C H A P T E R 4

Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

4-1 POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.01 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional position magnitude of a particle’s position vector from its compo-
vectors for a particle, indicating the components along the nents, and vice versa.
axes of a coordinate system. 4.03 Apply the relationship between a particle’s displace-
4.02 On a coordinate system, determine the direction and ment vector and its initial and final position vectors.

Key Ideas
● The location of a particle relative to the origin of a coordi- one or two angles for orientation, or by its vector or scalar
:
nate system is given by a position vector r , which in unit- components.
vector notation is ● If a particle moves so that its position vector changes from
:
:
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂. r1 to :
r 2, the particle’s displacement : r is
:r : r2  :
r 1.
Here xî , yĵ , and zk̂ are the vector components of position
: The displacement can also be written as
vector r , and x, y, and z are its scalar components (as well
as the coordinates of the particle). :
r  (x2  x1)î  ( y2  y1)ĵ  (z2  z1)k̂
● A position vector is described either by a magnitude and  xî  yĵ  zk̂.

What Is Physics?
In this chapter we continue looking at the aspect of physics that analyzes
motion, but now the motion can be in two or three dimensions. For example,
medical researchers and aeronautical engineers might concentrate on the
physics of the two- and three-dimensional turns taken by fighter pilots in dog-
fights because a modern high-performance jet can take a tight turn so quickly
that the pilot immediately loses consciousness. A sports engineer might focus
on the physics of basketball. For example, in a free throw (where a player gets
an uncontested shot at the basket from about 4.3 m), a player might employ the
overhand push shot, in which the ball is pushed away from about shoulder
height and then released. Or the player might use an underhand loop shot, in
which the ball is brought upward from about the belt-line level and released.
The first technique is the overwhelming choice among professional players, but
the legendary Rick Barry set the record for free-throw shooting with the under-
hand technique.
Motion in three dimensions is not easy to understand. For example, you are
probably good at driving a car along a freeway (one-dimensional motion) but
would probably have a difficult time in landing an airplane on a runway (three-
dimensional motion) without a lot of training.
In our study of two- and three-dimensional motion, we start with position
and displacement.

62
 4-1 POSITION AN D DISPL ACE M E NT 63

Position and Displacement To locate the

particle, this
One general way of locating a particle (or particle-like object) is with a position
: is how far
vector r , which is a vector that extends from a reference point (usually the
: parallel to z.
origin) to the particle. In the unit-vector notation of Module 3-2, r can be written
: This is how far
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂, (4-1)
parallel to y.
:
where xî , yĵ , and zk̂ are the vector components of r and the coefficients x, y, and z y
are its scalar components. This is how far
The coefficients x, y, and z give the particle’s location along the coordinate parallel to x.
axes and relative to the origin; that is, the particle has the rectangular coordinates
ˆ
(5 m)k (2 m)jˆ
(x, y, z). For instance, Fig. 4-1 shows a particle with position vector (–3 m)iˆ
x
:
r  (3 m)î  (2 m)ĵ  (5 m)k̂ O
r
and rectangular coordinates (3 m, 2 m, 5 m). Along the x axis the particle is
3 m from the origin, in the î direction. Along the y axis it is 2 m from the
origin, in the ĵ direction. Along the z axis it is 5 m from the origin, in the k̂
direction.
As a particle moves, its position vector changes in such a way that the vector z
always extends to the particle from the reference point (the origin). If the posi- Figure 4-1 The position vector :r for a parti-
: :
tion vector changes—say, from r 1 to r 2 during a certain time interval—then the cle is the vector sum of its vector compo-
:
particle’s displacement  r during that time interval is nents.

:
r : :
r 2  r 1. (4-2)

Using the unit-vector notation of Eq. 4-1, we can rewrite this displacement as
:
 r  (x2 î  y2 ĵ  z2 k̂)  (x1î  y1 ĵ  z1 k̂)

:
or as  r  (x2  x1)î  (y2  y1)ĵ  (z2  z1)k̂, (4-3)

where coordinates (x1, y1, z1) correspond to position vector : r 1 and coordinates
:
(x2, y2, z2) correspond to position vector r 2 . We can also rewrite the displacement
by substituting x for (x2  x1), y for (y2  y1), and z for (z2  z1):
:
 r  xî  yĵ  zk̂. (4-4)

Sample Problem 4.01 Two-dimensional position vector, rabbit run

A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of position vector :r . Let’s evaluate those coordinates at the
coordinate axes has, strangely enough, been drawn. The co- given time, and then we can use Eq. 3-6 to evaluate the mag-
ordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of nitude and orientation of the position vector.
time t (seconds) are given by
x  0.31t 2  7.2t  28 (4-5) Calculations: We can write
:
and y  0.22t 2  9.1t  30. (4-6) r (t)  x(t)î  y(t)ĵ. (4-7)
: :
(a) At t  15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector :
r in unit- (We write r (t) rather than r because the components are
:
vector notation and in magnitude-angle notation? functions of t, and thus r is also.)
At t  15 s, the scalar components are

KEY IDEA x  (0.31)(15)2  (7.2)(15)  28  66 m

and y  (0.22)(15)2  (9.1)(15)  30  57 m,
The x and y coordinates of the rabbit’s position, as given by
:
Eqs. 4-5 and 4-6, are the scalar components of the rabbit’s so r  (66 m)î  (57 m)ĵ, (Answer)
64 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

y (m) y (m)

40 40
t=0s
To locate the
20 rabbit, this is the 20
x component.
–41°
x (m) x (m)
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
5s
–20 –20

–40 –40 10 s
r

Figure 4-2 (a) A rabbit’s position vector –60 –60 15 s

: 25 s
r at time t  15 s. The scalar compo- (a) (b) 20 s
nents of : r are shown along the axes.
This is the y component. This is the path with
(b) The rabbit’s path and its position at
six values of t. various times indicated.

which is drawn in Fig. 4-2a. To get the magnitude and angle Check: Although u  139° has the same tangent as 41°,
of :
r , notice that the components form the legs of a right tri- the components of position vector :r indicate that the de-
angle and r is the hypotenuse. So, we use Eq. 3-6: sired angle is 139°  180°  41°.

r  2x 2  y2  2(66 m)2  (57 m)2 (b) Graph the rabbit’s path for t  0 to t  25 s.
 87 m, (Answer) Graphing: We have located the rabbit at one instant, but to
see its path we need a graph. So we repeat part (a) for sev-
and   tan1
y
x
 tan1
57 m
66 m  
 41 . (Answer) eral values of t and then plot the results. Figure 4-2b shows
the plots for six values of t and the path connecting them.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

4-2 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.04 Identify that velocity is a vector quantity and thus has 4.06 In magnitude-angle and unit-vector notations, relate a parti-
both magnitude and direction and also has components. cle’s initial and final position vectors, the time interval between
4.05 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional velocity those positions, and the particle’s average velocity vector.
vectors for a particle, indicating the components along the 4.07 Given a particle’s position vector as a function of time,
axes of the coordinate system. determine its (instantaneous) velocity vector.

Key Ideas
:
● If a particle undergoes a displacement  r in time interval t, which can be rewritten in unit-vector notation as
:
its average velocity vavg for that time interval is
:
:
r v  vx î  vy ĵ  vzk̂,
:
vavg  .
t
where vx  dx/dt, vy  dy/dt, and vz  dz/dt.
:
● As t is shrunk to 0, vavg reaches a limit called either the
velocity or the instantaneous velocity :
v: ● The instantaneous velocity
:
v of a particle is always directed
: d:
r along the tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s
v , position.
dt
 4-2 AVE RAG E VE LOCITY AN D I NSTANTAN EOUS VE LOCITY 65

Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

If a particle moves from one point to another, we might need to know how fast it
moves. Just as in Chapter 2, we can define two quantities that deal with “how
fast”: average velocity and instantaneous velocity. However, here we must con-
sider these quantities as vectors and use vector notation.
If a particle moves through a displacement : r in a time interval t, then its
average velocity : v avg is
displacement
average velocity  ,
time interval

: :
r
or v avg  . (4-8)
t

This tells us that the direction of :

v avg (the vector on the left side of Eq. 4-8) must
be the same as that of the displacement : r (the vector on the right side). Using
Eq. 4-4, we can write Eq. 4-8 in vector components as

: xî  yĵ  zk̂ x y z

v avg   î  ĵ  k̂. (4-9)
t t t t
For example, if a particle moves through displacement (12 m)î  (3.0 m)k̂ in
2.0 s, then its average velocity during that move is

: :
r (12 m)î  (3.0 m)k̂
v avg    (6.0 m/s)î  (1.5 m/s)k̂.
t 2.0 s
That is, the average velocity (a vector quantity) has a component of 6.0 m/s along
the x axis and a component of 1.5 m/s along the z axis.
When we speak of the velocity of a particle, we usually mean the particle’s
instantaneous velocity : : :
v at some instant. This v is the value that v avg approaches
in the limit as we shrink the time interval t to 0 about that instant. Using the lan-
guage of calculus, we may write : v as the derivative

: d:
r
v . (4-10)
dt

Figure 4-3 shows the path of a particle that is restricted to the xy plane. As
the particle travels to the right along the curve, its position vector sweeps to the
right. During time interval t, the position vector changes from : :
r 1 to r 2 and the
:
particle’s displacement is  r .
To find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at, say, instant t1 (when the
particle is at position 1), we shrink interval t to 0 about t1. Three things happen
as we do so. (1) Position vector : r 2 in Fig. 4-3 moves toward :r 1 so that : r shrinks

As the particle moves,

the position vector
y must change.
Tangent

1
This is the
: 2
Figure 4-3 The displacement  r of a particle Δr displacement.
during a time interval t, from position 1 with r1
position vector : r 1 at time t1 to position 2 r2
with position vector : r 2 at time t2. The tangent Path
to the particle’s path at position 1 is shown. x
O
66 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

: :
toward zero. (2) The direction of  r /t (and thus of v avg) approaches the
direction of the line tangent to the particle’s path at position 1. (3) The average
: :
velocity v avg approaches the instantaneous velocity v at t1.
: : :
In the limit as t : 0, we have v avg : v and, most important here, v avg takes
:
on the direction of the tangent line. Thus, v has that direction as well:

The direction of the instantaneous velocity :

v of a particle is always tangent to the
particle’s path at the particle’s position.

:
The result is the same in three dimensions: v is always tangent to the particle’s path.
:
To write Eq. 4-10 in unit-vector form, we substitute for r from Eq. 4-1:

: d dx dy dz
v (xî  yĵ  zk̂)  î  ĵ  k̂.
dt dt dt dt
This equation can be simplified somewhat by writing it as

:
v  vx î  vy ĵ  vz k̂, (4-11)

where the scalar components of :

v are

dx dy dz
vx  , vy  , and vz  . (4-12)
dt dt dt

For example, dx/dt is the scalar component of : v along the x axis. Thus, we can find
: :
the scalar components of v by differentiating the scalar components of r .
:
Figure 4-4 shows a velocity vector v and its scalar x and y components. Note
:
that v is tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position. Caution: When a
position vector is drawn, as in Figs. 4-1 through 4-3, it is an arrow that extends
from one point (a “here”) to another point (a “there”). However, when a velocity
vector is drawn, as in Fig. 4-4, it does not extend from one point to another.
Rather, it shows the instantaneous direction of travel of a particle at the tail, and
its length (representing the velocity magnitude) can be drawn to any scale.

The velocity vector is always

tangent to the path.
y

Tangent

vy v
These are the x and y
vx
components of the vector
Figure 4-4 The velocity :
v of a at this instant.
particle, along with the scalar
Path
components of : v. x
O

Checkpoint 1 y

The figure shows a circular path taken by a particle.

:
If the instantaneous velocity of the particle is v 
(2 m /s)î  (2 m /s)ĵ , through which quadrant is the par- x
ticle moving at that instant if it is traveling (a) clockwise
and (b) counterclockwise around the circle? For both
cases, draw :v on the figure.
 4-3 AVE RAG E ACCE LE RATION AN D I NSTANTAN EOUS ACCE LE RATION 67

Sample Problem 4.02 Two-dimensional velocity, rabbit run

For the rabbit in the preceding sample problem, find the v  2v 2x  v 2y  2(2.1 m /s)2  (2.5 m /s)2
velocity :
v at time t  15 s.
 3.3 m /s (Answer)

 2.5 m /s

KEY IDEA vy
and   tan1  tan1
vx 2.1 m /s
:
We can find v by taking derivatives of the components of
 tan1 1.19  130. (Answer)
the rabbit’s position vector.
Check: Is the angle 130° or 130°  180°  50°?
Calculations: Applying the vx part of Eq. 4-12 to Eq. 4-5,
we find the x component of :
y (m)
v to be
40
dx d
vx   (0.31t 2  7.2t  28)
dt dt
20
 0.62t  7.2. (4-13)
At t  15 s, this gives vx  2.1 m/s. Similarly, applying the x (m)
0 20 40 60 80
vy part of Eq. 4-12 to Eq. 4-6, we find
dy d –20
vy   (0.22t 2  9.1t  30)
dt dt
–40
 0.44t  9.1. (4-14)
At t  15 s, this gives vy  2.5 m/s. Equation 4-11 then yields –60
x

:
v  (2.1 m /s)î  (2.5 m /s)ĵ , (Answer) v –130°
These are the x and y
which is shown in Fig. 4-5, tangent to the rabbit’s path and in components of the vector
the direction the rabbit is running at t  15 s. at this instant.
To get the magnitude and angle of : v , either we use a
vector-capable calculator or we follow Eq. 3-6 to write Figure 4-5 The rabbit’s velocity :
v at t  15 s.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

4-3 AVERAGE ACCELERATION AND INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . . the average acceleration vector in magnitude-angle and
4.08 Identify that acceleration is a vector quantity and thus has unit-vector notations.
both magnitude and direction and also has components. 4.11 Given a particle’s velocity vector as a function of time,
4.09 Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional accelera- determine its (instantaneous) acceleration vector.
tion vectors for a particle, indicating the components. 4.12 For each dimension of motion, apply the constant-
4.10 Given the initial and final velocity vectors of a particle acceleration equations (Chapter 2) to relate acceleration,
and the time interval between those velocities, determine velocity, position, and time.

Key Ideas
:
● If a particle’s velocity changes from v1 to :
v 2 in time interval :
either the acceleration or the instantaneous acceleration a :
t, its average acceleration during t is : dv
:
a .
:
v2 : v1 :
v dt
: ● In unit-vector notation,
a avg   .
t t :
a  ax î  ay ĵ  azk̂,
:
● As t is shrunk to 0, aavg reaches a limiting value called where ax  dvx /dt, ay  dvy /dt, and az  dvz /dt.
68 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration

: :
When a particle’s velocity changes from v 1 to v 2 in a time interval t, its average
:
acceleration a avg during t is
average change in velocity
 ,
acceleration time interval

:
: v2  :v1
:
v
or a avg   . (4-15)
t t

:
If we shrink t to zero about some instant, then in the limit a avg approaches the
instantaneous acceleration (or acceleration) :
a at that instant; that is,

:
: dv
a . (4-16)
dt

If the velocity changes in either magnitude or direction (or both), the particle
must have an acceleration.
We can write Eq. 4-16 in unit-vector form by substituting Eq. 4-11 for :
v to obtain
: d
a (vx î  vy ĵ  vz k̂)
dt
dvx dvy dvz
 î  ĵ  k̂.
dt dt dt
We can rewrite this as

:
a  ax î  ay ĵ  az k̂, (4-17)

where the scalar components of :

a are

dvx dvy dvz

ax  , ay  , and az  . (4-18)
dt dt dt

: :
To find the scalar components of a , we differentiate the scalar components of v .
:
Figure 4-6 shows an acceleration vector a and its scalar components for a
particle moving in two dimensions. Caution: When an acceleration vector is
drawn, as in Fig. 4-6, it does not extend from one position to another. Rather, it
shows the direction of acceleration for a particle located at its tail, and its length
(representing the acceleration magnitude) can be drawn to any scale.

These are the x and y

components of the vector
y at this instant.

ax
ay
a

Figure 4-6 The acceleration :

a of a particle and the Path
scalar components of : a. O
x
 4-3 AVE RAG E ACCE LE RATION AN D I NSTANTAN EOUS ACCE LE RATION 69

Checkpoint 2
Here are four descriptions of the position (in meters) of a puck as it moves in an xy plane:
(1) x  3t 2  4t  2 and y  6t 2  4t (3) :
r  2t 2 î  (4t  3)ĵ
(2) x  3t  4t and
3
y  5t 2  6 (4) :
r  (4t 3  2t)î  3ĵ
Are the x and y acceleration components constant? Is acceleration :
a constant?

Sample Problem 4.03 Two-dimensional acceleration, rabbit run

For the rabbit in the preceding two sample problems, find has the same tangent as 35° but is not displayed on a cal-
the acceleration :
a at time t  15 s. culator, we add 180°:
35°  180°  145°. (Answer)
KEY IDEA :
This is consistent with the components of a because it gives
a vector that is to the left and upward. Note that : a has the
We can find :
a by taking derivatives of the rabbit’s velocity same magnitude and direction throughout the rabbit’s run
components.
because the acceleration is constant. That means that
we could draw the very same vector at any other point
Calculations: Applying the ax part of Eq. 4-18 to Eq. 4-13,
along the rabbit’s path (just shift the vector to put its tail at
we find the x component of :
a to be
some other point on the path without changing the length
dvx d or orientation).
ax   (0.62t  7.2)  0.62 m /s2.
dt dt This has been the second sample problem in which we
Similarly, applying the ay part of Eq. 4-18 to Eq. 4-14 yields needed to take the derivative of a vector that is written in
the y component as unit-vector notation. One common error is to neglect the unit
vectors themselves, with a result of only a set of numbers and
dvy d symbols. Keep in mind that a derivative of a vector is always
ay   (0.44t  9.1)  0.44 m /s2.
dt dt another vector.
We see that the acceleration does not vary with time (it is a
constant) because the time variable t does not appear in the y (m)
expression for either acceleration component. Equation 4-17
then yields 40

:
a  (0.62 m /s2)î  (0.44 m /s2)ĵ , (Answer) 20
which is superimposed on the rabbit’s path in Fig. 4-7.
To get the magnitude and angle of : a , either we use a x (m)
0 20 40 60 80
vector-capable calculator or we follow Eq. 3-6. For the mag-
nitude we have –20

a  2a 2x  a 2y  2(0.62 m /s2)2  (0.44 m /s2)2

–40
145°
 0.76 m/s2. (Answer) a

For the angle we have x

–60

 
ay 0.44 m/s2
  tan1  tan1  35. These are the x and y
ax 0.62 m/s2
components of the vector
However, this angle, which is the one displayed on a calcula- at this instant.
tor, indicates that :
a is directed to the right and downward in
Fig. 4-7. Yet, we know from the components that : a must be Figure 4-7 The acceleration :
a of the rabbit at t  15 s. The rabbit
directed to the left and upward. To find the other angle that happens to have this same acceleration at all points on its path.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

70 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

4-4 PROJECTILE MOTION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.13 On a sketch of the path taken in projectile motion, 4.14 Given the launch velocity in either magnitude-angle or
explain the magnitudes and directions of the velocity unit-vector notation, calculate the particle’s position, dis-
and acceleration components during the flight. placement, and velocity at a given instant during the flight.
4.15 Given data for an instant during the flight, calculate the
launch velocity.

Key Ideas
● In projectile motion, a particle is launched into the air with a ● The trajectory (path) of a particle in projectile motion is par-
speed v0 and at an angle u0 (as measured from a horizontal x abolic and is given by
axis). During flight, its horizontal acceleration is zero and its gx2
vertical acceleration is g (downward on a vertical y axis). y  (tan 0)x  ,
2(v0 cos 0)2
● The equations of motion for the particle (while in flight) can if x0 and y0 are zero.
be written as ● The particle’s horizontal range R, which is the horizontal
x  x0  (v0 cos 0)t, distance from the launch point to the point at which the parti-
y  y0  (v0 sin 0)t  1 2 cle returns to the launch height, is
2 gt ,
vy  v0 sin 0  gt, v20
R sin 20.
v 2y  (v0 sin 0 )2  2g (y  y0). g

Projectile Motion
We next consider a special case of two-dimensional motion: A particle moves in a
vertical plane with some initial velocity :v 0 but its acceleration is always the free-
fall acceleration :g , which is downward. Such a particle is called a projectile (mean-
ing that it is projected or launched), and its motion is called projectile motion. A
projectile might be a tennis ball (Fig. 4-8) or baseball in flight, but it is not a duck
in flight. Many sports involve the study of the projectile motion of a ball. For ex-
ample, the racquetball player who discovered the Z-shot in the 1970s easily won
his games because of the ball’s perplexing flight to the rear of the court.
Our goal here is to analyze projectile motion using the tools for two-
dimensional motion described in Module 4-1 through 4-3 and making the
assumption that air has no effect on the projectile. Figure 4-9, which we shall ana-
lyze soon, shows the path followed by a projectile when the air has no effect. The
projectile is launched with an initial velocity :
v 0 that can be written as
:
v0  v0x î  v0y ĵ. (4-19)
The components v0x and v0y can then be found if we know the angle u0 between :
v0
and the positive x direction:
v0x  v0 cos u0 and v0y  v0 sin u0. (4-20)
:
During its two-dimensional motion, the projectile’s position vector r and velocity
: :
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs vector v change continuously, but its acceleration vector a is constant and always
directed vertically downward.The projectile has no horizontal acceleration.
Figure 4-8 A stroboscopic photograph of Projectile motion, like that in Figs. 4-8 and 4-9, looks complicated, but we
a yellow tennis ball bouncing off a hard
have the following simplifying feature (known from experiment):
surface. Between impacts, the ball has
projectile motion.
In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are indepen-
dent of each other; that is, neither motion affects the other.
 4-4 PROJ ECTI LE M OTION 71

A y

y Vertical motion + Horizontal motion ➡ y Projectile motion

This vertical motion plus

this horizontal motion
Launch velocity
produces this projectile motion. v0
v0y Vertical velocity v0y
θ0 Launch angle
x x
O O v0x O v0x
Launch Launch

y y

vy vy v
Speed decreasing
vx

x x
O O vx O
Constant velocity

y y
v
vy = 0
vy = 0
Stopped at
maximum
height

vx
x x
O O O
Constant velocity

y y

vx
Speed increasing
vy vy v

vx
x x
O O O
Constant velocity

y y

vx vx
x x
vy O O vy θ
Constant velocity
v

Figure 4-9 The projectile motion of an object launched into the air at the origin of a coordinate system and with launch
velocity :v 0 at angle u0. The motion is a combination of vertical motion (constant acceleration) and horizontal motion
(constant velocity), as shown by the velocity components.
72 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

This feature allows us to break up a problem involving two-dimensional motion

into two separate and easier one-dimensional problems, one for the horizontal
motion (with zero acceleration) and one for the vertical motion (with constant
downward acceleration). Here are two experiments that show that the horizontal
motion and the vertical motion are independent.

Two Golf Balls

Figure 4-10 is a stroboscopic photograph of two golf balls, one simply released and
the other shot horizontally by a spring.The golf balls have the same vertical motion,
both falling through the same vertical distance in the same interval of time. The fact
that one ball is moving horizontally while it is falling has no effect on its vertical mo-
tion; that is, the horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other.

A Great Student Rouser

In Fig. 4-11, a blowgun G using a ball as a projectile is aimed directly at a can sus-
pended from a magnet M. Just as the ball leaves the blowgun, the can is released. If g
(the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration) were zero, the ball would follow the
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs straight-line path shown in Fig. 4-11 and the can would float in place after the
magnet released it. The ball would certainly hit the can. However, g is not zero,
Figure 4-10 One ball is released from rest at
the same instant that another ball is shot
but the ball still hits the can! As Fig. 4-11 shows, during the time of flight of the
horizontally to the right. Their vertical ball, both ball and can fall the same distance h from their zero-g locations. The
motions are identical. harder the demonstrator blows, the greater is the ball’s initial speed, the shorter
the flight time, and the smaller the value of h.

The ball and the can fall Checkpoint 3

the same distance h.
At a certain instant, a fly ball has velocity :
v  25î  4.9ĵ (the x axis is horizontal, the
y axis is upward, and :v is in meters per second). Has the ball passed its highest point?
M
h Can
pat
g h
r o-
Ze The Horizontal Motion
Now we are ready to analyze projectile motion, horizontally and vertically.
We start with the horizontal motion. Because there is no acceleration in the hori-
G zontal direction, the horizontal component vx of the projectile’s velocity remains
unchanged from its initial value v0x throughout the motion, as demonstrated in
Fig. 4-12. At any time t, the projectile’s horizontal displacement x  x0 from an
initial position x0 is given by Eq. 2-15 with a  0, which we write as
Figure 4-11 The projectile ball always
hits the falling can. Each falls a distance h x  x0  v0x t.
from where it would be were there no Because v0x  v0 cos u0, this becomes
free-fall acceleration.
x  x0  (v0 cos u0)t. (4-21)

The Vertical Motion

The vertical motion is the motion we discussed in Module 2-5 for a particle in
free fall. Most important is that the acceleration is constant. Thus, the equations
of Table 2-1 apply, provided we substitute g for a and switch to y notation. Then,
for example, Eq. 2-15 becomes
y  y0  v0yt  12gt 2
 (v0 sin 0)t  12gt 2, (4-22)

where the initial vertical velocity component v0y is replaced with the equivalent
v0 sin u0. Similarly, Eqs. 2-11 and 2-16 become
vy  v0 sin u0  gt (4-23)
and v 2y  (v0 sin 0)2  2g( y  y0). (4-24)
 4-4 PROJ ECTI LE M OTION 73

As is illustrated in Fig. 4-9 and Eq. 4-23, the vertical velocity component be-
haves just as for a ball thrown vertically upward. It is directed upward initially,
and its magnitude steadily decreases to zero, which marks the maximum height of
the path. The vertical velocity component then reverses direction, and its magni-
tude becomes larger with time.

The Equation of the Path

We can find the equation of the projectile’s path (its trajectory) by eliminating
time t between Eqs. 4-21 and 4-22. Solving Eq. 4-21 for t and substituting into
Eq. 4-22, we obtain, after a little rearrangement,
gx 2
y  (tan 0)x  (trajectory). (4-25)
2(v0 cos 0)2

This is the equation of the path shown in Fig. 4-9. In deriving it, for simplicity we
let x0  0 and y0  0 in Eqs. 4-21 and 4-22, respectively. Because g, u0, and v0 are Jamie Budge
constants, Eq. 4-25 is of the form y  ax  bx2, in which a and b are constants.
This is the equation of a parabola, so the path is parabolic. Figure 4-12 The vertical component of this
skateboarder’s velocity is changing but not
the horizontal component, which matches
The Horizontal Range the skateboard’s velocity. As a result, the
skateboard stays underneath him, allowing
The horizontal range R of the projectile is the horizontal distance the projectile
him to land on it.
has traveled when it returns to its initial height (the height at which it is
launched). To find range R, let us put x  x0  R in Eq. 4-21 and y  y0  0 in
Eq. 4-22, obtaining
R  (v0 cos u0)t
and 0  (v0 sin 0)t  12gt 2.
Air reduces
Eliminating t between these two equations yields height ... ... and range.
2v20 y
R sin 0 cos 0.
g
v0 II
Using the identity sin 2u0  2 sin u0 cos u0 (see Appendix E), we obtain I
v20
R sin 20. (4-26) 60° x
g
Figure 4-13 (I) The path of a fly ball calcu-
This equation does not give the horizontal distance traveled by a projectile when lated by taking air resistance into account.
the final height is not the launch height. Note that R in Eq. 4-26 has its maximum (II) The path the ball would follow in a
value when sin 2u0  1, which corresponds to 2u0  90° or u0  45°. vacuum, calculated by the methods of this
chapter. See Table 4-1 for corresponding
data. (Based on “The Trajectory of a Fly
The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of 45°. Ball,” by Peter J. Brancazio, The Physics
Teacher, January 1985.)
However, when the launch and landing heights differ, as in many sports, a launch
angle of 45° does not yield the maximum horizontal distance.
Table 4-1 Two Fly Ballsa
Path I Path II
The Effects of the Air
(Air) (Vacuum)
We have assumed that the air through which the projectile moves has no effect
on its motion. However, in many situations, the disagreement between our calcu- Range 98.5 m 177 m
lations and the actual motion of the projectile can be large because the air resists Maximum
(opposes) the motion. Figure 4-13, for example, shows two paths for a fly ball that height 53.0 m 76.8 m
Time
leaves the bat at an angle of 60° with the horizontal and an initial speed of
of flight 6.6 s 7.9 s
44.7 m/s. Path I (the baseball player’s fly ball) is a calculated path that
approximates normal conditions of play, in air. Path II (the physics professor’s fly a
See Fig. 4-13. The launch angle is 60° and the
ball) is the path the ball would follow in a vacuum. launch speed is 44.7 m/s.
74 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

Checkpoint 4
A fly ball is hit to the outfield. During its flight (ignore the effects of the air), what
happens to its (a) horizontal and (b) vertical components of velocity? What are the (c)
horizontal and (d) vertical components of its acceleration during ascent, during de-
scent, and at the topmost point of its flight?

Sample Problem 4.04 Projectile dropped from airplane

y
In Fig. 4-14, a rescue plane flies at 198 km/h ( 55.0 m/s) and v0
constant height h  500 m toward a point directly over a x
O
victim, where a rescue capsule is to land. φ Tr
aje
cto
(a) What should be the angle f of the pilot’s line of sight to ry
the victim when the capsule release is made? h Lin
eo
f si
gh
KEY IDEAS t

Once released, the capsule is a projectile, so its horizontal θ

and vertical motions can be considered separately (we need v
not consider the actual curved path of the capsule).
Figure 4-14 A plane drops a rescue capsule while moving at
Calculations: In Fig. 4-14, we see that f is given by constant velocity in level flight. While falling, the capsule
remains under the plane.
x
  tan1 , (4-27)
h
Then Eq. 4-27 gives us
where x is the horizontal coordinate of the victim (and of
the capsule when it hits the water) and h  500 m. We 555.5 m
  tan1  48.0. (Answer)
should be able to find x with Eq. 4-21: 500 m
x  x0  (v0 cos u0)t. (4-28) (b) As the capsule reaches the water, what is its velocity :
v?

Here we know that x0  0 because the origin is placed at KEY IDEAS

the point of release. Because the capsule is released and
not shot from the plane, its initial velocity :
v 0 is equal to (1) The horizontal and vertical components of the capsule’s
the plane’s velocity. Thus, we know also that the initial ve- velocity are independent. (2) Component vx does not change
locity has magnitude v0  55.0 m/s and angle u0  0° from its initial value v0x  v0 cos u0 because there is no hori-
(measured relative to the positive direction of the x axis). zontal acceleration. (3) Component vy changes from its initial
However, we do not know the time t the capsule takes to value v0y  v0 sin u0 because there is a vertical acceleration.
move from the plane to the victim.
To find t, we next consider the vertical motion and Calculations: When the capsule reaches the water,
specifically Eq. 4-22: vx  v0 cos u0  (55.0 m/s)(cos 0°)  55.0 m/s.
y  y0  (v0 sin 0)t  1 2
2 gt . (4-29) Using Eq. 4-23 and the capsule’s time of fall t  10.1 s, we
also find that when the capsule reaches the water,
Here the vertical displacement y  y0 of the capsule is
500 m (the negative value indicates that the capsule vy  v0 sin u0  gt
moves downward). So,  (55.0 m/s)(sin 0°)  (9.8 m/s2)(10.1 s)
500 m  (55.0 m/s)(sin 0)t  12 (9.8 m/s2)t 2. (4-30)  99.0 m/s.
Thus, at the water
Solving for t, we find t  10.1 s. Using that value in Eq. 4-28 :
yields v  (55.0 m /s)î  (99.0 m /s)ĵ. (Answer)
x  0  (55.0 m/s)(cos 0°)(10.1 s), (4-31) From Eq. 3-6, the magnitude and the angle of :
v are
or x  555.5 m. v  113 m/s and u  60.9°. (Answer)

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

 4-4 PROJ ECTI LE M OTION 75

Sample Problem 4.05 Launched into the air from a water slide

One of the most dramatic videos on the web (but entirely we know that the horizontal velocity component vx is con-
fictitious) supposedly shows a man sliding along a long wa- stant during the flight and thus is always equal to the hori-
ter slide and then being launched into the air to land in a zontal component v0x at launch. We can relate that compo-
water pool. Let’s attach some reasonable numbers to such nent, the displacement x  x0, and the flight time t  2.50 s
a flight to calculate the velocity with which the man would with Eq. 2-15:
have hit the water. Figure 4-15a indicates the launch and
x  x0  v0xt  12axt 2. (4-32)
landing sites and includes a superimposed coordinate sys-
tem with its origin conveniently located at the launch site. Substituting ax  0, this becomes Eq. 4-21. With x  x0  D,
From the video we take the horizontal flight distance as we then write
D  20.0 m, the flight time as t  2.50 s, and the launch an-
gle as 0  40.0°. Find the magnitude of the velocity at 20 m  v0x(2.50 s)  12 (0)(2.50 s)2
launch and at landing. v0x  8.00 m/s.

KEY IDEAS That is a component of the launch velocity, but we need

the magnitude of the full vector, as shown in Fig. 4-15b,
(1) For projectile motion, we can apply the equations for con- where the components form the legs of a right triangle and
stant acceleration along the horizontal and vertical axes sepa- the full vector forms the hypotenuse. We can then apply a
rately. (2) Throughout the flight, the vertical acceleration is trig definition to find the magnitude of the full velocity at
ay  g  9.8 m/s and the horizontal acceleration is ax  0. launch:
v0x
cos0  ,
Calculations: In most projectile problems, the initial chal- v0
lenge is to figure out where to start. There is nothing wrong and so
with trying out various equations, to see if we can somehow v0x 8.00 m/s
get to the velocities. But here is a clue. Because we are going v0  
cos u0 cos 40
to apply the constant-acceleration equations separately to
the x and y motions, we should find the horizontal and verti-  10.44 m/s  10.4 m/s. (Answer)
cal components of the velocities at launch and at landing. Now let’s go after the magnitude v of the landing veloc-
For each site, we can then combine the velocity components ity. We already know the horizontal component, which does
to get the velocity. not change from its initial value of 8.00 m/s. To find the verti-
Because we know the horizontal displacement D  cal component vy and because we know the elapsed time t 
20.0 m, let’s start with the horizontal motion. Since ax  0, 2.50 s and the vertical acceleration ay  9.8 m/s2, let’s
rewrite Eq. 2-11 as
y
vy  v0y  ayt
v0

θ0 and then (from Fig. 4-15b) as

x Water
Launch pool vy  v0 sin 0  ayt. (4-33)
Substituting ay  g, this becomes Eq. 4-23.We can then write

D
vy  (10.44 m/s) sin (40.0)  (9.8 m/s2)(2.50 s)
(a)  17.78 m/s.

v0x Now that we know both components of the landing velocity,

v0 θ0 we use Eq. 3-6 to find the velocity magnitude:
Launch v0y Landing vy
θ0 v v  2v2x  v2y
velocity v0x velocity

(b) (c)
 2(8.00 m/s)2  (17.78 m/s)2
Figure 4-15 (a) Launch from a water slide, to land in a water pool.
The velocity at (b) launch and (c) landing.  19.49 m/s2  19.5 m/s. (Answer)

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76 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

4-5 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.16 Sketch the path taken in uniform circular motion and ex- 4.17 Apply the relationships between the radius of the circu-
plain the velocity and acceleration vectors (magnitude and lar path, the period, the particle’s speed, and the particle’s
direction) during the motion. acceleration magnitude.

Key Ideas
● If a particle travels along a circle or circular arc of radius r at arc, and :a is said to be centripetal. The time for the particle to
constant speed v, it is said to be in uniform circular motion complete a circle is
and has an acceleration : a of constant magnitude 2
r
T .
v2 v
a .
r T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the
:
The direction of a is toward the center of the circle or circular motion.

The acceleration vector Uniform Circular Motion

always points toward the
center. A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or a circular
arc at constant (uniform) speed. Although the speed does not vary, the particle is
v accelerating because the velocity changes in direction.
Figure 4-16 shows the relationship between the velocity and acceleration
v a vectors at various stages during uniform circular motion. Both vectors have
constant magnitude, but their directions change continuously. The velocity is
a
a always directed tangent to the circle in the direction of motion. The accelera-
tion is always directed radially inward. Because of this, the acceleration associ-
ated with uniform circular motion is called a centripetal (meaning “center seek-
ing”) acceleration. As we prove next, the magnitude of this acceleration : a is
The velocity v
vector is always v2
a (centripetal acceleration), (4-34)
tangent to the path. r

Figure 4-16 Velocity and acceleration where r is the radius of the circle and v is the speed of the particle.
vectors for uniform circular motion. In addition, during this acceleration at constant speed, the particle travels the
circumference of the circle (a distance of 2pr) in time

2
r
T (period). (4-35)
v

T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the motion. It is, in
general, the time for a particle to go around a closed path exactly once.

Proof of Eq. 4-34

To find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration for uniform circular
motion, we consider Fig. 4-17. In Fig. 4-17a, particle p moves at constant speed
v around a circle of radius r. At the instant shown, p has coordinates xp and yp.
:
Recall from Module 4-2 that the velocity v of a moving particle is always
tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position. In Fig. 4-17a, that means
:
v is perpendicular to a radius r drawn to the particle’s position. Then the angle
u that :
v makes with a vertical at p equals the angle u that radius r makes with
the x axis.
 4-5 U N I FOR M CI RCU L AR M OTION 77

y
The scalar components of :
v are shown in Fig. 4-17b. With them, we can write v
the velocity :
v as θ
: p
v  vx î  vy ĵ  (v sin )î  (v cos )ĵ. (4-36)
r
Now, using the right triangle in Fig. 4-17a, we can replace sin u with yp /r and yp
θ
cos u with xp /r to write x
xp
:
v 
vyp
r 
î 
vxp
r  
ĵ . (4-37)
:
To find the acceleration a of particle p, we must take the time derivative of this
equation. Noting that speed v and radius r do not change with time, we obtain (a)
:
y
:
a
dv
dt
 
v dyp
r dt 
î    v dxp
r dt
ĵ. (4-38) v
θ vy

Now note that the rate dyp /dt at which yp changes is equal to the velocity vx
component vy. Similarly, dxp /dt  vx, and, again from Fig. 4-17b, we see that vx 
v sin u and vy  v cos u. Making these substitutions in Eq. 4-38, we find
x
:
a 
v2
r   
cos  î  
v2
r
sin  ĵ.  (4-39)

This vector and its components are shown in Fig. 4-17c. Following Eq. 3-6, we find
(b)
v2 v2 v2
a 2a 2x  a 2y  2(cos )2  (sin )2  11  , y
r r r
as we wanted to prove. To orient :
a , we find the angle f shown in Fig. 4-17c: ax
ay (v /r) sin 
2
tan     tan . a
φ
ay
ax (v2/r) cos 
: x
Thus, f  u, which means that a is directed along the radius r of Fig. 4-17a,
toward the circle’s center, as we wanted to prove.

Checkpoint 5 (c)
An object moves at constant speed along a circular path in a horizontal xy plane, with Figure 4-17 Particle p moves in counter-
the center at the origin. When the object is at x  2 m, its velocity is (4 m/s) ĵ. Give clockwise uniform circular motion. (a) Its
the object’s (a) velocity and (b) acceleration at y  2 m. position and velocity : v at a certain
instant. (b) Velocity :v . (c) Acceleration :
a.

Sample Problem 4.06 Top gun pilots in turns

“Top gun” pilots have long worried about taking a turn too KEY IDEAS
tightly. As a pilot’s body undergoes centripetal acceleration,
with the head toward the center of curvature, the blood pres- We assume the turn is made with uniform circular motion.
sure in the brain decreases, leading to loss of brain function. Then the pilot’s acceleration is centripetal and has magni-
There are several warning signs. When the centripetal tude a given by Eq. 4-34 (a  v2/R), where R is the circle’s
acceleration is 2g or 3g, the pilot feels heavy. At about 4g, radius. Also, the time required to complete a full circle is the
the pilot’s vision switches to black and white and narrows to period given by Eq. 4-35 (T  2pR/v).
“tunnel vision.” If that acceleration is sustained or in- Calculations: Because we do not know radius R, let’s solve
creased, vision ceases and, soon after, the pilot is uncon- Eq. 4-35 for R and substitute into Eq. 4-34. We find
scious — a condition known as g-LOC for “g-induced loss of
2
v
consciousness.” a .
What is the magnitude of the acceleration, in g units, of T
a pilot whose aircraft enters a horizontal circular turn with a To get the constant speed v, let’s substitute the components
velocity of :vi  (400î  500ĵ) m/s and 24.0 s later leaves the of the initial velocity into Eq. 3-6:
turn with a velocity of :v f  (400î  500 ĵ) m/s? v  2(400 m/s)2  (500 m/s)2  640.31 m/s.
78 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

To find the period T of the motion, first note that the final 24.0 s. Thus a full circle would have taken T  48.0 s.
velocity is the reverse of the initial velocity. This means the Substituting these values into our equation for a, we find
aircraft leaves on the opposite side of the circle from the ini-
tial point and must have completed half a circle in the given 2
(640.31 m/s)
a  83.81 m/s2  8.6g. (Answer)
48.0 s

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

4-6 RELATIVE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Learning Objective
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.18 Apply the relationship between a particle’s position, ve- frames that move relative to each other at constant velocity
locity, and acceleration as measured from two reference and along a single axis.

Key Idea
: : :
● When two frames of reference A and B are moving relative v PA  v PB  v BA,
to each other at constant velocity, the velocity of a particle P :
where v BA is the velocity of B with respect to A. Both ob-
as measured by an observer in frame A usually differs from
servers measure the same acceleration for the particle:
that measured from frame B. The two measured velocities are
: :
related by a PA  a PB.

Relative Motion in One Dimension

Suppose you see a duck flying north at 30 km/h. To another duck flying alongside,
the first duck seems to be stationary. In other words, the velocity of a particle de-
pends on the reference frame of whoever is observing or measuring the velocity.
For our purposes, a reference frame is the physical object to which we attach our
coordinate system. In everyday life, that object is the ground. For example, the
speed listed on a speeding ticket is always measured relative to the ground. The
speed relative to the police officer would be different if the officer were moving
while making the speed measurement.
Suppose that Alex (at the origin of frame A in Fig. 4-18) is parked by the side
of a highway, watching car P (the “particle”) speed past. Barbara (at the origin of
frame B) is driving along the highway at constant speed and is also watching car P.
Frame B moves past Suppose that they both measure the position of the car at a given moment. From
frame A while both Fig. 4-18 we see that
observe P.
xPA  xPB  xBA. (4-40)
y y
Frame A Frame B
P
The equation is read: “The coordinate xPA of P as measured by A is equal to the
coordinate xPB of P as measured by B plus the coordinate xBA of B as measured
vBA xPB
by A.” Note how this reading is supported by the sequence of the subscripts.
x x Taking the time derivative of Eq. 4-40, we obtain
xBA xPA = xPB + xBA
Figure 4-18 Alex (frame A) and Barbara d d d
(xPA)  (xPB)  (xBA).
(frame B) watch car P, as both B and P dt dt dt
move at different velocities along the com-
mon x axis of the two frames. At the Thus, the velocity components are related by
instant shown, xBA is the coordinate of B
vPA  vPB  vBA. (4-41)
in the A frame. Also, P is at coordinate xPB
in the B frame and coordinate xPA  xPB 
xBA in the A frame. This equation is read: “The velocity vPA of P as measured by A is equal to the
 4-6 R E L ATIVE M OTION I N ON E DI M E NSION 79

velocity vPB of P as measured by B plus the velocity vBA of B as measured by A.”

The term vBA is the velocity of frame B relative to frame A.
Here we consider only frames that move at constant velocity relative to
each other. In our example, this means that Barbara (frame B) drives always at
constant velocity vBA relative to Alex (frame A). Car P (the moving particle),
however, can change speed and direction (that is, it can accelerate).
To relate an acceleration of P as measured by Barbara and by Alex, we take
the time derivative of Eq. 4-41:
d d d
(vPA)  (vPB)  (vBA).
dt dt dt
Because vBA is constant, the last term is zero and we have

aPA  aPB. (4-42)

In other words,

Observers on different frames of reference that move at constant velocity relative

to each other will measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.

Sample Problem 4.07 Relative motion, one dimensional, Alex and Barbara
In Fig. 4-18, suppose that Barbara’s velocity relative to Alex to relate the acceleration to the initial and final velocities
is a constant vBA  52 km/h and car P is moving in the nega- of P.
tive direction of the x axis.
Calculation: The initial velocity of P relative to Alex is
(a) If Alex measures a constant vPA  78 km/h for car P, vPA  78 km/h and the final velocity is 0. Thus, the acceler-
what velocity vPB will Barbara measure? ation relative to Alex is

KEY IDEAS v  v0 0  (78 km/h) 1 m/s

aPA  
t 10 s 3.6 km/h
We can attach a frame of reference A to Alex and a frame of  2.2 m/s .
2
(Answer)
reference B to Barbara. Because the frames move at constant
(c) What is the acceleration aPB of car P relative to Barbara
velocity relative to each other along one axis, we can use
during the braking?
Eq. 4-41 (vPA  vPB  vBA) to relate vPB to vPA and vBA.
Calculation: We find KEY IDEA
78 km/h  vPB  52 km/h.
To calculate the acceleration of car P relative to Barbara, we
Thus, vPB  130 km/h. (Answer) must use the car’s velocities relative to Barbara.
Comment: If car P were connected to Barbara’s car by a Calculation: We know the initial velocity of P relative to
cord wound on a spool, the cord would be unwinding at Barbara from part (a) (vPB  130 km/h). The final veloc-
a speed of 130 km/h as the two cars separated. ity of P relative to Barbara is 52 km/h (because this is
(b) If car P brakes to a stop relative to Alex (and thus rela- the velocity of the stopped car relative to the moving
tive to the ground) in time t  10 s at constant acceleration, Barbara). Thus,
what is its acceleration aPA relative to Alex? v  v0 52 km/h  (130 km/h) 1 m/s
aPB  
t 10 s 3.6 km/h
KEY IDEAS  2.2 m/s .
2
(Answer)
To calculate the acceleration of car P relative to Alex, we Comment: We should have foreseen this result: Because
must use the car’s velocities relative to Alex. Because the Alex and Barbara have a constant relative velocity, they
acceleration is constant, we can use Eq. 2-11 (v  v0  at) must measure the same acceleration for the car.

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80 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

4-7 RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Learning Objective
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
4.19 Apply the relationship between a particle’s position, ve- frames that move relative to each other at constant velocity
locity, and acceleration as measured from two reference and in two dimensions.

Key Idea
: : :
● When two frames of reference A and B are moving relative v PA  v PB  v BA,
to each other at constant velocity, the velocity of a particle :
where v BA is the velocity of B with respect to A. Both
P as measured by an observer in frame A usually differs from observers measure the same acceleration for the particle:
that measured from frame B. The two measured velocities are : :
related by a PA  a PB.

y
Relative Motion in Two Dimensions
P
y Our two observers are again watching a moving particle P from the origins of refer-
:
ence frames A and B, while B moves at a constant velocity v BA relative to A. (The
rPB corresponding axes of these two frames remain parallel.) Figure 4-19 shows a cer-
rPA
tain instant during the motion. At that instant, the position vector of the origin of B
vBA
relative to the origin of A is : :
r BA.Also, the position vectors of particle P are r PA rela-
:
x tive to the origin of A and r PB relative to the origin of B. From the arrangement of
Frame B
rBA heads and tails of those three position vectors, we can relate the vectors with
x
Frame A : : :
r PA  r PB  r BA. (4-43)
Figure 4-19 Frame B has the constant
two-dimensional velocity : v BA relative to By taking the time derivative of this equation, we can relate the velocities :
v PA
frame A. The position vector of B relative
and :
v PB of particle P relative to our observers:
to A is :r BA. The position vectors of parti-
cle P are : r PA relative to A and : r PB : : :
relative to B. v PA  v PB  v BA. (4-44)

By taking the time derivative of this relation, we can relate the accelerations :
a PA
and : a PB of the particle P relative to our observers. However, note that because
:
v BA is constant, its time derivative is zero. Thus, we get
: :
a PA  a PB. (4-45)

As for one-dimensional motion, we have the following rule: Observers on differ-

ent frames of reference that move at constant velocity relative to each other will
measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.

Sample Problem 4.08 Relative motion, two dimensional, airplanes

In Fig. 4-20a, a plane moves due east while the pilot points KEY IDEAS
the plane somewhat south of east, toward a steady wind that
blows to the northeast. The plane has velocity : v PW relative The situation is like the one in Fig. 4-19. Here the moving par-
to the wind, with an airspeed (speed relative to the wind) ticle P is the plane, frame A is attached to the ground (call it
of 215 km/h, directed at angle u south of east. The wind G), and frame B is “attached” to the wind (call it W). We need
has velocity : v WG relative to the ground with speed a vector diagram like Fig. 4-19 but with three velocity vectors.
65.0 km/h, directed 20.0° east of north. What is the magni-
tude of the velocity :
v PG of the plane relative to the ground, Calculations: First we construct a sentence that relates the
and what is ? three vectors shown in Fig. 4-20b:
 R EVI EW & SU M MARY 81

velocity of plane velocity of plane velocity of wind This is the plane's actual
  N
relative to ground relative to wind relative to ground. direction of travel.
(PG) (PW) (WG)
vPG
This relation is written in vector notation as E
: θ
v PG  :
v PW  :
v WG. (4-46) N
This is the plane's 20°
We need to resolve the vectors into components on the co- vPW vWG
orientation.
ordinate system of Fig. 4-20b and then solve Eq. 4-46 axis by
axis. For the y components, we find This is the wind
direction.
vPG,y  vPW,y  vWG,y
(a)
or 0  (215 km/h) sin u  (65.0 km/h)(cos 20.0°).
Solving for u gives us y vPG
θ
(65.0 km/h)(cos 20.0)
  sin1  16.5. (Answer) vWG
215 km/h vPW
x
Similarly, for the x components we find
The actual direction
vPG,x  vPW,x  vWG,x.
is the vector sum of
Here, because : v PG is parallel to the x axis, the component the other two vectors
vPG,x is equal to the magnitude vPG. Substituting this nota- (head-to-tail arrangement).
tion and the value u  16.5°, we find
(b)
vPG  (215 km/h)(cos 16.5°)  (65.0 km/h)(sin 20.0°)
Figure 4-20 A plane flying in a wind.
 228 km/h. (Answer)

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

Review & Summary

Position Vector The location of a particle relative to the ori- As t in Eq. 4-8 is shrunk to 0, :
v avg reaches a limit called either the
gin of a coordinate system is given by a position vector :
r , which in velocity or the instantaneous velocity : v:
unit-vector notation is
: d:
r
:
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂. (4-1) v , (4-10)
dt
Here x î , y ĵ , and z k̂ are the vector components of position vector :
r, which can be rewritten in unit-vector notation as
and x, y, and z are its scalar components (as well as the coordinates :
v  vx î  vy ĵ  vzk̂, (4-11)
of the particle). A position vector is described either by a magni-
tude and one or two angles for orientation, or by its vector or where vx  dx /dt, vy  dy /dt, and vz  dz /dt. The instantaneous
scalar components. velocity :v of a particle is always directed along the tangent to the
particle’s path at the particle’s position.
Displacement If a particle moves so that its position vector
changes from :
r 1 to :
r 2, the particle’s displacement :
r is Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration
: : :
If a particle’s velocity changes from :
v 1 to :
v 2 in time interval t, its
r  r2  r 1. (4-2) average acceleration during t is
:
The displacement can also be written as : v2 : v1 :
v
a avg   . (4-15)
:
r  (x2  x1)î  ( y2  y1)ĵ  (z2  z1)k̂ (4-3) t t

 xî  yĵ  zk̂. (4-4) As t in Eq. 4-15 is shrunk to 0, :a avg reaches a limiting value called
either the acceleration or the instantaneous acceleration : a:

Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity If a parti- : d:

v
:
a . (4-16)
cle undergoes a displacement  r in time interval t, its average ve- dt
In unit-vector notation,
locity :
v avg for that time interval is
:
a  ax î  ay ĵ  azk̂, (4-17)
: :
r
v avg  . (4-8)
t where ax  dvx /dt, ay  dvy /dt, and az  dvz /dt.
82 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

Projectile Motion Projectile motion is the motion of a particle Uniform Circular Motion If a particle travels along a circle or
that is launched with an initial velocity :
v 0. During its flight, the par- circular arc of radius r at constant speed v, it is said to be in uniform
ticle’s horizontal acceleration is zero and its vertical acceleration is circular motion and has an acceleration : a of constant magnitude
the free-fall acceleration g. (Upward is taken to be a positive di-
rection.) If :
v 0 is expressed as a magnitude (the speed v0) and an an- a
v2
. (4-34)
gle u0 (measured from the horizontal), the particle’s equations of r
motion along the horizontal x axis and vertical y axis are
The direction of : a is toward the center of the circle or circular arc,
x  x0  (v0 cos u0)t, (4-21) and :a is said to be centripetal. The time for the particle to complete
a circle is
y  y0  (v0 sin 0)t  12gt 2, (4-22) 2
r
T . (4-35)
vy  v0 sin u0  gt, (4-23) v

v2y  (v0 sin 0)2  2g(y  y0). (4-24) T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the
motion.
The trajectory (path) of a particle in projectile motion is parabolic
and is given by Relative Motion When two frames of reference A and B are
gx2 moving relative to each other at constant velocity, the velocity of a par-
y  (tan 0)x  , (4-25)
2(v0 cos 0)2 ticle P as measured by an observer in frame A usually differs from that
measured from frame B.The two measured velocities are related by
if x0 and y0 of Eqs. 4-21 to 4-24 are zero. The particle’s horizontal
:
range R, which is the horizontal distance from the launch point to v PA :
v PB  :
v BA, (4-44)
the point at which the particle returns to the launch height, is
where :
v BA is the velocity of B with respect to A. Both observers
v2 measure the same acceleration for the particle:
R  0 sin 20. (4-26)
g :
a PA  :
a PB. (4-45)

Questions
1 Figure 4-21 shows the path taken by twice as long as at 45º. Does that result mean that the air density at
a skunk foraging for trash food, from high altitudes increases with altitude or decreases?
initial point i. The skunk took the same
4 You are to launch a rocket, from just above the ground, with
time T to go from each labeled point to
a i b c one of the following initial velocity vectors: (1) : v 0  20î  70ĵ ,
the next along its path. Rank points a, b,
(2) :v 0  20î  70ĵ, (3) :v 0  20î  70ĵ, (4) :
v 0  20î  70ĵ . In
and c according to the magnitude of the
your coordinate system, x runs along level ground and y increases
average velocity of the skunk to reach
upward. (a) Rank the vectors according to the launch speed of the
them from initial point i, greatest first.
projectile, greatest first. (b) Rank the vectors according to the time
2 Figure 4-22 shows the initial posi- Figure 4-21
of flight of the projectile, greatest first.
tion i and the final position f of a parti- Question 1.
5 Figure 4-23 shows three situations in which identical projectiles
cle. What are the (a) initial position
: are launched (at the same level) at identical initial speeds and an-
vector :r i and (b) final position vector rf , both in unit-vector nota-
gles. The projectiles do not land on the same terrain, however.
tion? (c) What is the x component of displacement : r? Rank the situations according to the final speeds of the projectiles
y
just before they land, greatest first.

3m
i
2m

1m
x
4m (a) (b) (c)
4m
Figure 4-23 Question 5.

6 The only good use of a fruitcake y

3m f is in catapult practice. Curve 1 in
5m
Fig. 4-24 gives the height y of a cata- 2
3m
z pulted fruitcake versus the angle u
between its velocity vector and its
Figure 4-22 Question 2. 1
acceleration vector during flight. (a)
Which of the lettered points on that
3 When Paris was shelled from 100 km away with the WWI curve corresponds to the landing of θ
A B
long-range artillery piece “Big Bertha,” the shells were fired at an the fruitcake on the ground? (b)
angle greater than 45º to give them a greater range, possibly even Curve 2 is a similar plot for the same Figure 4-24 Question 6.
 QU ESTIONS 83

launch speed but for a different launch angle. Does the fruitcake 11 Figure 4-28 shows four tracks (either half- or quarter-circles)
now land farther away or closer to the launch point? that can be taken by a train, which moves at a constant speed.
7 An airplane flying horizontally at a constant speed of 350 km/h Rank the tracks according to the magnitude of a train’s accelera-
over level ground releases a bundle of food supplies. Ignore the ef- tion on the curved portion, greatest first.
fect of the air on the bundle. What are the bundle’s initial (a) verti-
cal and (b) horizontal components of velocity? (c) What is its hori- 1
zontal component of velocity just before hitting the ground? (d) If
the airplane’s speed were, instead, 450 km/h, would the time of fall 2
be longer, shorter, or the same?
8 In Fig. 4-25, a cream tangerine is thrown up past windows 1, 2, 3
and 3, which are identical in size and regularly spaced vertically. 4
Rank those three windows according to (a) the time the cream tan-
gerine takes to pass them and (b) the average speed of the cream
tangerine during the passage, greatest first.
The cream tangerine then moves down past windows 4, 5,
and 6, which are identical in size and irregularly spaced horizon-
tally. Rank those three windows according to (c) the time the Figure 4-28 Question 11.
cream tangerine takes to pass them and (d) the average speed of
the cream tangerine during the passage, greatest first. 12 In Fig. 4-29, particle P is in uniform circular motion, cen-
tered on the origin of an xy coordinate system. (a) At what values
of u is the vertical component ry of the position vector greatest in
magnitude? (b) At what values of u is the vertical component vy
of the particle’s velocity greatest in magnitude? (c) At what val-
3 ues of u is the vertical component ay of the particle’s acceleration
4
greatest in magnitude?

y
2
5
P
r
1 θ x
6

Figure 4-25 Question 8.

9 Figure 4-26 shows three paths for a football kicked from ground Figure 4-29 Question 12.
level. Ignoring the effects of air, rank the paths according to (a) time
of flight, (b) initial vertical velocity component, (c) initial horizontal 13 (a) Is it possible to be accelerating while traveling at constant
velocity component, and (d) initial speed, greatest first. speed? Is it possible to round a curve with (b) zero acceleration and
(c) a constant magnitude of acceleration?
14 While riding in a moving car, you toss an egg directly upward.
Does the egg tend to land behind you, in front of you, or back in your
hands if the car is (a) traveling at a constant speed, (b) increasing in
1 2 3 speed, and (c) decreasing in speed?
15 A snowball is thrown from ground level (by someone in a
Figure 4-26 Question 9. hole) with initial speed v0 at an angle of 45° relative to the (level)
ground, on which the snowball later lands. If the launch angle is in-
10 A ball is shot from ground level over level ground at a certain creased, do (a) the range and (b) the flight time increase, decrease,
initial speed. Figure 4-27 gives the range R of the ball versus its or stay the same?
launch angle u0. Rank the three lettered points on the plot accord-
ing to (a) the total flight time of the ball and (b) the ball’s speed at 16 You are driving directly behind a pickup truck, going at the
maximum height, greatest first. same speed as the truck. A crate falls from the bed of the truck to
the road. (a) Will your car hit the crate before the crate hits the
R road if you neither brake nor swerve? (b) During the fall, is the
b horizontal speed of the crate more than, less than, or the same as
a that of the truck?

c
17 At what point in the path of a projectile is the speed a minimum?

θ0
18 In shot put, the shot is put (thrown) from above the athlete’s
shoulder level. Is the launch angle that produces the greatest range
Figure 4-27 Question 10. 45°, less than 45°, or greater than 45°?
84 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

Problems
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS and WebAssign
SSM Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual WWW Worked-out solution is at
http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday
• – ••• Number of dots indicates level of problem difficulty ILW Interactive solution is at
Additional information available in The Flying Circus of Physics and at flyingcircusofphysics.com

Module 4-1 Position and Displacement and (b) angle of the one with the
•1 The position vector for an electron is : r  (5.0 m)î  least magnitude and the (c) magni-
(3.0 m)ĵ  (2.0 m)k̂ . (a) Find the magnitude of : r . (b) Sketch the tude and (d) angle of the one with 20°
vector on a right-handed coordinate system. the greatest magnitude?
•2 A watermelon seed has the following coordinates: x  5.0 m,

θ
•••10 The position vector 0°
y  8.0 m, and z  0 m. Find its position vector (a) in unit-vector no- :
r  5.00tî  (et  ft2)ĵ locates a 10 20
tation and as (b) a magnitude and (c) an angle relative to the positive particle as a function of time t.
direction of the x axis. (d) Sketch the vector on a right-handed coor- Vector :r is in meters, t is in seconds, –20°
dinate system. If the seed is moved to the xyz coordinates (3.00 m, and factors e and f are constants.
0 m, 0 m), what is its displacement (e) in unit-vector notation and as Figure 4-31 gives the angle u of the t (s)
(f) a magnitude and (g) an angle relative to the positive x direction? particle’s direction of travel as a Figure 4-31 Problem 10.
•3 A positron undergoes a displacement : r  2.0î  3.0ĵ  6.0k̂ , function of t (u is measured from
ending with the position vector : r  3.0ĵ  4.0k̂ , in meters. What the positive x direction). What are (a) e and (b) f, including units?
was the positron’s initial position vector?
Module 4-3 Average Acceleration and
••4 The minute hand of a wall clock measures 10 cm from its tip to Instantaneous Acceleration
the axis about which it rotates. The magnitude and angle of the dis-
•11 The position :r of a particle moving in an xy plane is given
placement vector of the tip are to be determined for three time inter- :
by r  (2.00t3  5.00t)î  (6.00  7.00t4)ĵ , with :
r in meters and t
vals. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle from a quarter after
in seconds. In unit-vector notation, calculate (a) :r , (b) :
v , and (c) :
a
the hour to half past, the (c) magnitude and (d) angle for the next half
for t  2.00 s. (d) What is the angle between the positive direction
hour, and the (e) magnitude and (f) angle for the hour after that?
of the x axis and a line tangent to the particle’s path at t  2.00 s?
Module 4-2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity •12 At one instant a bicyclist is 40.0 m due east of a park’s flag-
•5 SSM A train at a constant 60.0 km/h moves east for 40.0 min, pole, going due south with a speed of 10.0 m/s. Then 30.0 s later, the
then in a direction 50.0° east of due north for 20.0 min, and then cyclist is 40.0 m due north of the flagpole, going due east with a
west for 50.0 min. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle of its speed of 10.0 m/s. For the cyclist in this 30.0 s interval, what are the
average velocity during this trip? (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the displacement, the (c) magni-
tude and (d) direction of the average velocity, and the (e) magni-
•6 An electron’s position is given by : r  3.00t î  4.00t2ĵ  2.00k̂ ,
tude and (f) direction of the average acceleration?
with t in seconds and :r in meters. (a) In unit-vector notation, what
is the electron’s velocity :
v (t)? At t  2.00 s, what is :v (b) in unit- •13 SSM A particle moves so that its position (in meters) as
vector notation and as (c) a magnitude and (d) an angle relative to a function of time (in seconds) is : r  î  4t 2ĵ  tk̂ . Write expres-
the positive direction of the x axis? sions for (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration as functions of time.
•7 An ion’s position vector is initially : r  5.0î  6.0ĵ  2.0k̂ , •14 A proton initially has : v  4.0î  2.0ĵ  3.0k̂ and then
and 10 s later it is :
r  2.0î  8.0ĵ  2.0k̂ , all in meters. In unit- 4.0 s later has :
v  2.0î  2.0ĵ  5.0k̂ (in meters per second). For
:
vector notation, what is its :
v avg during the 10 s? that 4.0 s, what are (a) the proton’s average acceleration a avg in unit-
:
vector notation, (b) the magnitude of a avg, and (c) the angle between
••8 A plane flies 483 km east from city A to city B in 45.0 min and :
a avg and the positive direction of the x axis?
then 966 km south from city B to city C in 1.50 h. For the total trip,
what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the plane’s dis- ••15 SSM ILW A particle leaves the origin with an initial veloc-
placement, the (c) magnitude ity :v  (3.00î) m/s and a constant acceleration :
a  (1.00î 
and (d) direction of its aver- y (m) 0.500ĵ) m/s2. When it reaches its maximum x coordinate, what are
50 its (a) velocity and (b) position vector?
age velocity, and (e) its aver-
D
age speed? ••16 The velocity : v of a particle moving in the xy plane is
••9 Figure 4-30 gives the 25 given by v  (6.0t  4.0t2)î  8.0ĵ , with :
:
v in meters per second
path of a squirrel moving and t (> 0) in seconds. (a) What is the acceleration when t  3.0 s?
about on level ground, from (b) When (if ever) is the acceleration zero? (c) When (if ever) is
point A (at time t  0), to 0 x (m) the velocity zero? (d) When (if ever) does the speed equal
points B (at t  5.00 min), C 25 50 10 m/s?
(at t  10.0 min), and finally D A C
••17 A cart is propelled over an xy plane with acceleration compo-
(at t  15.0 min). Consider the –25 nents ax  4.0 m/s2 and ay  2.0 m/s2. Its initial velocity has com-
average velocities of the squir- ponents v0x  8.0 m/s and v0y  12 m/s. In unit-vector notation, what
rel from point A to each of the B is the velocity of the cart when it reaches its greatest y coordinate?
other three points. Of them, –50
••18 A moderate wind accelerates a pebble over a horizontal xy
what are the (a) magnitude Figure 4-30 Problem 9. plane with a constant acceleration :
a  (5.00 m/s2)î  (7.00 m/s2)ĵ .
 PROB LE M S 85

At time t  0, the velocity is (4.00 m/s)i.

î What are the (a) magni- ••27 ILW A certain airplane has a θ
tude and (b) angle of its velocity when it has been displaced by speed of 290.0 km/h and is diving
12.0 m parallel to the x axis? at an angle of   30.0° below the
•••19 The acceleration of a particle moving only on a horizontal horizontal when the pilot releases
xy plane is given by :a  3tî  4tĵ , where :
a is in meters per second- a radar decoy (Fig. 4-33). The hori-
squared and t is in seconds. At t  0, the position vector zontal distance between the re-
:
r  (20.0 m)î  (40.0 m)ĵ locates the particle, which then has the lease point and the point where
velocity vector : v  (5.00 m/s)î  (2.00 m/s)ĵ . At t  4.00 s, what the decoy strikes the ground is d 
700 m. (a) How long is the decoy in d
are (a) its position vector in unit-vector notation and (b) the angle
between its direction of travel and the positive direction of the the air? (b) How high was the re-
x axis? lease point? Figure 4-33 Problem 27.
•••20 In Fig. 4-32, particle A y ••28 In Fig. 4-34, a stone is pro-
moves along the line y  30 m jected at a cliff of height h with an initial speed of 42.0 m/s directed
with a constant velocity : v of mag- v at angle u0  60.0° above the horizontal. The stone strikes at A,
nitude 3.0 m/s and parallel to the A 5.50 s after launching. Find (a) the height h of the cliff, (b) the
x axis. At the instant particle A speed of the stone just before impact at A, and (c) the maximum
passes the y axis, particle B leaves height H reached above the ground.
θ
the origin with a zero initial speed
and a constant acceleration : a of
a
magnitude 0.40 m/s2. What angle u
between : a and the positive direc- B x
H A
tion of the y axis would result in a Figure 4-32 Problem 20.
collision? h
θ0
Module 4-4 Projectile Motion
•21 A dart is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of Figure 4-34 Problem 28.
10 m/s toward point P, the bull’s-eye on a dart board. It hits at
point Q on the rim, vertically below P, 0.19 s later. (a) What is the ••29 A projectile’s launch speed is five times its speed at maxi-
distance PQ? (b) How far away from the dart board is the dart mum height. Find launch angle 0.
released? ••30 A soccer ball is kicked from the ground with an initial
•22 A small ball rolls horizontally off the edge of a tabletop that speed of 19.5 m/s at an upward angle of 45°. A player 55 m away in
is 1.20 m high. It strikes the floor at a point 1.52 m horizontally the direction of the kick starts running to meet the ball at that in-
from the table edge. (a) How long is the ball in the air? (b) What is stant. What must be his average speed if he is to meet the ball just
its speed at the instant it leaves the table? before it hits the ground?
•23 A projectile is fired horizontally from a gun that is ••31 In a jump spike, a volleyball player slams the ball from
45.0 m above flat ground, emerging from the gun with a speed of overhead and toward the opposite floor. Controlling the angle of
250 m/s. (a) How long does the projectile remain in the air? (b) At the spike is difficult. Suppose a ball is spiked from a height of 2.30
what horizontal distance from the firing point does it strike the m with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s at a downward angle of 18.00°.
ground? (c) What is the magnitude of the vertical component of its How much farther on the opposite floor would it have landed if the
velocity as it strikes the ground? downward angle were, instead, 8.00°?
•24 In the 1991 World Track and Field Championships in ••32 You throw a ball toward a
Tokyo, Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m, breaking by a full 5 cm the wall at speed 25.0 m/s and at angle
23-year long-jump record set by Bob Beamon. Assume that 0  40.0° above the horizontal
Powell’s speed on takeoff was 9.5 m/s (about equal to that of a (Fig. 4-35). The wall is distance d  θ0
sprinter) and that g  9.80 m/s2 in Tokyo. How much less was 22.0 m from the release point of the d
Powell’s range than the maximum possible range for a particle ball. (a) How far above the release
launched at the same speed? point does the ball hit the wall? Figure 4-35 Problem 32.
What are the (b) horizontal and
•25 The current world-record motorcycle jump is 77.0 m,
(c) vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall? (d) When
set by Jason Renie. Assume that he left the take-off ramp at
it hits, has it passed the highest point on its trajectory?
12.0º to the horizontal and that the take-off and landing
heights are the same. Neglecting air drag, determine his take-off ••33 SSM A plane, diving with constant speed at an angle of
speed. 53.0° with the vertical, releases a projectile at an altitude of 730 m.
•26 A stone is catapulted at time t  0, with an initial velocity of The projectile hits the ground 5.00 s after release. (a) What is the
magnitude 20.0 m/s and at an angle of 40.0° above the horizontal. speed of the plane? (b) How far does the projectile travel horizon-
What are the magnitudes of the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical tally during its flight? What are the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical
components of its displacement from the catapult site at t  1.10 s? components of its velocity just before striking the ground?
Repeat for the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical components at ••34 A trebuchet was a hurling machine built to attack the
t  1.80 s, and for the (e) horizontal and (f) vertical components at walls of a castle under siege. A large stone could be hurled against a
t  5.00 s. wall to break apart the wall. The machine was not placed near the
86 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

wall because then arrows could reach it from the castle wall. Instead, ••41 Upon spotting an in- Insect
it was positioned so that the stone hit the wall during the second half sect on a twig overhanging water, an on twig
of its flight. Suppose a stone is launched with a speed of v0  28.0 m/s archer fish squirts water drops at the d
and at an angle of u0  40.0°. What is the speed of the stone if it hits insect to knock it into the water
the wall (a) just as it reaches the top of its parabolic path and (b) (Fig. 4 -38). Although the fish sees the φ
when it has descended to half that height? (c) As a percentage, how insect along a straight-line path at an-
much faster is it moving in part (b) than in part (a)? gle f and distance d, a drop must be
Archer fish
launched at a different angle u0 if its
••35 SSM A rifle that shoots bullets at 460 m/s is to be aimed at
parabolic path is to intersect the Figure 4-38 Problem 41.
a target 45.7 m away. If the center of the target is level with the ri-
insect. If f  36.0° and d  0.900 m,
fle, how high above the target must the rifle barrel be pointed so
what launch angle u0 is required for the drop to be at the top of the
that the bullet hits dead center?
parabolic path when it reaches the insect?
••36 During a tennis match, a player serves the ball at
••42 In 1939 or 1940, Emanuel Zacchini took his human-
23.6 m/s, with the center of the ball leaving the racquet horizontally
cannonball act to an extreme: After being shot from a cannon, he
2.37 m above the court surface. The net is 12 m away and 0.90 m
soared over three Ferris wheels and into a net (Fig. 4-39). Assume
high. When the ball reaches the net, (a) does the ball clear it and
that he is launched with a speed of 26.5 m/s and at an angle of 53.0°.
(b) what is the distance between the center of the ball and the top
(a) Treating him as a particle, calculate his clearance over the first
of the net? Suppose that, instead, the ball is served as before but
wheel. (b) If he reached maximum height over the middle wheel, by
now it leaves the racquet at 5.00° below the horizontal. When the
how much did he clear it? (c) How far from the cannon should the
ball reaches the net, (c) does the ball clear it and (d) what now is
net’s center have been positioned (neglect air drag)?
the distance between the center of the ball and the top of the net?
••37 SSM WWW A lowly high diver pushes off horizontally
with a speed of 2.00 m/s from the platform edge 10.0 m above the v0
surface of the water. (a) At what horizontal distance from the
edge is the diver 0.800 s after pushing off? (b) At what vertical
distance above the surface of the water is the diver just then? 3.0 m 18 m 3.0 m Net
(c) At what horizontal distance from the edge does the diver θ0
strike the water?
••38 A golf ball is struck at vb
23 m
ground level. The speed of
the golf ball as a function of R
v (m/s)

the time is shown in Fig. 4-36, Figure 4-39 Problem 42.

where t  0 at the instant the
ball is struck. The scaling on
••43 ILW A ball is shot from the ground into the air. At a height
the vertical axis is set by va of 9.1 m, its velocity is :
v  (7.6î  6.1ĵ) m/s, with î horizontal and ĵ
va  19 m/s and vb  31 m/s. 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s) upward. (a) To what maximum height does the ball rise? (b) What
(a) How far does the golf
total horizontal distance does the ball travel? What are the
ball travel horizontally be- Figure 4-36 Problem 38. (c) magnitude and (d) angle (below the horizontal) of the ball’s ve-
fore returning to ground
locity just before it hits the ground?
level? (b) What is the maximum height above ground level at-
tained by the ball? ••44 A baseball leaves a pitcher’s hand horizontally at a speed of
161 km/h.The distance to the batter is 18.3 m. (a) How long does the
••39 In Fig. 4-37, a ball is thrown leftward from the left edge of the
ball take to travel the first half of that distance? (b) The second half?
roof, at height h above the ground. The ball hits the ground 1.50 s
(c) How far does the ball fall freely during the first half? (d) During
later, at distance d  25.0 m from the building and at angle u  60.0°
the second half? (e) Why aren’t the quantities in (c) and (d) equal?
with the horizontal. (a) Find h.
(Hint: One way is to reverse the ••45 In Fig. 4-40, a ball is launched with a velocity of magnitude
motion, as if on video.) What h 10.0 m/s, at an angle of 50.0° to the horizontal. The launch point is at
are the (b) magnitude and (c) θ the base of a ramp of horizon-
angle relative to the horizontal tal length d1  6.00 m and
of the velocity at which the ball d height d2  3.60 m. A plateau v0 d2
is thrown? (d) Is the angle is located at the top of the Ball
Figure 4-37 Problem 39. ramp. (a) Does the ball land on
above or below the horizontal?
d1
the ramp or the plateau? When
••40 Suppose that a shot putter can put a shot at the world-
it lands, what are the (b) mag- Figure 4-40 Problem 45.
class speed v0  15.00 m/s and at a height of 2.160 m. What hori-
nitude and (c) angle of its dis-
zontal distance would the shot travel if the launch angle 0 is
placement from the launch point?
(a) 45.00° and (b) 42.00°? The answers indicate that the angle of
45°, which maximizes the range of projectile motion, does not max- ••46 In basketball, hang is an illusion in which a player
imize the horizontal distance when the launch and landing are at seems to weaken the gravitational acceleration while in midair. The
different heights. illusion depends much on a skilled player’s ability to rapidly shift
 PROB LE M S 87

the ball between hands during the flight, but it might also be sup- distance x. The scaling is set by vys  5.0 m/s and xs  20 m. What
ported by the longer horizontal distance the player travels in the is the launch angle?
upper part of the jump than in the lower part. If a player jumps
with an initial speed of v0  7.00 m/s at an angle of u0  35.0°, vys
what percent of the jump’s range does the player spend in the up- y
per half of the jump (between maximum height and half maxi-

vy (m/s)
mum height)? 0
x xs
••47 SSM WWW A batter hits a pitched ball when the center of
the ball is 1.22 m above the ground. The ball leaves the bat at an (a)
angle of 45° with the ground. With that launch, the ball should have –vys
a horizontal range (returning to the launch level) of 107 m. (a) x (m)
Does the ball clear a 7.32-m-high fence that is 97.5 m horizontally (b)
from the launch point? (b) At the fence, what is the distance be- Figure 4-43 Problem 52.
tween the fence top and the ball center?
••48 In Fig. 4-41, a ball is •••53 In Fig. 4-44, a baseball is hit at a height h  1.00 m and
thrown up onto a roof, landing then caught at the same height. It travels alongside a wall, moving
4.00 s later at height h  20.0 m θ up past the top of the wall 1.00 s after it is hit and then down past
above the release level. The the top of the wall 4.00 s later, at distance D  50.0 m farther along
ball’s path just before landing is the wall. (a) What horizontal distance is traveled by the ball from
angled at u  60.0° with the h hit to catch? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) angle (relative to
roof. (a) Find the horizontal dis- the horizontal) of the ball’s velocity just after being hit? (d) How
tance d it travels. (See the hint high is the wall?
to Problem 39.) What are the
(b) magnitude and (c) angle d
(relative to the horizontal) of Figure 4-41 Problem 48. D
the ball’s initial velocity?
•••49 SSM A football kicker can give the ball an initial speed of h h
25 m/s. What are the (a) least and (b) greatest elevation angles at
which he can kick the ball to score a field goal from a point 50 m in Figure 4-44 Problem 53.
front of goalposts whose horizontal bar is 3.44 m above the ground?
•••50 Two seconds after being projected from ground level, a •••54 A ball is to be shot from
projectile is displaced 40 m horizontally and 53 m vertically level ground with a certain speed. 200
above its launch point. What are the (a) horizontal and (b) Figure 4-45 shows the range R it will

R (m)
vertical components of the initial velocity of the projectile? (c) have versus the launch angle u0. The 100
At the instant the projectile achieves its maximum height above value of u0 determines the flight
ground level, how far is it displaced horizontally from the launch time; let tmax represent the maximum
point? flight time. What is the least speed 0
•••51 A skilled skier knows to jump upward before reaching a the ball will have during its flight if θ0
downward slope. Consider a jump in which the launch speed is u0 is chosen such that the flight time
v0  10 m/s, the launch angle is u0  11.3°, the initial course is is 0.500tmax? Figure 4-45 Problem 54.
approximately flat, and the steeper track has a slope of 9.0°. •••55 SSM A ball rolls horizontally off the top of a stairway with
Figure 4-42a shows a prejump that allows the skier to land on the top a speed of 1.52 m/s. The steps are 20.3 cm high and 20.3 cm wide.
portion of the steeper track. Figure 4-42b shows a jump at the edge Which step does the ball hit first?
of the steeper track. In Fig. 4-42a, the skier lands at approximately
the launch level. (a) In the landing, what is the angle f between the Module 4-5 Uniform Circular Motion
skier’s path and the slope? In Fig. 4-42b, (b) how far below the •56 An Earth satellite moves in a circular orbit 640 km
launch level does the skier land and (c) what is f? (The greater fall (uniform circular motion) above Earth’s surface with a period of
and greater f can result in loss of control in the landing.) 98.0 min. What are (a) the speed and (b) the magnitude of the
centripetal acceleration of the satellite?
•57 A carnival merry-go-round rotates about a vertical axis at a
constant rate. A man standing on the edge has a constant speed of
3.66 m/s and a centripetal acceleration : a of magnitude 1.83 m/s2.
(a) (b) Position vector :
r locates him relative to the rotation axis. (a) What
is the magnitude of : r ? What is the direction of : r when : a is di-
Figure 4-42 Problem 51.
rected (b) due east and (c) due south?
•••52 A ball is to be shot from level ground toward a wall at dis- •58 A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every minute.
tance x (Fig. 4-43a). Figure 4-43b shows the y component vy of the Consider the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m. (a) Through what
ball’s velocity just as it would reach the wall, as a function of that distance does the tip move in one revolution? What are (b) the
88 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

tip’s speed and (c) the magnitude of its acceleration? (d) What is Module 4-6 Relative Motion in One Dimension
the period of the motion? •69 A cameraman on a pickup truck is traveling westward at
•59 ILW A woman rides a carnival Ferris wheel at radius 15 m, 20 km/h while he records a cheetah that is moving westward
completing five turns about its horizontal axis every minute. What 30 km/h faster than the truck. Suddenly, the cheetah stops, turns,
are (a) the period of the motion, the (b) magnitude and (c) direction and then runs at 45 km/h eastward, as measured by a suddenly
of her centripetal acceleration at the highest point, and the (d) mag- nervous crew member who stands alongside the cheetah’s path. The
nitude and (e) direction of her centripetal acceleration at the lowest change in the animal’s velocity takes 2.0 s. What are the (a) magni-
point? tude and (b) direction of the animal’s acceleration according to the
cameraman and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction according to
•60 A centripetal-acceleration addict rides in uniform circular the nervous crew member?
motion with radius r  3.00 m. At one instant his acceleration is
: •70 A boat is traveling upstream in the positive direction of an x
a  (6.00 m/s2)î  (4.00 m/s2)ĵ. At that instant, what are the val-
ues of (a) :
v :
a and (b) :
r :
a? axis at 14 km/h with respect to the water of a river. The water is
flowing at 9.0 km/h with respect to the ground. What are the (a)
•61 When a large star becomes a supernova, its core may be magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity with respect to
compressed so tightly that it becomes a neutron star, with a radius of the ground? A child on the boat walks from front to rear at
about 20 km (about the size of the San Francisco area). If a neutron 6.0 km/h with respect to the boat. What are the (c) magnitude and
star rotates once every second, (a) what is the speed of a particle on (d) direction of the child’s velocity with respect to the ground?
the star’s equator and (b) what is the magnitude of the particle’s cen-
tripetal acceleration? (c) If the neutron star rotates faster, do the an- ••71 A suspicious-looking man runs as fast as he can along a
swers to (a) and (b) increase, decrease, or remain the same? moving sidewalk from one end to the other, taking 2.50 s. Then se-
curity agents appear, and the man runs as fast as he can back along
•62 What is the magnitude of the acceleration of a sprinter run-
the sidewalk to his starting point, taking 10.0 s. What is the ratio of
ning at 10 m/s when rounding a turn of radius 25 m?
the man’s running speed to the sidewalk’s speed?
••63 At t1  2.00 s, the acceleration of a particle in counter-
clockwise circular motion is (6.00 m/s2)î  (4.00 m/s2)ĵ. It moves at Module 4-7 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions
constant speed. At time t2  5.00 s, the particle’s acceleration is •72 A rugby player runs with the ball directly toward his
(4.00 m/s2)î  (6.00 m/s2)ĵ. What is the radius of the path taken opponent’s goal, along the positive direction of an x axis. He can
by the particle if t2  t1 is less than one period? legally pass the ball to a teammate as long as the ball’s velocity rela-
tive to the field does not have a positive x component. Suppose the
••64 A particle moves horizontally in uniform circular motion, player runs at speed 4.0 m/s relative to the field while he passes the
over a horizontal xy plane. At one instant, it moves through the ball with velocity : v BP relative to himself. If :v BP has magnitude
point at coordinates (4.00 m, 4.00 m) with a velocity of 5.00î m/s 6.0 m/s, what is the smallest angle it can have for the pass to be legal?
and an acceleration of 12.5ĵ m/s2. What are the (a) x and (b) y
coordinates of the center of the circular path? ••73 Two highways intersect as shown in Fig. 4-46. At the instant
shown, a police car P is distance dP  800 m from the intersection
••65 A purse at radius 2.00 m and a wallet at radius 3.00 m travel
and moving at speed vP  80 km/h. Motorist M is distance dM 
in uniform circular motion on the floor of a merry-go-round as the
600 m from the intersection and moving at speed vM  60 km/h.
ride turns. They are on the same radial line. At one instant, the ac-
celeration of the purse is (2.00 m/s2)î  (4.00 m/s2)ĵ. At that instant
y
and in unit-vector notation, what is the acceleration of the wallet?
••66 A particle moves along a circular path over a horizontal xy
coordinate system, at constant speed.At time t1  4.00 s, it is at point
(5.00 m, 6.00 m) with velocity (3.00 m/s)ĵ and acceleration in the M
positive x direction. At time t2  10.0 s, it has velocity (3.00 m/s)î
and acceleration in the positive y direction. What are the (a) x and
(b) y coordinates of the center of the circular path if t2  t1 is less
vM
than one period? dM
•••67 SSM WWW A boy whirls a stone in a horizontal circle of
P
radius 1.5 m and at height 2.0 m above level ground. The string
vP
breaks, and the stone flies off horizontally and strikes the ground x
after traveling a horizontal distance of 10 m. What is the magnitude
of the centripetal acceleration of the stone during the circular dP
motion?
Figure 4-46 Problem 73.
•••68 A cat rides a merry-go-round turning with uniform
circular motion. At time t1  2.00 s, the cat’s velocity is : v1  (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the velocity of the motorist
(3.00 m/s)î  (4.00 m/s)ĵ , measured on a horizontal xy coordinate with respect to the police car? (b) For the instant shown in Fig. 4-46,
system. At t2  5.00 s, the cat’s velocity is : v 2  (3.00 m/s)î  what is the angle between the velocity found in (a) and the line of
(4.00 m/s)ĵ . What are (a) the magnitude of the cat’s centripetal sight between the two cars? (c) If the cars maintain their veloci-
acceleration and (b) the cat’s average acceleration during the time ties, do the answers to (a) and (b) change as the cars move nearer
interval t2  t1, which is less than one period? the intersection?
 PROB LE M S 89

••74 After flying for 15 min in a wind blowing 42 km/h at an leave a small clearing on the south bank and cross the river in a
angle of 20° south of east, an airplane pilot is over a town that is powerboat that moves at a constant speed of 4.0 m/s with respect
55 km due north of the starting point. What is the speed of the air- to the water. There is a clearing on the north bank 82 m up-
plane relative to the air? stream from a point directly opposite the clearing on the south
••75 SSM A train travels due south at 30 m/s (relative to the bank. (a) In what direction must the boat be pointed in order to
ground) in a rain that is blown toward the south by the wind. The travel in a straight line and land in the clearing on the north
path of each raindrop makes an angle of 70° with the vertical, as bank? (b) How long will the boat take to cross the river and land
measured by an observer stationary on the ground. An observer on in the clearing?
the train, however, sees the drops fall perfectly vertically. Additional Problems
Determine the speed of the raindrops relative to the ground. 83 A woman who can row a boat at 6.4 km/h in still water faces a
••76 A light plane attains an airspeed of 500 km/h. The pilot sets long, straight river with a width of 6.4 km and a current of 3.2 km/h.
out for a destination 800 km due north but discovers that the plane Let î point directly across the river and ĵ point directly down-
must be headed 20.0° east of due north to fly there directly. The stream. If she rows in a straight line to a point directly opposite her
plane arrives in 2.00 h. What were the (a) magnitude and (b) direc- starting position, (a) at what angle to î must she point the boat and
tion of the wind velocity? (b) how long will she take? (c) How long will she take if, instead,
••77 SSM Snow is falling vertically at a constant speed of 8.0 m/s. she rows 3.2 km down the river and then back to her starting
At what angle from the vertical do the snowflakes appear to be point? (d) How long if she rows 3.2 km up the river and then back
falling as viewed by the driver of a car traveling on a straight, level to her starting point? (e) At what angle to iî should she point the
road with a speed of 50 km/h? boat if she wants to cross the river in the shortest possible time? (f)
How long is that shortest time?
••78 In the overhead view of N
Fig. 4-47, Jeeps P and B race 84 In Fig. 4-48a, a sled moves in the negative x direction at con-
along straight lines, across flat P stant speed vs while a ball of ice is shot from the sled with a velocity
E :
terrain, and past stationary bor- v 0  v0xî  v0yĵ relative to the sled. When the ball lands, its hori-
θ1 A zontal displacement xbg relative to the ground (from its launch
der guard A. Relative to the
guard, B travels at a constant θ2 position to its landing position) is measured. Figure 4-48b gives
speed of 20.0 m/s, at the angle xbg as a function of vs. Assume the ball lands at approximately
u2  30.0°. Relative to the guard, its launch height. What are the values of (a) v0x and (b) v0y? The
B
P has accelerated from rest at a ball’s displacement xbs relative to the sled can also be measured.
constant rate of 0.400 m/s2 at the Figure 4-47 Problem 78. Assume that the sled’s velocity is not changed when the ball is
angle u1  60.0°.At a certain time shot. What is xbs when vs is (c) 5.0 m/s and (d) 15 m/s?
during the acceleration, P has a speed of 40.0 m/s. At that time, what
are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the velocity of P relative to 40
B and the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the acceleration of P
relative to B? y
••79 SSM ILW Two ships, A and B, leave port at the same time.
Δxbg (m)
vs Ball
Ship A travels northwest at 24 knots, and ship B travels at 28 knots Sled
0
in a direction 40° west of south. (1 knot  1 nautical mile per hour; x 10 20
see Appendix D.) What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of (a)
the velocity of ship A relative to B? (c) After what time will the
ships be 160 nautical miles apart? (d) What will be the bearing of B
–40
(the direction of B’s position) relative to A at that time? vs (m/s)
••80 A 200-m-wide river flows due east at a uniform speed of (b)
2.0 m/s. A boat with a speed of 8.0 m/s relative to the water leaves Figure 4-48 Problem 84.
the south bank pointed in a direction 30° west of north. What are
the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity relative
to the ground? (c) How long does the boat take to cross the river? 85 You are kidnapped by political-science majors (who are
upset because you told them political science is not a real
•••81 Ship A is located 4.0 km north and 2.5 km east of ship
science). Although blindfolded, you can tell the speed of their
B. Ship A has a velocity of 22 km/h toward the south, and ship B
car (by the whine of the engine), the time of travel (by mentally
has a velocity of 40 km/h in a direction 37° north of east. (a)
counting off seconds), and the direction of travel (by turns
What is the velocity of A relative to B in unit-vector notation
along the rectangular street system). From these clues, you
with î toward the east? (b) Write an expression (in terms of î and ĵ)
know that you are taken along the following course: 50 km/h for
for the position of A relative to B as a function of t, where t  0
2.0 min, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 4.0 min, turn 90° to the
when the ships are in the positions described above. (c) At what
right, 20 km/h for 60 s, turn 90° to the left, 50 km/h for 60 s, turn
time is the separation between the ships least? (d) What is that
90° to the right, 20 km/h for 2.0 min, turn 90° to the left, 50 km/h
least separation?
for 30 s. At that point, (a) how far are you from your starting
•••82 A 200-m-wide river has a uniform flow speed of 1.1 m/s point, and (b) in what direction relative to your initial direction
through a jungle and toward the east. An explorer wishes to of travel are you?
90 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

86 A radar station detects an airplane approaching directly from moment, the effects of air on the bomb’s travel. (b) What would
the east. At first observation, the airplane is at distance d1  360 m be the time of flight? (c) Would the effect of the air increase or
from the station and at angle u1  40° above the horizon (Fig. 4-49). decrease your answer in (a)?
The airplane is tracked through an angular change u  123° in the
vertical east – west plane; its distance is then d2  790 m. Find the
(a) magnitude and (b) direction of the airplane’s displacement dur-
ing this period. A θ0

Airplane h

d2 Δθ d1
d B
W θ1 E

Radar dish Figure 4-51 Problem 91.

92 An astronaut is rotated in a horizontal centrifuge at a radius

Figure 4-49 Problem 86. of 5.0 m. (a) What is the astronaut’s speed if the centripetal accel-
eration has a magnitude of 7.0g? (b) How many revolutions per
87 SSM A baseball is hit at ground level. The ball reaches its minute are required to produce this acceleration? (c) What is the
maximum height above ground level 3.0 s after being hit. Then period of the motion?
2.5 s after reaching its maximum height, the ball barely clears a 93 SSM Oasis A is 90 km due west of oasis B. A desert camel
fence that is 97.5 m from where it was hit. Assume the ground is leaves A and takes 50 h to walk 75 km at 37° north of due east.
level. (a) What maximum height above ground level is reached by Next it takes 35 h to walk 65 km due south. Then it rests for 5.0 h.
the ball? (b) How high is the fence? (c) How far beyond the fence What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the camel’s dis-
does the ball strike the ground? placement relative to A at the resting point? From the time the
88 Long flights at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere en- camel leaves A until the end of the rest period, what are the (c)
counter the jet stream, an eastward airflow that can affect a plane’s magnitude and (d) direction of its average velocity and (e) its aver-
speed relative to Earth’s surface. If a pilot maintains a certain speed age speed? The camel’s last drink was at A; it must be at B no more
relative to the air (the plane’s airspeed), the speed relative to the sur- than 120 h later for its next drink. If it is to reach B just in time, what
face (the plane’s ground speed) is more when the flight is in the di- must be the (f) magnitude and (g) direction of its average velocity
rection of the jet stream and less when the flight is opposite the jet after the rest period?
stream. Suppose a round-trip flight is scheduled between two cities 94 Curtain of death. A large metallic asteroid strikes Earth
separated by 4000 km, with the outgoing flight in the direction of the and quickly digs a crater into the rocky material below ground level
jet stream and the return flight opposite it. The airline computer ad- by launching rocks upward and outward. The following table gives
vises an airspeed of 1000 km/h, for which the difference in flight five pairs of launch speeds and angles (from the horizontal) for such
times for the outgoing and return flights is 70.0 min.What jet-stream rocks, based on a model of crater formation. (Other rocks, with inter-
speed is the computer using? mediate speeds and angles, are also launched.) Suppose that you are
89 SSM A particle starts from the origin at t  0 with a velocity at x  20 km when the asteroid strikes the ground at time t  0 and
of 8.0ĵ m/s and moves in the xy plane with constant acceleration position x  0 (Fig. 4-52). (a) At t  20 s, what are the x and y
(4.0î  2.0ĵ ) m/s2. When the particle’s x coordinate is 29 m, what coordinates of the rocks headed in your direction from launches A
are its (a) y coordinate and (b) speed? through E? (b) Plot these coordinates and then sketch a curve
through the points to include rocks with intermediate launch speeds
90 At what initial speed
and angles.The curve should indicate what you would see as you look
must the basketball player in
up into the approaching rocks.
Fig. 4-50 throw the ball, at an-
gle u0  55° above the hori- θ0
zontal, to make the foul shot? Launch Speed (m/s) Angle (degrees)
The horizontal distances are d1 h2
A 520 14.0
d1  1.0 ft and d2  14 ft, and h1
B 630 16.0
the heights are h1  7.0 ft
C 750 18.0
and h2  10 ft.
D 870 20.0
91 During volcanic erup- d2 E 1000 22.0
tions, chunks of solid rock
Figure 4-50 Problem 90. y
can be blasted out of the vol-
cano; these projectiles are
called volcanic bombs. Figure 4-51 shows a cross section of Mt.
You
Fuji, in Japan. (a) At what initial speed would a bomb have to be
x (km)
ejected, at angle u0  35° to the horizontal, from the vent at A in
0 10 20
order to fall at the foot of the volcano at B, at vertical distance
h  3.30 km and horizontal distance d  9.40 km? Ignore, for the Figure 4-52 Problem 94.
 PROB LE M S 91

95 Figure 4-53 shows the straight path of a particle B 104 A ball is thrown horizontally from a height of 20 m and hits
across an xy coordinate system as the particle is ac- the ground with a speed that is three times its initial speed. What is
celerated from rest during time interval t1. The ac- y the initial speed?
celeration is constant. The xy coordinates for point 105 A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 30 m/s at an
A
A are (4.00 m, 6.00 m); those for point B are (12.0 x angle of 60° above the horizontal. What are the (a) magnitude and
m, 18.0 m). (a) What is the ratio ay /ax of the acceler- (b) angle of its velocity 2.0 s after launch, and (c) is the angle above
ation components? (b) What are the coordinates of Figure 4-53
or below the horizontal? What are the (d) magnitude and (e) angle
the particle if the motion is continued for another Problem 95. of its velocity 5.0 s after launch, and (f) is the angle above or below
interval equal to t1? the horizontal?
96 For women’s volleyball the top of the net is 2.24 m above the 106 The position vector for a proton is initially : r
floor and the court measures 9.0 m by 9.0 m on each side of the 5.0î  6.0ĵ  2.0k̂ and then later is :
r  2.0î  6.0ĵ  2.0k̂ , all
net. Using a jump serve, a player strikes the ball at a point that is in meters. (a) What is the proton’s displacement vector, and (b) to
3.0 m above the floor and a horizontal distance of 8.0 m from the what plane is that vector parallel?
net. If the initial velocity of the ball is horizontal, (a) what mini- y
mum magnitude must it have if the ball is to clear the net and (b) 107 A particle P travels with con-
what maximum magnitude can it have if the ball is to strike the stant speed on a circle of radius r 
floor inside the back line on the other side of the net? 3.00 m (Fig. 4-56) and completes one
revolution in 20.0 s. The particle P
97 SSM A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30 m away. The passes through O at time t  0. State
r
bullet hits the target 1.9 cm below the aiming point. What are (a) the the following vectors in magnitude-
bullet’s time of flight and (b) its speed as it emerges from the rifle? angle notation (angle relative to the
98 A particle is in uniform circular motion about the origin of an positive direction of x). With respect
xy coordinate system, moving clockwise with a period of 7.00 s. At to O, find the particle’s position vec-
one instant, its position vector (measured from the origin) is x
tor at the times t of (a) 5.00 s, (b) O
:
r  (2.00 m)î  (3.00 m)ĵ . At that instant, what is its velocity in 7.50 s, and (c) 10.0 s. (d) For the
Figure 4-56 Problem 107.
unit-vector notation? 5.00 s interval from the end of
99 In Fig. 4-54, a lump of wet the fifth second to the end of the
putty moves in uniform circular mo- Wheel tenth second, find the particle’s displacement. For that interval,
tion as it rides at a radius of 20.0 cm find (e) its average velocity and its velocity at the (f) beginning and
on the rim of a wheel rotating coun- (g) end. Next, find the acceleration at the (h) beginning and (i) end
Putty h
terclockwise with a period of 5.00 of that interval.
ms. The lump then happens to fly off d 108 The fast French train known as the TGV (Train à Grande
the rim at the 5 o’clock position (as Vitesse) has a scheduled average speed of 216 km/h. (a) If the train
Figure 4-54 Problem 99.
if on a clock face). It leaves the rim goes around a curve at that speed and the magnitude of the accel-
at a height of h  1.20 m from the floor and at a distance d  2.50 eration experienced by the passengers is to be limited to 0.050g,
m from a wall. At what height on the wall does the lump hit? what is the smallest radius of curvature for the track that can be
100 An iceboat sails across the surface of a frozen lake with con- tolerated? (b) At what speed must the train go around a curve with
stant acceleration produced by the wind. At a certain instant the a 1.00 km radius to be at the acceleration limit?
boat’s velocity is (6.30î  8.42ĵ ) m/s. Three seconds later, because 109 (a) If an electron is projected horizontally with a speed of
of a wind shift, the boat is instantaneously at rest. What is its aver- 3.0  10 6 m/s, how far will it fall in traversing 1.0 m of horizontal
age acceleration for this 3.00 s interval? distance? (b) Does the answer increase or decrease if the initial
101 In Fig. 4-55, a ball is shot di- speed is increased?
vc
rectly upward from the ground with
an initial speed of v0  7.00 m/s. 110 A person walks up a stalled 15-m-long escalator in 90 s.
v0 When standing on the same escalator, now moving, the person is
Simultaneously, a construction eleva-
tor cab begins to move upward from Ball carried up in 60 s. How much time would it take that person to
the ground with a constant speed of walk up the moving escalator? Does the answer depend on the
vc  3.00 m/s. What maximum height Figure 4-55 Problem 101. length of the escalator?
does the ball reach relative to (a) the 111 (a) What is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of
ground and (b) the cab floor? At what rate does the speed of the ball an object on Earth’s equator due to the rotation of Earth? (b)
change relative to (c) the ground and (d) the cab floor? What would Earth’s rotation period have to be for objects on the
102 A magnetic field forces an electron to move in a circle with equator to have a centripetal acceleration of magnitude 9.8 m/s2?
radial acceleration 3.0  10 14 m/s2. (a) What is the speed of the elec- 112 The range of a projectile depends not only on v0 and 0
tron if the radius of its circular path is 15 cm? (b) What is the period but also on the value g of the free-fall acceleration, which varies
of the motion? from place to place. In 1936, Jesse Owens established a world’s
103 In 3.50 h, a balloon drifts 21.5 km north, 9.70 km east, and running broad jump record of 8.09 m at the Olympic Games at
2.88 km upward from its release point on the ground. Find (a) the Berlin (where g  9.8128 m/s2). Assuming the same values of v0
magnitude of its average velocity and (b) the angle its average ve- and 0, by how much would his record have differed if he had com-
locity makes with the horizontal. peted instead in 1956 at Melbourne (where g  9.7999 m/s2)?
92 CHAPTE R 4 M OTION I N TWO AN D TH R E E DI M E NSIONS

113 Figure 4-57 shows the path y 120 A sprinter running on a circular track has a velocity of con-
taken by a drunk skunk over level stant magnitude 9.20 m/s and a centripetal acceleration of magni-
ground, from initial point i to final d2 tude 3.80 m/s2. What are (a) the track radius and (b) the period of
point f. The angles are 1  30.0°, θ3
the circular motion?
2  50.0°, and 3  80.0°, and the θ2
d3 d1 121 Suppose that a space probe can withstand the stresses of a
distances are d1  5.00 m, d2  8.00 θ1
x 20g acceleration. (a) What is the minimum turning radius of such a
m, and d3  12.0 m. What are the (a) i craft moving at a speed of one-tenth the speed of light? (b) How
magnitude and (b) angle of the
long would it take to complete a 90° turn at this speed?
skunk’s displacement from i to f?
122 You are to throw a ball with
114 The position vector : r of a a speed of 12.0 m/s at a target that is Target
particle moving in the xy plane is height h = 5.00 m above the level at
:
r  2tî  2 sin[(
/4 rad/s)t] ĵ , with f which you release the ball (Fig. 4-58).
:
r in meters and t in seconds. (a) Figure 4-57 Problem 113. h
You want the ball’s velocity to be
Calculate the x and y components horizontal at the instant it reaches
of the particle’s position at t  0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 s and θ
the target. (a) At what angle  above
sketch the particle’s path in the xy plane for the interval 0  t  the horizontal must you throw the
4.0 s. (b) Calculate the components of the particle’s velocity at ball? (b) What is the horizontal dis-
t  1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s. Show that the velocity is tangent to the Figure 4-58 Problem 122.
tance from the release point to the
path of the particle and in the direction the particle is moving at target? (c) What is the speed of the
each time by drawing the velocity vectors on the plot of the parti- ball just as it reaches the target? High trajectory
cle’s path in part (a). (c) Calculate the components of the parti-
cle’s acceleration at t  1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s. 123 A projectile is fired with an
initial speed v0 = 30.0 m/s from level v0 Low trajectory
115 An electron having an initial horizontal velocity of magnitude ground at a target that is on the
1.00  10 9 cm/s travels into the region between two horizontal metal ground, at distance R = 20.0 m, as
v0
plates that are electrically charged. In that region, the electron trav- shown in Fig. 4-59. What are the (a) R
els a horizontal distance of 2.00 cm and has a constant downward ac- least and (b) greatest launch angles
celeration of magnitude 1.00  10 17 cm/s2 due to the charged plates. that will allow the projectile to hit the
Figure 4-59 Problem 123.
Find (a) the time the electron takes to travel the 2.00 cm, (b) the ver- target?
tical distance it travels during that time, and the magnitudes of its (c)
horizontal and (d) vertical velocity components as it emerges from 124 A graphing surprise. At time t = 0, a burrito is launched from
the region. level ground, with an initial speed of 16.0 m/s and launch angle 0.
Imagine a position vector : r continuously directed from the
116 An elevator without a ceiling is ascending with a constant launching point to the burrito during the flight. Graph the magni-
speed of 10 m/s. A boy on the elevator shoots a ball directly up- tude r of the position vector for (a) 0 = 40.0° and (b) 0 = 80.0°. For
ward, from a height of 2.0 m above the elevator floor, just as the el- 0 = 40.0°, (c) when does r reach its maximum value, (d) what is
evator floor is 28 m above the ground. The initial speed of the ball that value, and how far (e) horizontally and (f) vertically is the bur-
with respect to the elevator is 20 m/s. (a) What maximum height rito from the launch point? For 0 = 80.0°, (g) when does r reach its
above the ground does the ball reach? (b) How long does the ball maximum value, (h) what is that value, and how far (i) horizontally
take to return to the elevator floor? and (j) vertically is the burrito from the launch point?
117 A football player punts the football so that it will have a 125 A cannon located at sea level fires a ball with initial speed
“hang time” (time of flight) of 4.5 s and land 46 m away. If the ball 82 m/s and initial angle 45°. The ball lands in the water after travel-
leaves the player’s foot 150 cm above the ground, what must be the ing a horizontal distance 686 m. How much greater would the hori-
(a) magnitude and (b) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the zontal distance have been had the cannon been 30 m higher?
ball’s initial velocity?
126 The magnitude of the velocity of a projectile when it is at its
118 An airport terminal has a moving sidewalk to speed passen- maximum height above ground level is 10.0 m/s. (a) What is the
gers through a long corridor. Larry does not use the moving side- magnitude of the velocity of the projectile 1.00 s before it achieves
walk; he takes 150 s to walk through the corridor. Curly, who sim- its maximum height? (b) What is the magnitude of the velocity of
ply stands on the moving sidewalk, covers the same distance in 70 s. the projectile 1.00 s after it achieves its maximum height? If we
Moe boards the sidewalk and walks along it. How long does Moe take x = 0 and y = 0 to be at the point of maximum height and posi-
take to move through the corridor? Assume that Larry and Moe tive x to be in the direction of the velocity there, what are the (c) x
walk at the same speed. coordinate and (d) y coordinate of the projectile 1.00 s before it
119 A wooden boxcar is moving along a straight railroad track reaches its maximum height and the (e) x coordinate and (f) y co-
at speed v1. A sniper fires a bullet (initial speed v2) at it from a ordinate 1.0 s after it reaches its maximum height?
high-powered rifle. The bullet passes through both lengthwise 127 A frightened rabbit moving at 6.00 m/s due east runs onto a
walls of the car, its entrance and exit holes being exactly opposite large area of level ice of negligible friction. As the rabbit slides
each other as viewed from within the car. From what direction, rel- across the ice, the force of the wind causes it to have a constant ac-
ative to the track, is the bullet fired? Assume that the bullet is not celeration of 1.40 m/s2, due north. Choose a coordinate system with
deflected upon entering the car, but that its speed decreases by the origin at the rabbit’s initial position on the ice and the positive
20%. Take v1  85 km/h and v2  650 m/s. (Why don’t you need to x axis directed toward the east. In unit-vector notation, what are
know the width of the boxcar?) the rabbit’s (a) velocity and (b) position when it has slid for 3.00 s?
 PROB LE M S 93

128 The pilot of an aircraft flies due east relative to the ground where the readings are 0.50 s apart and the shot is released at
in a wind blowing 20.0 km/h toward the south. If the speed of the time t = 0. (a) What is the initial velocity of the shot in unit-vector
aircraft in the absence of wind is 70.0 km/h, what is the speed of the notation? (b) What is the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration
aircraft relative to the ground? on the planet? (c) How long after it is released does the shot
129 The pitcher in a slow-pitch softball game releases the ball at a reach the ground? (d) If an identical throw of the shot is made on
point 3.0 ft above ground level.A stroboscopic plot of the position of the surface of Earth, how long after it is released does it reach the
the ball is shown in Fig. 4-60, where the readings are 0.25 s apart and ground?
the ball is released at t = 0. (a) What is the initial speed of the ball? 133 A helicopter is flying in a straight line over a level field at
(b) What is the speed of the ball at the instant it reaches its maxi- a constant speed of 6.20 m/s and at a constant altitude of 9.50 m.
mum height above ground level? (c) What is that maximum height? A package is ejected horizontally from the helicopter with an
initial velocity of 12.0 m/s relative to the helicopter and in a di-
10 rection opposite the helicopter’s motion. (a) Find the initial
speed of the package relative to the ground. (b) What is the hori-
zontal distance between the helicopter and the package at the
y (ft)

5
instant the package strikes the ground? (c) What angle does the
velocity vector of the package make with the ground at the in-
t=0 stant before impact, as seen from the ground?
134 A car travels around a flat circle on the ground, at a constant
0 10 20 30 40 speed of 12.0 m/s. At a certain instant the car has an acceleration of
x (ft) 3.00 m/s2 toward the east. What are its distance and direction from
Figure 4-60 Problem 129. the center of the circle at that instant if it is traveling (a) clockwise
around the circle and (b) counterclockwise around the circle?
130 Some state trooper departments use aircraft to enforce 135 You throw a ball from a cliff with an initial velocity of
highway speed limits. Suppose that one of the airplanes has a speed 15.0 m/s at an angle of 20.0° below the horizontal. Find (a) its hori-
of 135 mi/h in still air. It is flying straight north so that it is at all zontal displacement and (b) its vertical displacement 2.30 s later.
times directly above a north–south highway. A ground observer
136 A baseball is hit at Fenway Park in Boston at a point
tells the pilot by radio that a 70.0 mi/h wind is blowing but neglects
0.762 m above home plate with an initial velocity of 33.53 m/s di-
to give the wind direction. The pilot observes that in spite of the
rected 55.0° above the horizontal. The ball is observed to clear
wind the plane can travel 135 mi along the highway in 1.00 h. In
the 11.28-m-high wall in left field (known as the “green mon-
other words, the ground speed is the same as if there were no wind.
ster”) 5.00 s after it is hit, at a point just inside the left-field foul-
(a) From what direction is the wind blowing? (b) What is the head-
line pole. Find (a) the horizontal distance down the left-field foul
ing of the plane; that is, in what direction does it point?
line from home plate to the wall; (b) the vertical distance by
131 A golfer tees off from the top of a rise, giving the golf ball an which the ball clears the wall; (c) the horizontal and vertical dis-
initial velocity of 43.0 m/s at an angle of 30.0° above the horizontal. placements of the ball with respect to home plate 0.500 s before
The ball strikes the fairway a horizontal distance of 180 m from the it clears the wall.
tee. Assume the fairway is level. (a) How high is the rise above the
137 A transcontinental flight of 4350 km is scheduled to take
fairway? (b) What is the speed of the ball as it strikes the fairway?
50 min longer westward than eastward. The airspeed of the air-
132 A track meet is held on a planet in a distant solar system. A plane is 966 km/h, and the jet stream it will fly through is pre-
shot-putter releases a shot at a point 2.0 m above ground level. A sumed to move due east. What is the assumed speed of the jet
stroboscopic plot of the position of the shot is shown in Fig. 4-61, stream?
138 A woman can row a boat at 6.40 km/h in still water. (a) If
10
she is crossing a river where the current is 3.20 km/h, in what di-
rection must her boat be headed if she wants to reach a point di-
rectly opposite her starting point? (b) If the river is 6.40 km
y (m)

5 wide, how long will she take to cross the river? (c) Suppose that
instead of crossing the river she rows 3.20 km down the river and
t=0 then back to her starting point. How long will she take? (d) How
long will she take to row 3.20 km up the river and then back to
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 her starting point? (e) In what direction should she head the
x (m)
boat if she wants to cross in the shortest possible time, and what
Figure 4-61 Problem 132. is that time?