Epithermal Environments - Introduction To Lithocaps DRC 2017
Epithermal Environments - Introduction To Lithocaps DRC 2017
Epithermal Environments - Introduction To Lithocaps DRC 2017
– characteristics, origins and significance for
porphyry and epithermal exploration
David R Cooke, Noel C White, Lejun Zhang,
Zhaoshan Chang and Huayong Chen
Cathedral Peak lithocap, Cerro Casale, Chile
Lithocap – definition
Altered horizons of hypogene leached rock associated with
pyritic advanced argillic and silicic alteration (± vuggy texture)
Tantahuatay II open pit, Peru
Where do lithocaps form?
• They typically form in magmatic arcs
• They are related to degassing of
shallow‐crustal hydrous magmas
• They define the main outflow zone
From Sillitoe, 1995
between the hydrous intrusion and
the paleosurface
• The intrusions may host porphyry
Cu, Au, Mo or Sn deposits
Tantahuatay lithocap, Peru
Porphyry Cu model
Sillitoe (2010)
• Porphyry deposits are
surrounded by huge
volumes of
hydrothermal alteration
Base of
• The most intense acidic lithocap
alteration (clays, micas,
quartz) occurs above
the porphyry ore zone
• The acid assemblages
are superimposed onto
the potassic alteration
zone in some porphyry
deposits (telescoping)
Sillitoe (2010)
Lithocap recognition
• To identify a lithocap:
• Map the distribution of alteration minerals
• If hypogene silicic (residual quartz), advanced argillic and argillic zones form a
laterally extensive horizon, then it can be termed a lithocap
• Lithocaps may exceed 20 km2 in original areal extent and 1 km in thickness
• They are typically topographically prominent
• But their vertical extent has commonly been reduced by erosion
Cocanes lithocap, Peru
Hydrology and relationships to mineralisation
• The large areal extent of lithocaps is caused
by lateral flow of acidic solutions
• All lithocaps have structural roots
• Not all acid‐altered structures have an
associated lithocap if structures did not
intersect lateral permeability
• Lithocaps may host high
sulfidation state mineralisation
• Lithocaps can overlie or be
superimposed onto porphyry
deposits
• A lithocap does not prove
that mineralization is present
Baguio lithocap, Philippines
Lateral outflow
Upflow zone
Modified from Holiday and Cooke (2007), with
inspiration from Sillitoe and Thompson (2006)
Examples of mineralised lithocaps
Age Resource
Name Location Grades Contained metal
(Ma) (Mt)
Examples of mineralised lithocaps
13.6 – 1.00 g/t Au, 53 Moz Au,
Yanacocha Peru 1,650
8.2 10.0 g/t Ag 530.5 Moz Ag
Far Southeast 1.5 – 1.42 g/t Au, 31.27 Moz Au, Massive quartz
Philippines 685
1.2 0.8% Cu, 0.53 g/t Ag
‐ Lepanto lithocap, Tujuh Bukit district, Indonesia 5.48 Mt Cu, 11.7 Moz Ag
Tumpangpitu
4.8 – 0.45 g/t Au, 0.45 % Cu, 30.1 Moz Au, 8.6 Mt Cu,
Tumpangpitu Indonesia 1,900
3.99 0.98 g/t Ag, 90 ppm Mo 59.8 Moz Ag, 0.18 Mt Mo
Cerro Casale Chile 13.5 1,285 0.70 g/t Au, 0.35 % Cu 28.94 Moz Au, 4.50 Mt Cu
Gold in massive quartz, Pascua‐Lama, Chile and Argentina
Advanced
argillic and
silicic
alteration –
Size matters!
Well, most of
the time… El Indio 8 Moz
(cf. El Indio)
(Arribas et al., Gold in 2000 – Slide Courtesy J Hedenquist)
One or several lithocaps?
• Are extensive lithocaps one big
alteration system (e.g.,
Mankayan, Philippines), or
several overlapping lithocaps
(e.g., Tujuh Bukit, Indonesia)?
• Both situations probably occur
• Some lithocaps can be shown to
be unrelated to the most
obvious nearby intrusion or
porphyry deposit
• Do not jump to conclusions
Shuteen lithocap, Mongolia
• Dating is critical
Photo courtesy of Danilo Marcos, Gold Fields
Magmatic‐hydrothermal fluids in the shallow crust
GAS PHASE Partitioning changes LIQUID (BRINE) PHASE
with changes in P, T
• Low density • Higher density
• High SO2 (g), HCl (g) Gas Liquid • Low SO2, HCl
• Volumetrically • Minor component
abundant volumetrically
• Low NaCl, metals • High NaCl, metals
• At shallow depths (< 4 km),
Supercritical aqueous Supercritical
fluid aqueous magmatic fluid will
magmatic fluid
split into two separate phases
• Dissociation of acidic species during vapour ascent, and/or condensation into
groundwater produces an extremely acidic solution that causes widespread leaching
White, 1990
Lateral alteration zoning
Feeder structures
commonly 2‐3 metres
Fault zone
‐ Silicic Clay Propylitic
alteration alteration alteration
vuggy to
massive
pH quartz 2 kaolinite 3 kaolinite 4 5 chlorite
Shallow
illite
pyrite alunite illite smectite carbonate
(enargite)
Deep
quartz pyrophyllite muscovite muscovite chlorite
pyrite dickite pyrophyllite chlorite epidote
Esperanza vein, Collahuasi, Chile (chalcocite) muscovite
GOLD After White, 1991
Vertical sulfur
Acid‐leached zone with limonite staining and native
at contact between supergene & hypogene ore
Disseminated Au – Ag
in lacustrine sediments
QH
alteration V V X
X
X Dacite
QA
V
V V X dome
V
QA
QH
Andesite flows QA QA
zonation ‐ V V V
IA X
X
QK
V QA V QA
Au – Ag in vuggy
lithocaps QA
QA
QA
quartz
QA
QK IA
500 m IA
LS Au – Au – enargite in QK
QA
QK
QA
Ag veins hydrothermal
breccia Au –
QA IA
QA QD enargite in
LS Zn – Pb – QD QA
massive
IA QD pyrite
Ag – Au veins
Vuggy QP
0 quartz
QD IA
500 m Top of basement QD QM
IA QP +
ALTERATION QD
QM
IA: Intermediate argillic +
+
QM
K: K‐silicate + + Pyrite – enargite/bornite
QA: quartz – alunite Zn – Pb – Ag manto + QM
IA
replacement body
QD: quartz – dickite + + K
K
QH: quartz – halloysite + Disseminated Cu‐sulfides
Limestone ++ K
QK: quartz – kaolinite + Chalcopyrite in K‐silicate
QP: quartz – pyrophyllite + +
+ alteration ± intermediate
QM: quartz – muscovite
Porphyry stock argillic overprint
Native Au – La Zanja, Peru
Modified from Sillitoe (1999)
Gusano Texture
• Gusano texture is increasingly reported from
HS deposits in South America and Asia
• Gusano consists of pyrophyllite, diaspore and
alunite in a siliceous matrix forming a patchy
or wormy texture
• It can occur at the base of the vuggy quartz
alteration zone as transition to underlying
altered rocks
• It is also reported to occur at any level in some
deposits
• Its origin is obscure
Bantug, Philippines Coka Kuruga, Serbia
Topaz – Butte, Montana
Reproduced from Reed et al. (2013)
Silicic alteration
Can be massive or vuggy textured
Hosts gold mineralisation in many HS deposits
Silicic alteration, Penelope, Argentina
Residual (vuggy) quartz in
ignimbrite protolith, Advanced argillic alteration
Pierina, Peru
Residual (vuggy)
quartz in
andesite protolith,
Pierina, Peru
Cerro Casale (4,300m)
Reproduced from Sillitoe, 2010
Conclusions
Candrian porphyry prospect Tumpangpitu porphyry and
HS epithermal deposit
Examples of mineralised lithocaps
Tumpangpitu lithocap
Pulah Merah
porphyry
prospect
Tumpangpitu lithocap, Tujuh Bukit district, Indonesia
• Lithocaps can host and/or conceal significant porphyry and HS epithermal resources
• They may have lateral dimensions greater than 10 km and thicknesses of more than 1 km
• In ancient settings, silicified ridges and cliffs are erosional remnants of what was once an
extensive subsurface alteration domain that may have been capped by low temperature
argillic‐ and/or low temperature propylitic‐altered rocks
• Combining SWIR and whole rock geochemistry can provide effective vectoring tools
within lithocaps
Photo courtesy of PT BUMI SUKSESINDO