Making of RF CAR

Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment
For the award of the
Degree of bachelor technology
In department of Mechatronics engineering

(Academic session 2018-2022)

Project Report submitted by

Mr. Harpal Singh Kalra Gautam (8618203)

CONTENTS Page No.

Candidate’s Declaration 1

Acknowledgement 2

List of figures 3

List of tables 4

Chapter 1 CONCEPT AND THEORY OF CIRCUIT 5

Chapter 2 Hardware and specifications 11

Chapter 3 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING PROJECT 71

Precautions 75
CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this project
entitled 'RF CAR' in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of
degree of BACHELOR OF TECNOLOGY in Mechatronics Engineering
submitted to the Dept. Of Mechatronics Engineering, APIIT SD INDIA,
Panipat (Haryana) is an authentic record of my own work carried out
during a period from Sep 2020 to Dec 2020 under the Guidance of Mr
Harpal Singh Kalra

Gautam

8618203

B. Tech. (ME)

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project consumed huge amount of work, research and dedication.
Still, implementation would not have been possible if we did not have a
support of many individuals and organizations. Therefore we would like to
extend our sincere gratitude to all of them.

I am highly grateful to the Hon’ble Director Dr. Ravi Kumar Sachdeva,

APIIT SD INDIA, Panipat for providing me this opportunity to carry out the
present dissertation work.

The constant guidance and encouragement received from Mr. Harpal Singh
Kalra, Head of department, Deptt. Of Mechatronics Engg. APIIT SD INDIA,
Panipat has been of great help in carrying out the present work and is
acknowledged with reverential thanks.

I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to

my Project Guide, Mr. Harpal Singh Kalra. Asstt. Prof. Deptt. Of
Mechatronics Engineering. APIIT SD INDIA, Panipat. Without his wise
counsel and able guidance, it would have been impossible to complete the
dissertation in this manner.

The help rendered by Mr. Harpal Singh Kalra, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of
Mechatronics Engineering, APIIT SD INDIA, Panipat for experimentation
simulations is greatly acknowledged. I also express my gratitude to other
faculty members of Deptt. of Mechatronics Engineering. APIIT SD INDIA,
Panipat for their intellectual support throughout the course of this work.

Finally, I am indebted to all whosoever have contributed in this dissertation

work.

Gautam

8618203

B. Tech. (ME)

2
List Of Figures Page No.

3
Transmitter Circuit
Transmitter Circuit
Receiver Circuit
Receiver Circuit
Printed Circuit Board
General Purpose PCB
L293D Motor Deriver
L7805 IC
Schematic Diagram Of L7805 IC
Colour Coding of Resistors
A Typical Capacitor
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Capacitance Of A Capacitor
Multi plate Capacitor
Batteries
DC Motor
Faraday Law
Right Hand Thumb Rule
Loop Axis
Torque
Neutral Plane
Commutator
Elementary Of DC Motor
Soldering Tool
Mounting

4
List of Tables Page no.
Pin Configuration Of L293D Motor Deriver

Pin Details Of 7805 IC

CONVERSION OF CAPACITANCE UNITS

5
CHAPTR-1
CONCEPT AND THEORY OF CIRCUIT
RF REMOTE TRANSMITTER UNIT

In the project the RF remote transmitter contain an oscillator comprises one

BF-194 (radio frequency modulator transistor). This transistor is coupled
with CE configuration with other NPN 548 transistor for biasing. The basic
oscillator is formed by transistor T3 working under CE configuration. From
the collector an LC circuit is generating the source oscillation that super
imposes to the T-2 base from its emitter follower circuit. R2 provides
biasing Vcc to T3. R1 and LED indicate the power ‘on’ while pressing the
key. The basic modulation circuit comprises T-1, R-6, C-2 and a trimmer
variable capacitor. By changing the IFT at the T3 collector (LC circuit) we
can change frequency for transmission. Varying trimmer at collector of T-1
can do the range and alignment between transmitter and receiver. A 9V
portable battery powers the whole unit
.
RF RMOTE RECEIVER CIRCUIT
In the receiver circuit the transmitter Q1 also working as LC tank circuit
basic oscillator that receives the variable frequencies Q2, Q3 are two basic
low power amplifier provides amplification to all frequencies. L2 coil (IFT)
selects the specific frequency to further amplifiers and fed at the base of
Q4 via R-14 resistor. The power amplification is provided by Q5 transistor.
In the circuit R2 and R3 provides biasing Vcc to Q1 same as R10 provides
biasing Vcc+ to Q2 transistors. C1 and R5 give CE follower circuit for Q1
and same as for Q2 as R8 and C6 doing the same function. Rest other
resistor and capacitor provides necessary basing Vc and frequency cut off
function at different stages of the circuit. Finally from Q5 the driver unit
given output to the buzzer or any other connected device to operate that
unit.

6
TRANSMITTER

Fig 1.1 – Transmitter Circuit

7
 TRANSMITTER

C2
R2 C1 R5 1
R1

T1
1
T3
C3 1

R5
T2
R3 1
R4

Fig 1.2 – Transmitter Circuit

COMPONENTS USED
RESISTANCE:-
R1 - 100

R2 - 330K
R3, R4, R5 - 2K7
R6 - 47K
CAPACITORS:-

C1 - .022
C2, C3 - .001

8
TRANSISTOR:-
T1,T2 - L7805

RECEIVER

To Relay Driver

Fig 1.3 Receiver Circuit

9
Fig. 1.4 – Receiver Circuit

10
COMPONENTS USED:
RESISTANCE:-
R1, R5 - 2K7
R2 - 38K

R3 - 100K

R4 - 22K

R6, R7, R9 - 1K5

R8 - 10K

R10 - 470K

R11, R12 - 1M

R13 - 1K2 (VR2 20K)

R14 - 47K

R15 - 1K

R16 - 10K

R17 - 4K7

R18 - 1.5K

CAPACITORS:-
C1 - .02

C2 - 100Pf
C3 - 3.3Pf

C4 - .002

11
CHAPTER-2
HARDWARE AND SPACIFICATION
2.1 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)
A printed circuit board (PCB) is a board made for connecting electronic
components together. The board is made up of material that does not
conduct electricity, usually fiberglass. Normally copper is etched (set in
thin lines) inside the board between the layers of fiberglass, or on the
surface of the board. Electronic components are then attached to this
board using a metal to conduct electricity. The metal etched into the
board allows electricity to travel from one component to another in
electrical circuits.

Fig 2.1 –Printed Circuit Board

12
PCBs are lifeline of Electronic circuits as they provide a platform
to support and also provide electrical connection between
Electronic components mechanically. The Electronic components
usually are soldered on the PCB and electrically connected to other
elements using copper tracks already etched on the PCB. Normally
PCBs are custom-made for specific purpose and for specific
electronic product. Hence they are expensive.

However among the many types of PCBs, General Purpose PCB is

one. This type of PCB is used by both Electronics Hobbyists as well
as professionals who develop new electronic products. General
Purpose PCBs are low cost compared to custom made PCBs.
Whether it is a DIY project or a school project prototyping of a
new electronic product General Purpose PCB finds use in it

WHAT IS GENERAL PURPOSE PCB:

General Purpose Zero PCB. As its name suggests can be used for
many purposes, general purpose PCB’s are widely used to embed
circuits randomly for running of hardware. Its layer is coated with
copper and allows proper soldering without any short circuit.

General purpose PCB is printed board, the circuit traces are

prepared using chemicals and just a small soldering is required to

13
place just the components on the desired places. General Purpose
PCB comes in many layers like single layer, double layer and
Multi-layer Also the board have many different surface treatment

These boards are used by both electronics hobbyists and also for
professionals who are developing new products and experimenting
with design and circuits. These boards are low cost and any circuit
design can be implemented easily. They are great aid for those
who are learning electronics and those who pursue electronics as a
hobby.

FIG 2.2 – GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

14
There is one more type of PCB called zero PCB. These boards are
also used by both electronic hobbyists as well as professionals who
are developing new products. Now let us understand the
difference between the General purpose PCBs and zero PCB
Zero PCB is also known as perfboard or veroboard. These have
holes for placing the components and manual soldering is done for
creating the circuit traces.
But in case of General Purpose PCBs, they are already printed
boards, the circuit traces are prepared using chemicals and just a
small soldering is required to place just the components on the
desired places. General Purpose PCBs are comparatively costlier
than zero PCB

Advantages of using General Purpose PCB:

 Low cost.
 Perfect for Prototyping and testing small circuits.
 Perfect for all who are starting with Electronics.
 Short Design Time.
 You can change the circuit at any time.

TYPES OF GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

Single Sided Paper Phenolic:
This is made of FR1 or FR2 type of copper clad (Paper phenolic) and are
mostly used by students and hobbyist as they are low cost and easily
available. In this type you can mount the components on one side and
solder from the other side of PCB. Copper is available only on one side
of the PCB.
15
Single Sided Glass Epoxy
This is made of FR4 type of copper clad (glass epoxy) used by students,
hobbyist as well as in Industry these PCB are more sturdy as compared
to Paper phenolic type. In this type you can mount the components on
one side and solder from the other side of PCB. Copper is available only
on one side of the PCB
Double Sided Glass Epoxy
This is made of FR4 type of copper clad (glass epoxy) these are used by
hobbyist and are mostly used in Industry. In this type you can mount
the components on both side as well as you can solder from both sides
of PCB. Copper is available on both side of the PCB. Moreover the holes
can be PTH (Plated through Holes) or NPTH (Non Plated through Holes).
Most of the double sided PCB are PTH types but some local
manufacturers (in India) manufacture NPTH types as well.
Flexible PCB
These are new types of PCB not easily available in the market. These
PCB’s are flexible like a cloth and thus can be used where you can’t use
a Paper phenolic or glass epoxy PCB. These PCB are flexible thus you
can easily adjust the circuit on it even in a small constraining place.
So if you are a newbie in the field or electronics or Electronic Hobbyist
or a R&D Engineer you will be using a General purpose PCB.

16
2.2 L293D MOTOR DERIVER

Fig. – 2.3 L293D MOTOR DERIVER

L293D Pin Configuration
Pin Pin Name Description
Number

1 Enable 1,2 This pin enables the input pin Input 1(2) and I
2(7)

2 Input 1 Directly controls the Output 1 pin.

Controlled by digital circuits

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3 Output 1 Connected to one end of  Motor 1

4 Ground Ground pins are connected to ground of

circuit (0V)

5 Ground Ground pins are connected to ground of

circuit (0V)

6 Output 2 Connected to another end of  Motor 1

7 Input 2 Directly controls the Output 2 pin.

Controlled by digital circuits

8 Vcc2 (Vs) Connected to Voltage pin for running motors

(4.5V to 36V)

9 Enable 3,4 This pin enables the input pin Input 3(10) and
Input 4(15)

10 Input 3 Directly controls the Output 3 pin

Controlled by digital circuits

11 Output 3 Connected to one end of Motor 2

12 Ground Ground pins are connected to ground of

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 circuit (0V)

13 Ground Ground pins are connected to ground of

circuit (0V)

14 Output 4 Connected to another end of Motor 2

15 Input 4 Directly controls the Output 4 pin.

Controlled by digital circuits

16 Vcc2 Connected to +5V to enable IC function

(Vss)

 Table 2.1 – Pin Configuration Of L293D Motor Deriver

Features
 Can be used to run Two DC motors with the same IC.
 Speed and Direction control is possible
 Motor voltage Vcc2 (Vs): 4.5V to 36V
 Maximum Peak motor current: 1.2A
 Maximum Continuous Motor Current: 600Ma
 Supply Voltage to Vcc1(vss): 4.5V to 7V
 Transition time: 300ns (at 5Vand 24V)
 Automatic Thermal shutdown is available
 Available in 16-pin DIP, TSSOP, SOIC package

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2.3 L7805 IC

Fig 2.4 – L7805 IC

Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not

providing fixed voltage outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains
the output voltage at a constant value. 7805 Voltage Regulator, a
member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulators used to
maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator
integrated circuit (IC).

The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it provides. 7805 IC

provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions to add a
heat sink.

7805 IC Rating
 Input voltage range 7V- 35V
 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range   VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V

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Pin Details of 7805 IC
Pin
Pin Function Description
No.

In this pin of the IC

Input voltage (7V- positive unregulated
1 INPUT
35V) voltage is given in
regulation.

In this pin where the

ground is given. This pin is
2 GROUND Ground (0V)
neutral for equally the
input and output.

The output of the

Regulated output; 5V regulated 5V volt is taken
3 OUTPUT
(4.8V-5.2V) out at this pin of the IC
regulator.

Table 2.2 Pin Details Of 7805 IC

As you may have noticed, there is a significant difference

between the input voltage & the output voltage of the voltage
regulator. This difference between the input and output voltage is
released as heat. The greater the difference between the input
and output voltage, more the heat generated.

If the regulator does not have a heat sink to dissipate this heat, it
can get destroyed and malfunction. Hence, it is advisable to limit
21
the voltage to a maximum of 2-3 volts above the output voltage.
So, we now have 2 options. Either design your circuit so that the
input voltage going into the regulator is limited to 2-3 volts above
the output regulated voltage or place an appropriate heatsink, that
can efficiently dissipate heat.

What to do with all the heat?

7805 voltage regulator is not very efficient and has drop-out
voltage problems. A lot of energy is wasted in the form of heat. If
you are going to be using a heat sink, better calculate the heat
sink size properly. The below formula should help in determining
appropriate heat sink size for such applications.

Heat generated = (input voltage – 5) x output current

If we have a system with input 15 volts and output current

required is .5 amperes, we have: (15 – 5) x 0.5 = 10×0.5 =5W;

5W energy is being wasted as heat, hence an appropriate heat

sink is required to disperse this heat. On the other hand, energy
actually being used is: (5 x 0.5Amp) = 2.5W.

So twice the energy, that is actually utilized is wasted. On the

other hand, if 9V is given as input at the same amount of load: (9-
5) x 0.5 = 2W

2W energy will be wasted as heat.

22
What we learn: Higher the input voltage, less efficient your 7805 will
be.

An estimated efficient input voltage would be at about 7.5V.

Other circuit components?

If your voltage regulator is situated more than 25cm (10 inches)
from the power supply, capacitors are needed to filter residual AC
noise. Voltage regulators work efficiently on a clean DC signal
being fed. The bypass capacitors help reduce AC ripple.

Essentially, they short AC noise from the voltage signal and

allow only DC voltage into the regulator. The two capacitors are
not necessarily required and can be omitted if you are not
concerned about line noise.

However, for a mobile phone charger or logic assessment, you

require a nice clean DC line. Capacitors will be beneficial in this
case as they are good at maximizing voltage regulation. The
values of capacitors can also be changed slightly.

Let’s take a look at what makes the IC tick.

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Schematic of 7805 Voltage Regulator IC

Fig 2.5 – Schematic Diagram Of 7805 IC

The heart of the 7805 IC is a transistor (Q16) that controls the

current between the input and output and thus controlling the
output voltage. The bandgap reference (yellow) keeps the voltage
stable. It takes the scaled output voltage as input (Q1 and Q6)
and provides an error signal (to Q7) for indication if the voltage is
too high or low. The key task of the band gap is to provide a
stable and accurate reference, even as the chip’s temperature
changes.

24
The error signal from the band gap reference is amplified by the
error amplifier (orange). This amplified signal controls the output
transistor through Q15. This closes the negative feedback loop
controlling the output voltage.

The startup circuit (green) provides initial current to the band gap
circuit, so it doesn’t get stuck in an “off” state. The circuit in purple
provides protection against overheating (Q13), excessive input
voltage (Q19) and excessive output current (Q14). These circuits
reduce the output current or shutdown the regulator, protecting it
from damage in case of a fault. The voltage divider (blue) scales
down the voltage on the output pin for use by the band gap
reference.

Scaling the output

The 7805’s scaled output provides the input voltage (Vin) to the
band gap reference and the band gap provides an error signal as
the output. The 7805’s band gap circuit removes the feedback
loop that exists inside a traditional band gap reference. Instead,
the entire chip becomes the feedback loop.

If the output voltage is correct (5V), then the voltage divider

provides 3.75V at Vin. Any change in output voltage propagates
through Q6 and R7, causing the voltage at the base of Q7 to rise
or fall accordingly. This change is amplified by Q7 and Q8,
generating the error output. The error output, in turn, decreases or

25
increases the current through the output transistor. The negative
feedback loop adjusts the output voltage until it is correct.

Application areas for 7805 IC

7805 IC is used in a wide range of circuits. The major ones being:

 Fixed-Output Regulator
 Positive voltage Regulator in Negative voltage
Configuration
 Adjustable Output Regulator
 Current Regulator
 Adjustable DC Voltage Regulator
 Regulated Dual-Supply
 Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
 Reverse bias projection Circuit
7805 Voltage regulator also finds usage in building circuits for
inductance meter, phone charger, portable CD player, infrared
remote control extension and UPS power supply circuits.

26
2.4 LED
Introduction to LED Lighting
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a relatively old technology, circa 1970, that
has advanced from numeric displays and indicator lights to a range of
new applications, including exit signs, accent lights, task lights, traffic
lights, automobile lighting, signage, wall sconces, and outdoor lighting
and down lighting.

LEDs offer benefits such as small size, long lamp life, low heat output,
energy savings and durability. They also allow extraordinary design
flexibility in color changing, dimming and distribution by combining
these small units into desired shapes, colors, sizes and lumen packages.

Characteristics
LEDs are solid state semiconductor devices. LED illumination is achieved
when a semiconductor crystal is excited so that it directly produces
visible light in a desired wavelength range (color). LED units are small,
typically 5mm (T 1-3/4).

Method of Operation
When an LED unit is activated, a power supply converts AC voltage into
sufficient DC voltage, which is applied across the diode semiconductor
crystal. This results in electrons (negative charge carriers [N]) in the
diode’s electron transport layer and holes (positive charge carriers [P])
in the diode’s hole transport layer combining at the P-N junction and
converting their excess energy into light. The LED is sealed in a clear or
diffuse plastic lens that can provide a range of angular distributions of
the light.

Color
The color composition of the light being emitted by the LED is based on
the chemical composition of the material being excited. LEDs are
27
available that can produce colors including white, deep blue, blue,
green, yellow, amber, orange, red, bright red and deep red.

Efficacy
LEDs are low-voltage, low-current devices and efficient light sources.
For red, amber, yellow, green and blue LEDs, new materials have been
developed that are more efficient than traditional materials, producing
efficacies (lumens per watt) greater than incandescent lamps and
rivaling fluorescent lamps. A. Efficacies as high as 100 LPW have already
been achieved in laboratory conditions. According to Steve Johnson,
group leader of lighting research for the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, “It is not unrealistic to expect the efficacy of solid-state
sources to achieve 150-200 lumens per watt in the coming decades.”

White Light LEDs

The utilization of indium gallium nitride (InGaN) as a semiconductor
material resulted in the brightest LEDs and enabled development of
white light LEDs.

White light LEDs feature a phosphor added to a blue LED that converts
some of the light emission into yellow, resulting in a bluish-white light.
White light LEDs are therefore a cool light source with a spectrum of
correlated color temperatures of 4,000-11,000K. White light can also be
achieved by color mixing the light produced by red, blue and green
LEDs.

28
2.5 RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element, Resistors act to
reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels
within circuits, Resistors may have fixed resistances or variable
resistances, such as those found in thermistors, varistors, trimmers,
photo resistors, humistors and potentiometers,

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage

across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by
Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is

the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of
volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms(symbol:
Ω)

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the

intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be
assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary
resistors working within their ratings.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic

circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors
can be composed of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wires (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly
analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed
circuits

29
The Electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more
than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an
electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require
attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor,
according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the
resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in
a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics
applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger
and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given
resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause
the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel

capacitance, these specifications can be important in high-frequency
applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise
characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coellicient are mainly dependent on the
technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally
specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured
using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also
characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device
and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the
practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
30
THEORY OF OPERATION

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through

circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with
hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water.
Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water
through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage
drop) to drive the same flow (electric current).

1.Ohm's law:-The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the

relationship specified by Ohm's law: Ohm’s law states that the voltage
(V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).Equivalently, Ohm's law
can be stated.

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage
(V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used
in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of
12/300 = 0.04 amperes(or 40 mill amperes) flows through that resistor

2. Series and parallel resistors:- In a series configuration, the current

through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each
resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference
(voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the
total resistance can be found as the Sum of those resistances:

31
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each
of the same resistance R, is given by NR. Thus, if a 100K ohm resistor
and a 22K ohm resistor are connected in series, their combined
resistance will be 122K ohm- they will function in a circuit as though
they were a single resistor with a resistance value of 122K ohm;
three 22K ohm resistors (N=3, R=22K) will produce a resistance of
3x22K=66K ohms.

Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same

potential difference (voltage). however the currents through them add.
The conductance of the resistors then add to determine the
conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Rs.) of the
network can be computed: So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor
connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor will
produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or
1/(1+2+.067)=2.725 ohms. The greater the number of resistors in
parallel, the less overall resistance they will collectively generate, and
the resistance will never be higher than that of the resistor with the
lowest resistance in the group (in the case above, the resistor with the
least resistance is the 5 ohm resistor, therefore the combined
resistance of all resistors attached to it in parallel will never be greater
than 5 ohms).

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by

two vertical lines "l l" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation.
Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "l l", in case the
keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two
resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using: A resistor network that
is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up
into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
32
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in
this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance,
consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor.
What then is the resistance that would be measured between two
opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be
shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is of the individual
resistance.

More generally, the Y-A transform, or matrix methods can be used to

solve such a problem.

One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard

value of resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a
number of standard values in series or parallel. This can also be used to
obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the
individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all
connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the
composite resistor is N times the power rating of the individual
resistors.

3. Power dissipation:- At any instant of time, the power P consumed by

a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated as: where V (volts) is the
voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through
it. The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law,
the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat
which must be dissipated by the resistor's package. The total amount of
heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the
integral of the power over that period of time: Therefore one could
write the average power dissipated over that particular time period as:
If the time interval; - is chosen to be one complete cycle of a periodic

33
waveform (or an integer number of cycles), then this result is equal to
the long-term average power generated as heat which will be
dissipated continuously. With a periodic waveform (such as, but not
limited to, a sine wave), then this average over complete cycles (or over
the long term) is conveniently given by where Ime and I are the root
mean square values of the current and voltage. In any case, that heat
generated in the resistor must be dissipated before its temperature
rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation.

Most discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems absorb much
less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their
power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the
packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.

An aluminium-housed power resistor rated for 50 w when heat-sinked

Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power,
particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits. and
power amplifiers are generally referred to as power resistors; this
designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of I watt or
greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the
preferred values, colour codes, and external packages described below.

If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power

rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its
resistance, this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due
to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power
dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it
can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a
fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they

34
overheat dangerously Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high
operating temperatures may occur, resistors may be specified with
higher rated dissipation than will be experienced in service Some types
and ratings of resistors may also have a maximum voltage rating: this
may limit available power dissipation for higher resistance values.

MEASUREMENT

The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may

be one function of a multimeter. Usually, probes on the ends of test
leads connect to the resistor. A simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage
from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal resistor of
a known value in series) producing a current which drives a meter
movement. The current, in accordance with Ohm's law, is inversely
proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being
tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non-linear,
calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms. A digital multimeter, using active
electronics, may instead pass a specified current through the test
resistance. The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case
is linearly proportional to its resistance, which is measured and
displayed. In either case the low-resistance ranges of the meter pass
much more current through the test leads than do high-resistance
ranges, in order for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels
(generally below 10 volts) but still measurable.

Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm resistors, with

acceptable accuracy requires four-terminal connections. One pair of
terminals applies a known, calibrated current to the resistor, while the
other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor. Some laboratory
quality ohmmeters, especially milliohm meters, and even some of the

35
better digital multimeters sense using four input terminals for this
purpose, which may be used with special test leads. Each of the two so-
called Kelvin clips has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side
of each clip applies the measuring current, while the other connections
are only to sense the voltage drop. The resistance is again calculated
using Ohm's Law as the measured voltage divided by the applied
current.

COLOR CODE

The axial lead carbon resistors measured by the colour codes marked
on them. Information such as resistance value, tolerance, temperature
co-efficient measured by the colour codes, and the amount of power
(wattage) identified by the size.

The colour bands of the carbon resistors can be four, five or, six bands,
for all the first two bands represent first two digits to measure their
value in ohms. The third band of a four-banded resistor represents
multiplier and the fourth band as tolerance. Whereas, the five and six
colour-banded resistors, the third band rather represents as third digit
but the fourth and fifth bands represent as multiplier and tolerance
respectively. Only the sixth band represents temperature co-efficient in
a six-banded resistor.

36
FIG 2.6 – COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS

2.6 CAPACITOR
INTRODUCTION

The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to

store energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential
difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small
rechargeable battery.

There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small
capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to large power factor
correction capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge.

In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive

(metal) plates which are not connected or touching each other, but are
37
electrically separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating
material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a
liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer
between a capacitors plates is commonly called the Dielectric.

FIG 2.7 – A TYPICAL CAPACITOR

Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the
capacitor as it blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across
the plates in the form of an electrical charge.

The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular

or rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with
the general shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor
depending on its application and voltage rating.

When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a capacitor charges up to its

supply voltage but blocks the flow of current through it because the
dielectric of a capacitor is non-conductive and basically an insulator.
However, when a capacitor is connected to an alternating current or AC
circuit, the flow of the current appears to pass straight through the
capacitor with little or no resistance.

There are two types of electrical charge, a positive charge in the form of
Protons and a negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC
voltage is placed across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge quickly
accumulates on one plate while a corresponding and opposite negative
(-ve) charge accumulates on the other plate. For every particle of +ve

38
charge that arrives at one plate a charge of the same sign will depart
from the -ve plate.

Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to
this charge is established between the two plates. Once the capacitor
reaches its steady state condition an electrical current is unable to flow
through the capacitor itself and around the circuit due to the insulating
properties of the dielectric used to separate the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the

capacitors Charging Current which continues to flow until the voltage
across both plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied
voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be “fully charged” with
electrons.

The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value

when the plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly
reduces in value to zero as the plates charge up to a potential
difference across the capacitors plates equal to the source voltage.

The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor

depends upon how much charge was deposited onto the plates by the
work being done by the source voltage and also by how much
capacitance the capacitor has and this is illustrated below.

39
FIG 2.8 – PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be
constructed using two metal or metallized foil plates at a distance
parallel to each other, with its capacitance value in Farads, being fixed
by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance of
separation between them. Altering any two of these values alters the
value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of the
variable capacitors.

Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form
of an electrical charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller
their separation the greater will be the charge that the capacitor holds
for any given voltage across its plates. In other words, larger plates,
smaller distance, more capacitance.

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the

plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the
capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore given as: C =
Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the familiar formula
for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V

40
Although we have said that the charge is stored on the plates of a
capacitor, it is more exact to say that the energy within the charge is
stored in an “electrostatic field” between the two plates. When an
electric current flows into the capacitor, it charges up, so the
electrostatic field becomes much stronger as it stores more energy
between the plates.

Likewise, as the current flowing out of the capacitor, discharging it, the
potential difference between the two plates decreases and the
electrostatic field decreases as the energy moves out of the plates.

The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of

an electrostatic field is called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not only
that, but capacitance is also the property of a capacitor which resists
the change of voltage across it.

The Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure

of a capacitors ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates
with the unit of capacitance being the Farad (abbreviated to F) named
after the British physicist Michael Faraday.

Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance

of One Farad when a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by
a voltage of One volt. Note that capacitance, C is always positive in
value and has no negative units. However, the Farad is a very large unit
of measurement to use on its own so sub-multiples of the Farad are
generally used such as micro-farads, Nano-farads and Pico-farads, for
example.

41
Standard Units of Capacitance

Microfarad  (μF)   1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nano farad  (nF)   1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad  (pF)   1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-

12 F

Then using the information above we can construct a simple table to

help us convert between Pico-Farad (pF), to Nano-Farad (nF), to micro-
Farad (μF) and to Farads (F) as shown.

Pico-Farad (pF) Nano-Farad (nF) Micro-Farad (μF) Farads (F)

1,000 1.0 0.001

10,000 10.0 0.01

1,000,000 1,000 1.0

10,000 10.0

100,000 100

1,000,000 1,000 0.001

42
 10,000 0.01

100,000 0.1

1,000,000 1.0

TABLE 2.3 – CONVERSION OF CAPACITANCE UNITS

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the

area, A in metres2 of the smallest of the two plates and inversely
proportional to the distance or separation, d (i.e. the dielectric
thickness) given in meters between these two conductive plates.

The generalized equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate

capacitor is given as: C = ε(A/d) where ε represents the absolute
permittivity of the dielectric material being used. The dielectric
constant, εo also known as the “permittivity of free space” has the
value of the constant 8.84 x 10-12 Farads per meter.

To make the maths a little easier, this dielectric constant of free

space, εo, which can be written as: 1/(4π x 9×109), may also have the
units of Pico farads (pF) per meter as the constant giving: 8.84 for the
value of free space. Note though that the resulting capacitance value
will be in Pico farads and not in farads.

Generally, the conductive plates of a capacitor are separated by some

kind of insulating material or gel rather than a perfect vacuum. When

43
calculating the capacitance of a capacitor, we can consider the
permittivity of air, and especially of dry air, as being the same value as a
vacuum as they are very close.

FIG 2.9 – CAPACITENCE OF A CAPACITOR

The Dielectric of a Capacitor

As well as the overall size of the conductive plates and their distance or
spacing apart from each other, another factor which affects the overall
capacitance of the device is the type of dielectric material being used.
In other words the “Permittivity” (ε) of the dielectric.

The conductive plates of a capacitor are generally made of a metal foil

or a metal film allowing for the flow of electrons and charge, but the
dielectric material used is always an insulator. The various insulating
materials used as the dielectric in a capacitor differ in their ability to
block or pass an electrical charge.

This dielectric material can be made from a number of insulating

materials or combinations of these materials with the most common
types used being: air, paper, polyester, polypropylene, Mylar, ceramic,
glass, oil, or a variety of other materials.

44
The factor by which the dielectric material, or insulator, increases the
capacitance of the capacitor compared to air is known as the Dielectric
Constant, k and a dielectric material with a high dielectric constant is a
better insulator than a dielectric material with a lower dielectric
constant. Dielectric constant is a dimensionless quantity since it is
relative to free space.

The actual permittivity or “complex permittivity” of the dielectric

material between the plates is then the product of the permittivity of
free space (εo) and the relative permittivity (εr) of the material being
used as the dielectric and is given as:

Complex Permittivity

In other words, if we take the permittivity of free space, εo as our base

level and make it equal to one, when the vacuum of free space is
replaced by some other type of insulating material, their permittivity of
its dielectric is referenced to the base dielectric of free space giving a
multiplication factor known as “relative permittivity”, εr. So the value of
the complex permittivity, ε will always be equal to the relative
permittivity times one.

Typical units of dielectric permittivity, ε or dielectric constant for

common materials are: Pure Vacuum = 1.0000, Air = 1.0006, Paper =
2.5 to 3.5, Glass = 3 to 10, Mica = 5 to 7, Wood = 3 to 8 and Metal Oxide
Powders = 6 to 20 etc. This then gives us a final equation for the
capacitance of a capacitor as:

45
One method used to increase the overall capacitance of a capacitor
while keeping its size small is to “interleave” more plates together
within a single capacitor body. Instead of just one set of parallel plates,
a capacitor can have many individual plates connected together
thereby increasing the surface area, A of the plates.
For a standard parallel plate capacitor as shown above, the capacitor
has two plates, labeled A and B. Therefore as the number of capacitor
plates is two, we can say that n = 2, where “n” represents the number
of plates.

Then our equation above for a single parallel plate capacitor should
really be:

However, the capacitor may have two parallel plates but only one side
of each plate is in contact with the dielectric in the middle as the other
side of each plate forms the outside of the capacitor. If we take the two
halves of the plates and join them together we effectively only have
“one” whole plate in contact with the dielectric.

As for a single parallel plate capacitor, n – 1 = 2 – 1 which

equals 1 as C = (εo*εr x 1 x A)/d is exactly the same as
saying: C = (εo*εr*A)/d which is the standard equation above.

Now suppose we have a capacitor made up of 9 interleaved plates,

then n = 9 as shown.

Multi-plate Capacitor

46
FIG 2.10 MULTI PLATE CAPACITOR
Now we have five plates connected to one lead (A) and four plates to
the other lead (B). Then BOTH sides of the four plates connected to
lead B are in contact with the dielectric, whereas only one side of each
of the outer plates connected to A is in contact with the dielectric. Then
as above, the useful surface area of each set of plates is only eight and
its capacitance is therefore given as:

Modern capacitors can be classified according to the characteristics and

properties of their insulating dielectric:

Low Loss, High Stability such as Mica, Low-K Ceramic, Polystyrene.

Medium Loss, Medium Stability such as Paper, Plastic Film, High-K

Ceramic.

Polarized Capacitors such as Electrolytic’s, Tantalum’s.

Voltage Rating of a Capacitor

All capacitors have a maximum voltage rating and when selecting a

capacitor consideration must be given to the amount of voltage to be
applied across the capacitor. The maximum amount of voltage that can
be applied to the capacitor without damage to its dielectric material is

47
generally given in the data sheets as: WV, (working voltage) or as WV
DC, (DC working voltage).

If the voltage applied across the capacitor becomes too great, the
dielectric will break down (known as electrical breakdown) and arcing
will occur between the capacitor plates resulting in a short-circuit. The
working voltage of the capacitor depends on the type of dielectric
material being used and its thickness.

The DC working voltage of a capacitor is just that, the maximum DC

voltage and NOT the maximum AC voltage as a capacitor with a DC
voltage rating of 100 volts DC cannot be safely subjected to an
alternating voltage of 100 volts. Since an alternating voltage that has an
RMS value of 100 volts will have a peak value of over 141 volts!
(√2 x 100).

Then a capacitor which is required to operate at 100 volts AC should

have a working voltage of at least 200 volts. In practice, a capacitor
should be selected so that its working voltage either DC or AC should be
at least 50 percent greater than the highest effective voltage to be
applied to it.

Another factor which affects the operation of a capacitor is Dielectric

Leakage. Dielectric leakage occurs in a capacitor as the result of an
unwanted leakage current which flows through the dielectric material.

Generally, it is assumed that the resistance of the dielectric is extremely

high and a good insulator blocking the flow of DC current through the
capacitor (as in a perfect capacitor) from one plate to the other.

However, if the dielectric material becomes damaged due excessive

voltage or over temperature, the leakage current through the dielectric
48
will become extremely high resulting in a rapid loss of charge on the
plates and an overheating of the capacitor eventually resulting in
premature failure of the capacitor. Then never use a capacitor in a
circuit with higher voltages than the capacitor is rated for otherwise it
may become hot and explode.

Introduction to Capacitors Summary

We have seen in this tutorial that the job of a capacitor is to store

electrical charge onto its plates. The amount of electrical charge that a
capacitor can store on its plates is known as its Capacitance value and
depends upon three main factors.

Surface Area – the surface area, A of the two conductive plates which

make up the capacitor, the larger the area the greater the capacitance.

Distance – the distance, d between the two plates, the smaller the

distance the greater the capacitance.

Dielectric Material – the type of material which separates the two

plates called the “dielectric”, the higher the permittivity of the
dielectric the greater the capacitance.

We have also seen that a capacitor consists of metal plates that do not
touch each other but are separated by a material called a dielectric. The
dielectric of a capacitor can be air, or even a vacuum but is generally a
non-conducting insulating material, such as waxed paper, glass, mica
different types of plastics etc. The dielectric provides the following
advantages:

49
The dielectric constant is the property of the dielectric material and
varies from one material to another increasing the capacitance by a
factor of k.

The dielectric provides mechanical support between the two plates

allowing the plates to be closer together without touching.

Permittivity of the dielectric increases the capacitance.

The dielectric increases the maximum operating voltage compared to

air.

Capacitors can be used in many different applications and circuits such

as blocking DC current while passing audio signals, pulses, or
alternating current, or other time varying wave forms. This ability to
block DC currents enables capacitors to be used to smooth the output
voltages of power supplies, to remove unwanted spikes from signals
that would otherwise tend to cause damage or false triggering of
semiconductors or digital components.

Capacitors can also be used to adjust the frequency response of an

audio circuit, or to couple together separate amplifier stages that must
be protected from the transmission of DC current.

At DC a capacitor has infinite impedance (open -circuit), at very high

frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance (short-circuit). All
capacitors have a maximum working voltage rating, its WV DC so select
a capacitor with a rating at least 50% more than the supply voltage.

There are a large variety of capacitor styles and types, each one having
its own particular advantage, disadvantage and characteristics.

50
2.7 BATTERY

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical

cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such
as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is
supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the
source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to
the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external
electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-
energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the
external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery"
specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however
the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

FIG 2.11 BATTERIES

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and

discarded, as the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during
discharge; a common example is the alkaline battery used for flashlights
and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary
(rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple
51
times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the
electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include
the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used
for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used
in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in
vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of
rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than

common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset
by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical
energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many

cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or
bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the
electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li,
which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-
electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such
that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if
electrons move through the external part of the circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of

two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing
metal cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative

52
electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions)
migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive
electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations
are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms
are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. Some cells use
different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to
prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between
half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts)

relative to a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between
the emfs of its half-cells.[ Thus, if the electrodes have emfs  and , then
the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between
the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or  across the terminals of a cell is known as

the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal
voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called
the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of
internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is
smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An
ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a
constant terminal voltage of  until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If
such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of
one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed
1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases
under discharge] and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under
discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the

53
resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy

release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and
electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries,
but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical
potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

TYPES OF BATTERIES

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy

then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible,
so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the
battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is
useless.
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their
chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell.
This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be
used, recharged, and used again multiple times.
Some types of primary batteries used, for example,
for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the
electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to

54
dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal
corrosion.
Primary
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on
assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have
low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away
from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication
circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available.
Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may
not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend
against attempting to recharge primary cells. In general, these have
higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications
with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable
batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
Secondary
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable
batteries, must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled
with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries
are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply
the appropriate current are called chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which
are widely used in automotive and boating applications. This
technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container,
requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well
ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces
during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the
amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost
and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity
55
(over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling
issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in
general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular
in the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell.
The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing
the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries
immobilize the electrolyte.

The two types are:

 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a
special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell"
types, that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop
computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and
cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced
NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains
in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.
In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded
electronics such as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery
through a USB connector, nano ball batteries that allow for a discharge
rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs
with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that
prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows
secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

56
LIFETIME

Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for
rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeable. For
rechargeable, it can mean either the length of time a device can run on
a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles
possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-
rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one
cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how long a
battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.)
Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In
contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in
1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge,
although it supplies current only in the Nano amp range. The Oxford
Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its
original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.

57
2.8 DC MOTOR

Faradays used oersteds discovered, that electricity could be used to

produce motion, to build the world first electric motor in 1821. Ten years
later, using the same logic in reverse, faraday was interested in getting the
motion produced by oersteds experiment to be continuous, rather then just
a rotatory shift in position. In his experiments, faraday thought in terms of
magnetic lines of force. He visualized how flux lines existing around a
current carrying wire and a bar magnet. He was then able to produce a
device in which the different lines of force could interact a produce
continues rotation. The basic faradays motor uses a free-swinging wire that
circles around the end of a bar magnet. The bottom end of the wire is in a
pool of mercury. Which allows the wire to rotate while keeping a complete
electric circuit.

Fig 2.12 – DC MOTOR

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BASIC MOTOR ACTION

Although Faraday's motor was ingenious. It could not be used to do any

practical work. This is because its drive shaft was enclosed and it could
only produce an internal orbital motion. It could not transfer its mechanical
energy to the outside for deriving an external load. However it did show
how the magnetic fields of a conductor and a magnet could be made to
interact to produce continuous motion. Faradays motor orbited its wire rotor
must pass through the magnet’s lines of force.

Fig 2.13 – Faraday Law

When a current is passes through the wire. circular lines of force are
produced around the wire. Those flux lines go in a direction described by

59
the left-hand rule. The lines of force of the magnet go from the N pole to the
S pole You can see that on one side of the wire, the magnetic lines of force
are going in the opposite direction as a result the wire, s flux lines oppose
the magnet’s flux line since flux lines takes the path of least resistance,
more lines concentrate on the other side of the wire conductor, the lines are
bent and are very closely spaced. The lines tend to straighten and be wider
spaced. Because of this the denser, curved field pushes the wire in the
opposite direction.
The direction in which the wire is moved is determined by the right hand
rule. If the current in the wire went in the opposite direction. The direction of
its flux lines would reverse, and the wire would be pushed the other way.

60
RULES FOR MOTOR ACTION
The left hand rule shows the direction of the flux lines around a wire that is
carrying current. When the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic
lines of force. The right hand rule for motors shows the direction that a
current carrying wire will be moved in a magnetic field. When the forefinger
is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field lines, and the centre finger is
pointed in the direction of the current in the wire the thumb will point in the
direction that the wire will be moved.

FIG 2.14 – RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE

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TORQUE AND ROTATORY
MOTION

In the basic action you just studied the wire only moves in a straight line
and stops moving once out of the field even though the current is still on. A
practical motor must develop a basic twisting force called torque loop. We
can see how torque is produced. If the loop is connected to a battery.
Current flows in one direction one side of the loop, and in the opposite
direction on the other. Therefore the concentric direction on the two sides.

If we mount the loop in a fixed magnetic field and supply the current the flux
lines of the field and both sides of the loop will interact, causing the loop to
act like a lever with a force pushing on its two sides in opposite directions.
The combined forces result in turning force, or torque because the loop is
arranged to piot on its axis. In a motor the loop that moves in the field is
called an armature or rotor. The overall turning force on the armature
depends upon several factors including field strength armature current
strength and the physical construction of the armature especially the
distance from the loop sides to the axis lines. Because of the lever action
the force on the sides are further from the axis; thus large armature will
produce greater torques.

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Fig 2.15 Loop Axis

Fig 2.16 Torque

In the practical motor the torque determines the energy available for doing
useful work. The greater the torque the greater the energy. If a motor does
not develop enough torque to pull its load it stalls.

63
Producing Continuous Rotation

The armature turns when torque is produced and torque is produced as

long as the fields of the magnet and armature interact. When the loop
reaches a position perpendicular to the field, the interaction of the magnetic
field stops. This position is known as the neutral plane. In the neutral plane,
no torque is produced and the rotation of the armature should stop;
however inertia tends to keep a moving object in the motion even after the
prime moving force is removed and thus the armature tends to rotate past
the neutral plane. But when the armature continues o the sides of the loop
start to swing back in to the flux lines, and apply a force to push the sides
of the loop back and a torque is developed in the opposite direction.
Instead of a continuous rotation an oscillating motion is produced until the
armature stops in the neutral plane.

Fig 2.17 Neutral Plane

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Fig 2.18 Neutral Plane

To get continuous rotation we must keep the armature turning in the same
direction as it passes through the neutral plane .We could do this by
reversing either the direction of the current flow through the armature at the
instant the armature goes through the neutral pole. Current reversals of this
type are normally the job of circuit switching devices. Since the switch
would have to be synchronized with the armature, it is more logical to build
it into the armature then in to the field. The practical switching device,
which can change the direction of current flow through an armature to
maintain continuous rotation, is called a commutator.

65
THE COMMUTATOR

For the single-loop armature, the commutator is simple. It is a conducting

ring that is split into two segment with each segment connected to an end
of the armature loop. Power for the armature from an external power
source such as a battery is brought to the commutator segments by means
of brushes. The arrangement is almost identical to that for the basic dc
generator.

The logic behind the operation of the commutator is easy to see in the
figures. You can see in figure A that current flows into the side of the
armature closest to the South Pole of the field and out of the side closest to
the North Pole. The interaction of the two fields produces a torque in the
direction indicated, and the armature rotates in that direction.

No torque is produced but the armature continues to rotate past the neutral
plane due to inertia. Notice that at the neutral position the commutator
disconnects from the brushes sides of the loop reverse positions. But the
switching action of the commutator keeps the direction of current flow
through the armature the same as it was in the figure. A. Current still flows
into the armature side that is now closest to the South Pole.

66
Since the magnet’s field direction remains the same throughout the
interaction of fields after commutation keeps the torque going in the original
direction; thus the same direction of rotation is maintained.

As you can see in figure D, Inertia again carries the armature past neutral
to the position shown in the fig. A while communication keeps the current
flowing in the direction that continues to maintain rotation. In this way, the
commutator keeps switching the current through the loop, so that the field it
produces always interacts with the pole field to develop a continuous
torque in the same direction.

Fig 2.19 (a)

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Fig 2.19 (b)

Fig 2.19 (c)

68
Fig 2.19 (d)

69
THE ELEMANTARY D-C MOTOR

At this point, you have been introduced to the four principal parts that make
up the elementary D.C motor. These parts are the same as those you met
in your study of the basic D.C generator .a magnetic field, a movable
conductor, a commutator and brushes. In practice, the magnetic field can
be supplied by a permanent magnet or by an electromagnet. For most
discussions covering various motor operating principles, we will assume
that a permanent magnet is used at other times when it is important for you
to understand that the field of the motor is develop electrically, we will show
that an electromagnet is used. In either case, the magnetic field itself
consists of magnetic flux lines that form a closed magnetic circuit. The flux
lines leave the north pole of the magnet, extend across the air gap between
the poles of the magnet, enter the South Pole and then travel through the
magnet itself back to the north pole. The movable conductor, usually a
loop, called armature, therefore is in the magnetic field.

When D.C motor is supplied to the armature through the brushes and
commutator, magnetic flux is also build up around the armature. It is this
armature flux that interacts with the magnetic field in which the armature is
suspended to develop the torque that makes the motor operate.

70
Fig 2.20 – Elementary Of DC Motor

71
CHAPTER-3
PROCEDURE FOR MAKING PROJECT

Building project in the proper manner is really an art, something which must
be prectised and learned through trial and error, it is not all that difficult.
The main thing is to remember to take each step slowly and carefully
according to the instructions giving making since that everything at it should
be before proceeding further.

TOOLS: The electronics workbench is an actual place of work with

comfortably & conveniently & should be supplied with compliment of those
tools must often use in project building. Probably the most important device
is a soldering tool. Other tool which should be at the electronic work bench
includes a pair of needle nose pliers, diagonal wire cutter, a small knife, an
assortment of screw driver, nut driver, few nuts & bolts, electrical tape,
plucker etc. Diagonal wire cutter will be used to cut away any excess lead
length from copper side of P.C.B. 7 to cut section of the board after the
circuit is complete. The needle nose pliers are most often using to bend
wire leads & wrap them in order to form a strong mechanical connection.

Fig 2.21 – Soldering tool

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MOUNTING & SOLDERING: Soldering is process of joining together two
metallic parts. It is actually a process of function in which an alloy, the
solder, with a comparatively low melting point penetrates the surface of the
metal being joined & makes a firm joint between them on cooling &
solidifying.

Fig 2.22 – Mounting

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THE SOLDERING KIT

1. SOLDERING IRON:
As soldering is a process of joining together two
metallic parts, the instrument, which is used, for doing this job is known as
soldering Iron. Thus it is meant for melting the solder and to setup the
metal parts being joined. Soldering Iron is rated according to their wattage,
which varies from 10- 200 watts.

2. SOLDER:
The raw material used for soldering is solder. It is composition of lead
& tin. The good quality solder (a type of flexible naked wire) is 60% Tin
+40% Lead which will melt between 180 degree to 200 degree C
temperature.

3. FLUXES OR SOLDERING PASTE:

When the points to solder are heated, an oxide film forms. This must
be removed at once so that solder may get to the surface of the metal
parts. This is done by applying chemical substance called Flux, which boils
under the heat of the iron remove the oxide formation and enable the metal
to receive the solder.
4. BLADES OR KNIFE:
To clean the surface & leads of components to be soldered is done
by this common instrument.

5. SAND PAPER:
The oxide formation may attack at the tip of your soldering iron &
create the problem. To prevent this, clean the tip with the help of sand
paper time to time or you may use blade for doing this job. Apart from all
these tools, the working bench for soldering also includes desoldering
pump, wink wire (used for desoldering purpose), file etc.

74
HOW TO SOLDER?
Mount components at their appropriate place; bend the leads slightly
outwards to prevent them from falling out when the board is turned over for
soldering. No cut the leads so that you may solder them easily. Apply a
small amount of flux at these components leads with the help of a
screwdriver. Now fix the bit or iron with a small amount of solder and flow
freely at the point and the P.C.B copper track at the same time. A good
solder joint will appear smooth & shiny. If all appear well, you may continue
to the next solder connections.

TIPS FOR GOOD SOLDERING

1. Use right type of soldering iron. A small efficient soldering iron (about
10-25 watts with 1/8 or 1/4 inch tip) is ideal for this work.

2. Keep the hot tip of the soldering iron on a piece of metal so that excess
heat is dissipated.

3. Make sure that connection to the soldered is clean. Wax frayed

insulation and other substances cause poor soldering connection. Clean
the leads, wires, tags etc. before soldering.

4. Use just enough solder to cover the lead to be soldered. Excess solder
can cause a short circuit.

1. Use sufficient heat. This is the essence of good soldering. Apply enough
heat to the component lead. You are not using enough heat, if the solder
barely melts and forms a round ball of rough flaky solder. A good solder
joint will look smooth, shining and spread type. The difference between
good & bad soldering is just a few seconds extra with a hot iron applied
firmly.

75
PRECAUTIONS

1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering.

Follow the circuit description and components details, leads
identification etc. Do not start soldering before making it confirm that all
the components are mounted at the right place.

2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.

3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.

4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you
want it.

5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may
damage the components or board.

6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry
or a cold joint.

7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sure about the
voltage either dc or ac while operating the gadget.

8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may

short circuit with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves at
the component leads or use sleeved wire for connections.

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9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all
the joints are clean and well shiny.

10. Do make loose wire connections especially with cell holder, speaker,
probes etc. Put knots while connections to the circuit board, otherwise
it may get loose.

77