm cos(vt  f). How long does
Fig. 15-7 oscillates at 200 Hz. What is the oscillation frequency of the block take to move from position 0.800xm to (a) position
the block attached to (c) piece 1 and (d) piece 2? 0.600xm and (b) position 0.800xm?
67 In Fig. 15-51, three 10 000 kg 77 Figure 15-53 gives the position of a 20 g block oscillating
ore cars are held at rest on a mine in SHM on the end of a spring. The horizontal axis scale is set
railway using a cable that is parallel by ts  40.0 ms. What are (a) the maximum kinetic energy of the
to the rails, which are inclined at an- Car that block and (b) the number of times per second that maximum is
gle u  30
. The cable stretches 15 breaks free reached? (Hint: Measuring a slope will probably not be very ac-
cm just before the coupling between curate. Find another approach.)
the two lower cars breaks, detaching
the lowest car. Assuming that the ca-
x (cm)
ble obeys Hooke’s law, find the (a) 8
frequency and (b) amplitude of the
resulting oscillations of the remain- θ
ing two cars. 4
Figure 15-51 Problem 67.
68 A 2.00 kg block hangs from a
0 t (ms)
spring. A 300 g body hung below the block stretches the spring 2.00 cm ts
farther. (a) What is the spring constant? (b) If the 300 g body is removed
and the block is set into oscillation,find the period of the motion. –4

69 SSM In the engine of a locomotive, a cylindrical piece known

as a piston oscillates in SHM in a cylinder head (cylindrical cham- –8
ber) with an angular frequency of 180 rev/min. Its stroke (twice the Figure 15-53 Problems 77 and 78.
amplitude) is 0.76 m. What is its maximum speed?
70 A wheel is free to rotate about its fixed axle. A spring is at- 78 Figure 15-53 gives the position x(t) of a block oscillating in SHM
tached to one of its spokes a distance r from the axle, as shown in Fig. on the end of a spring (ts  40.0 ms).What are (a) the speed and (b) the
15-52. (a) Assuming that the wheel is a hoop of mass m and radius R, magnitude of the radial acceleration of a particle in the corresponding
what is the angular frequency v of uniform circular motion?
small oscillations of this system in k K (mJ)
79 Figure 15-54 shows the kinetic
terms of m, R, r, and the spring con- R energy K of a simple pendulum versus
r
stant k? What is v if (b) r  R and (c) its angle u from the vertical. The verti- Ks
r  0? cal axis scale is set by Ks  10.0 mJ.
71 A 50.0 g stone is attached to The pendulum bob has mass 0.200 kg.
the bottom of a vertical spring and What is the length of the pendulum?
set vibrating. If the maximum speed 80 A block is in SHM on the end –100 –50 0 50 100
of the stone is 15.0 cm/s and the pe- Figure 15-52 Problem 70. θ (mrad)
of a spring, with position given by
riod is 0.500 s, find the (a) spring x  xm cos(vt  f). If f  p/5 rad, Figure 15-54 Problem 79.
constant of the spring, (b) amplitude of the motion, and (c) fre- then at t  0 what percentage of the
quency of oscillation. total mechanical energy is potential energy?
72 A uniform circular disk whose radius R is 12.6 cm is suspended 81 A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a 0.50 kg block at-
as a physical pendulum from a point on its rim. (a) What is its pe- tached to a spring. The block slides back and forth along a straight
riod? (b) At what radial distance r  R is there a pivot point that line on a frictionless surface with equilibrium point x  0. At t  0
gives the same period? the block is at x  0 and moving in the positive x direction. A graph
:
73 SSM A vertical spring stretches 9.6 cm when a 1.3 kg block of the magnitude of the net force F on the block as a function of its
 PROB LE M S 441

position is shown in Fig. 15-55. F (N) 90 A particle executes linear SHM with frequency 0.25 Hz about
The vertical scale is set by Fs  the point x  0. At t  0, it has displacement x  0.37 cm and zero
75.0 N. What are (a) the ampli- Fs velocity. For the motion, determine the (a) period, (b) angular
tude and (b) the period of the 0.30 frequency, (c) amplitude, (d) displacement x(t), (e) velocity v(t),
x (m) (f) maximum speed, (g) magnitude of the maximum acceleration,
motion, (c) the magnitude of the –0.30
maximum acceleration, and (d) (h) displacement at t  3.0 s, and (i) speed at t  3.0 s.
–Fs
the maximum kinetic energy? 91 SSM What is the frequency of a simple pendulum 2.0 m long
82 A simple pendulum of (a) in a room, (b) in an elevator accelerating upward at a rate of
Figure 15-55 Problem 81. 2.0 m/s2, and (c) in free fall?
length 20 cm and mass 5.0 g is
suspended in a race car traveling with constant speed 70 m/s Rotation
92 A grandfather clock has a pen- axis
around a circle of radius 50 m. If the pendulum undergoes small dulum that consists of a thin brass disk
oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium position, of radius r  15.00 cm and mass 1.000
what is the frequency of oscillation? kg that is attached to a long thin rod of
83 The scale of a spring balance that reads from 0 to 15.0 kg is negligible mass. The pendulum swings
L
12.0 cm long. A package suspended from the balance is found to freely about an axis perpendicular to
oscillate vertically with a frequency of 2.00 Hz. (a) What is the the rod and through the end of the rod
spring constant? (b) How much does the package weigh? opposite the disk, as shown in Fig.
15-56. If the pendulum is to have a pe-
84 A 0.10 kg block oscillates back and forth along a straight line
riod of 2.000 s for small oscillations at a
on a frictionless horizontal surface. Its displacement from the ori-
place where g  9.800 m/s2, what must
gin is given by r
be the rod length L to the nearest tenth
x  (10 cm) cos[(10 rad/s)t  p/2 rad]. of a millimeter?
(a) What is the oscillation frequency? (b) What is the maxi- 93 A 4.00 kg block hangs from a Figure 15-56 Problem 92.
mum speed acquired by the block? (c) At what value of x does spring, extending it 16.0 cm from its
this occur? (d) What is the magnitude of the maximum accel- unstretched position. (a) What is the spring constant? (b) The
eration of the block? (e) At what value of x does this occur? block is removed, and a 0.500 kg body is hung from the same
(f ) What force, applied to the block by the spring, results in the spring. If the spring is then stretched and released, what is its pe-
given oscillation? riod of oscillation?
a (m/s2)
85 The end point of a spring oscillates with a period of 2.0 s when 94 What is the phase constant for as
a block with mass m is attached to it. When this mass is increased SMH with a(t) given in Fig. 15-57 if
by 2.0 kg, the period is found to be 3.0 s. Find m. the position function x(t) has the form
x  xm cos(vt  f) and as  4.0 m/s2?
86 The tip of one prong of a tuning fork undergoes SHM of fre- t
quency 1000 Hz and amplitude 0.40 mm. For this tip, what is the 95 An engineer has an odd-shaped
magnitude of the (a) maximum acceleration, (b) maximum veloc- 10 kg object and needs to find its rota-
ity, (c) acceleration at tip displacement 0.20 mm, and (d) velocity at tional inertia about an axis through its
center of mass.The object is supported –as
tip displacement 0.20 mm?
on a wire stretched along the desired Figure 15-57 Problem 94.
87 A flat uniform circular disk has a mass of 3.00 kg and a radius
axis. The wire has a torsion constant
of 70.0 cm. It is suspended in a horizontal plane by a vertical wire at-
k  0.50 N m. If this torsion pendulum oscillates through 20 cycles in
tached to its center. If the disk is rotated 2.50 rad about the wire, a
50 s, what is the rotational inertia of the object?
torque of 0.0600 N m is required to maintain that orientation.
Calculate (a) the rotational inertia of the disk about the wire, (b) the 96 A spider can tell when its web has captured, say, a fly
torsion constant, and (c) the angular frequency of this torsion pendu- because the fly’s thrashing causes the web threads to oscillate. A
lum when it is set oscillating. spider can even determine the size of the fly by the frequency of
the oscillations. Assume that
88 A block weighing 20 N oscillates at one end of a vertical
τs
τ (10–3 N  m)

a fly oscillates on the cap-

spring for which k  100 N/m; the other end of the spring is at- ture thread on which it is
tached to a ceiling. At a certain instant the spring is stretched caught like a block on a
0.30 m beyond its relaxed length (the length when no object is at- spring. What is the ratio of
tached) and the block has zero velocity. (a) What is the net force on oscillation frequency for a 0 0.10 0.20
the block at this instant? What are the (b) amplitude and (c) period fly with mass m to a fly with θ (rad)
of the resulting simple harmonic motion? (d) What is the maxi- mass 2.5m?
mum kinetic energy of the block as it oscillates? (a)
97 A torsion pendulum
89 A 3.0 kg particle is in simple harmonic motion in one
consists of a metal disk with 0.2
dimension and moves according to the equation
θ (rad)

a wire running through its

center and soldered in place. 0 t (s)
x  (5.0 m) cos[(p/3 rad/s)t  p/4 rad], 0 ts
The wire is mounted verti-
–0.2
with t in seconds. (a) At what value of x is the potential energy of the cally on clamps and pulled
particle equal to half the total energy? (b) How long does the parti- taut. Figure 15-58a gives the (b)
cle take to move to this position x from the equilibrium position? magnitude t of the torque Figure 15-58 Problem 97.
442 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

needed to rotate the disk about its center (and thus twist the vertically onto the block. If the putty wad sticks to the block, de-
wire) versus the rotation angle u. The vertical axis scale is set by termine (a) the new period of the motion and (b) the new ampli-
ts  4.0 103 N m. The disk is rotated to u  0.200 rad and then tude of the motion.
released. Figure 15-58b shows the resulting oscillation in terms of
104 A damped harmonic oscillator consists of a block (m 
angular position u versus time t. The horizontal axis scale is set by
2.00 kg), a spring (k  10.0 N/m), and a damping force (F  bv).
ts  0.40 s. (a) What is the rotational inertia of the disk about
Initially, it oscillates with an amplitude of 25.0 cm; because of
its center? (b) What is the maximum angular speed du/dt of the
the damping, the amplitude falls to three-fourths of this initial
disk? (Caution: Do not confuse the (constant) angular frequency
value at the completion of four oscillations. (a) What is the
of the SHM with the (varying) angular speed of the rotating disk,
value of b? (b) How much energy has been “lost” during these
even though they usually have the same symbol v. Hint: The po-
four oscillations?
tential energy U of a torsion pendulum is equal to 21 ku 2, analogous
to U  12 kx2 for a spring.) 105 A block weighing 10.0 N is attached to the lower end of a
vertical spring (k  200.0 N/m), the other end of which is attached
98 When a 20 N can is hung from the bottom of a vertical spring, it to a ceiling. The block oscillates vertically and has a kinetic energy
causes the spring to stretch 20 cm. (a) What is the spring constant? (b) of 2.00 J as it passes through the point at which the spring is
This spring is now placed horizontally on a frictionless table. One end unstretched. (a) What is the period of the oscillation? (b) Use the
of it is held fixed, and the other end is attached to a 5.0 N can.The can is law of conservation of energy to determine the maximum distance
then moved (stretching the spring) and released from rest. What is the the block moves both above and below the point at which the
period of the resulting oscillation? spring is unstretched. (These are not necessarily the same.)
99 For a simple pendulum, find the angular amplitude um at (c) What is the amplitude of the oscillation? (d) What is the maxi-
which the restoring torque required for simple harmonic motion mum kinetic energy of the block as it oscillates?
deviates from the actual restoring torque by 1.0%. (See 106 A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a block attached
“Trigonometric Expansions” in Appendix E.) to a spring with k  200 N/m. The block slides on a frictionless
100 In Fig. 15-59, a solid cylinder surface, with equilibrium point x  0 and amplitude 0.20 m.
M
attached to a horizontal spring (k  k A graph of the block’s velocity v as a function of time t is shown
3.00 N/m) rolls without slipping in Fig. 15-60. The horizontal scale is set by ts  0.20 s. What are (a)
along a horizontal surface. If the sys- the period of the SHM, (b) the block’s mass, (c) its displacement
tem is released from rest when the at t  0, (d) its acceleration at t  0.10 s, and (e) its maximum ki-
spring is stretched by 0.250 m, find Figure 15-59 Problem 100. netic energy?
(a) the translational kinetic energy
and (b) the rotational kinetic energy of the cylinder as it passes v (m/s)
through the equilibrium position. (c) Show that under these condi-
tions the cylinder’s center of mass executes simple harmonic mo- 2π
ts
tion with period t (s)
0
3M –2π
T  2p ,
A 2k
Figure 15-60 Problem 106.
where M is the cylinder mass. (Hint: Find the time derivative of the
total mechanical energy.) 107 The vibration frequencies of atoms in solids at normal temper-
101 SSM A 1.2 kg block sliding on a horizontal frictionless sur- atures are of the order of 1013 Hz. Imagine the atoms to be connected
to one another by springs. Suppose that a single silver atom in a solid
face is attached to a horizontal spring with k  480 N/m. Let x be
vibrates with this frequency and that all the other atoms are at rest.
the displacement of the block from the position at which the spring
Compute the effective spring constant. One mole of silver (6.02
is unstretched. At t  0 the block passes through x  0 with a
10 23 atoms) has a mass of 108 g.
speed of 5.2 m/s in the positive x direction. What are the (a) fre-
quency and (b) amplitude of the block’s motion? (c) Write an ex- 108 Figure 15-61 shows that if we hang a block on the end of a
pression for x as a function of time. spring with spring constant k, the spring is stretched by distance
h  2.0 cm. If we pull down on the block a short distance and
102 A simple harmonic oscillator consists of an 0.80 kg block at- then release it, it oscillates vertically with a certain frequency.
tached to a spring (k  200 N/m). The block slides on a horizontal What length must a simple pendulum have to swing with that
frictionless surface about the equilibrium point x  0 with a total frequency?
mechanical energy of 4.0 J. (a) What is the amplitude of the oscilla-
tion? (b) How many oscillations does the block complete in 10 s?
(c) What is the maximum kinetic energy attained by the block? (d)
What is the speed of the block at x  0.15 m? k
k
103 A block sliding on a horizontal frictionless surface is
attached to a horizontal spring with a spring constant of 600 N/m. h
The block executes SHM about its equilibrium position with a pe-
riod of 0.40 s and an amplitude of 0.20 m. As the block slides
through its equilibrium position, a 0.50 kg putty wad is dropped Figure 15-61 Problem 108.
 PROB LE M S 443

109 The physical pendulum in Fig. 112 In Fig. 15-64, a

15-62 has two possible pivot points A 2500 kg demolition
and B. Point A has a fixed position ball swings from the
but B is adjustable along the length A
end of a crane. The
of the pendulum as indicated by the length of the swinging
scaling. When suspended from A, the segment of cable is
pendulum has a period of T  1.80 s. 17 m. (a) Find the pe-
The pendulum is then suspended L riod of the swinging,
from B, which is moved until the assuming that the sys-
pendulum again has that period. tem can be treated as
com
What is the distance L between A a simple pendulum.
and B? (b) Does the period
110 A common device for enter- B depend on the ball’s
taining a toddler is a jump seat that mass?
hangs from the horizontal portion of a 113 The cen-
doorframe via elastic cords (Fig. 15-63). ter of oscillation of a Figure 15-64 Problem 112.
Assume that only one cord is on each physical pendulum
side in spite of the more realistic Figure 15-62 Problem 109. has this interesting property: If an impulse (assumed horizontal
arrangement shown. When a child is and in the plane of oscillation) acts at the center of oscillation, no
placed in the seat, they both descend by a distance ds as the cords oscillations are felt at the point of support. Baseball players (and
stretch (treat them as springs). Then the seat is pulled down an ex- players of many other sports) know that unless the ball hits the bat
tra distance dm and released, so that the child oscillates vertically, at this point (called the “sweet spot” by athletes), the oscillations
like a block on the end of a spring. Suppose you are the safety engi- due to the impact will sting their hands. To prove this property, let
neer for the manufacturer of the seat. You do not want the magni- the stick in Fig. 15-13a simulate a baseball bat. Suppose that a hori-
:
tude of the child’s acceleration to exceed 0.20g for fear of hurting zontal force F (due to impact with the ball) acts toward the right
the child’s neck. If dm  10 cm, what value of ds corresponds to that at P, the center of oscillation. The batter is assumed to hold the
acceleration magnitude? bat at O, the pivot point of the stick. (a) What acceleration does the
:
point O undergo as a result of F ? (b) What angular acceleration is
:
produced by F about the center of mass of the stick? (c) As a re-
sult of the angular acceleration in (b), what linear acceleration
does point O undergo? (d) Considering the magnitudes and direc-
tions of the accelerations in (a) and (c), convince yourself that P is
indeed the “sweet spot.”
114 A (hypothetical) large slingshot is stretched 2.30 m to
launch a 170 g projectile with speed sufficient to escape from
Earth (11.2 km/s). Assume the elastic bands of the slingshot obey
Hooke’s law. (a) What is the spring constant of the device if all the
elastic potential energy is converted to kinetic energy? (b)
Assume that an average person can exert a force of 490 N. How
many people are required to stretch the elastic bands?
115 What is the length of a simple pendulum whose full swing
Figure 15-63 Problem 110. from left to right and then back again takes 3.2 s?
116 A 2.0 kg block is attached to the end of a spring with a spring
111 A 2.0 kg block executes SHM while attached to a horizontal constant of 350 N/m and forced to oscillate by an applied force F 
spring of spring constant 200 N/m. The maximum speed of the (15 N) sin(vdt), where vd  35 rad/s. The damping constant is b 
block as it slides on a horizontal frictionless surface is 3.0 m/s. What 15 kg/s. At t  0, the block is at rest with the spring at its rest length.
are (a) the amplitude of the block’s motion, (b) the magnitude of (a) Use numerical integration to plot the displacement of the block
its maximum acceleration, and (c) the magnitude of its minimum for the first 1.0 s. Use the motion near the end of the 1.0 s interval to
acceleration? (d) How long does the block take to complete 7.0 cy- estimate the amplitude, period, and angular frequency. Repeat the
cles of its motion? calculation for (b) vd  1k/m and (c) vd  20 rad/s.