Page 1 of 18

ATOMIC PHYSICS

The nuclear atom

All matter is made up of atoms which consist of a central nucleus, surrounded by electrons.
Inside the nucleus are protons and neutrons.

Particle Relative mass Charge Location

Proton 1840 + Nucleus
Neutron 1840 0 Nucleus
Electron 1 - Outside nucleus

Proton or atomic number (Z)

This is the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Nucleon or mass number (A)

This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Note: a nucleon is a particle found in the nucleus i.e. a proton or a neutron.

In general, if N is the neutron number of an element, then

A=Z + N

 In an atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Nuclide notation

A nuclide is a form of an element.

If X is a given nuclide with proton number Z and nucleon number A, then its nuclide notation
will be:

A
Z X

Examples

1. The nuclide notation for some atoms is as indicated below:

(a) Hydrogen:11 H

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 2 of 18

12
(b) carbon: 6C
(c) sodium: 23
11 Na

(d) Uranium: 238

92 U

2. Write down the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in each of the atoms in
example1 above:
(a) Hydrogen:11 H
Protons = 1, electrons = 1, neutrons = 1 – 1= 0
(b) carbon: 126C
Protons = 6, electrons = 6, neutrons = 12 – 6= 6

(c) sodium: 23
11 Na

Protons = 11, electrons = 11, neutrons = 23 – 11= 12

238
(d) Uranium: 92 U
Protons = 92, electrons = 92, neutrons = 238 – 92= 146

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. That is, their proton numbers are the same but their nucleon numbers
are different.

Examples

 Hydrogen: 11 H : 21 H : 31 H
 Carbon: 126C : 146C
 Chlorine: 35 37
17 Cl : 17 Cl

 Uranium : 235 238

92 U : 92 U

 Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have same number of
protons (or electrons). They have different physical properties since they have
different mass numbers.

Radioactivity

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 3 of 18

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom by emitting

alpha (α), beta (β) or gamma (ϒ) rays.

Characteristics of the three types of radiation

(i) Their nature

 Alpha particles (42α ∨42 He ) are helium nuclei in nature. They consist of two
protons and two neutrons.
 Beta particles( β∨−10¿ −10 e ¿) are electrons in nature
 Gamma rays(00ϒ ) are electromagnetic waves in nature
(ii) Their charge
 Alpha particles have a double positive charge
 Beta particles have a single negative charge
 Gamma rays have no charge
(iii) Their relative ionizing effects
 Alpha particles move slowly and have the largest mass. Hence they cause the
most intense ionization, followed by beta and then gamma rays.
 Gamma rays cause least ionisation because they have no mass and have the
highest speed.
(iv) Their relative penetrating powers
 Alpha particles have a range of a few centimetres in air. They can be stopped
by a few sheets paper.
 Beta particles have a range of several metres in air. They can be stopped by a
few millimetres of aluminium.
 Gamma rays have a lot of energy and they have high penetrating powers. They
can only be stopped by thick lead box or a box of material of similar density.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 4 of 18

Deflection in an electric field

An electric firld is a region between a positive and a negative charge. Alpha particles are
positively charged so they are attracted towards the negative pole of the electric field. They
are deflected slightly, because of their large mass.

Beta particles are negatively charged and are deflected towards the positive charge. The
deflection is more since they have less mass than alpha particles.

Gamma rays have no charge or mass. They are not deflected in both electric and magnetic
field.

Detection of radiation

Most detectors of radiation make use of the ionizing effects of radiation.

(a) Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 5 of 18

When radiation enters the GM tube, it creates argon ions and electrons which are
accelerated towards the electrodes. On reaching the electrodes, the ions produce a
current pulse which is amplified and fed either to a scalar or ratemeter.
 A scalar counts the pulses and shows the total received in a certain time.
 A ratemeter gives the counts per second (or minute), or count-rate, directly.
The following are some other examples of detectors:
(b) Diffusion cloud chamber
(c) Bubble chamber
(d) Spark counters
(e) Ionization chambers
(f) Scintillation counters.

Radioactive decay

The emission of an alpha or beta particle from an unstable nucleus produces an atom of a
different element.

(a) Alpha decay

When an atom decays by alpha emission, its nucleon number decreases by 4 and the
proton number decreases by 2. A completely different atom is formed.
A
Z X −42 He → A−4
Z−2Y

For example, radium decays by alpha emission to become radon

226 4 222
88 Ra −2 He → 86 Rn
(b) Beta decay

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 6 of 18

During beta decay one of the neutrons in the nucleus decays into a proton and an
electron. The proton remains in the nucleus and the electron is emitted as a beta
particle. The proton number increases by 1 while the nucleon number remains the
same.
A 0 A
Z X −−1 β → Z+1Y
For example, carbon-14 decays by beta emission to nitrogen:
14 0 14
6 C −−1 β → 7 N
(c) Gamma emission
After emitting an alpha or beta particle some nuclei are left in an excited state.
Rearrangement of the protons and neutrons occurs and a burst of gamma rays is
released. There is no change in proton or nucleon number.
A
Z X ¿ −00ϒ → AZ X
For example, cobalt is a common gamma-emitting nuclide
60 ¿ 0 60
27 Co −0ϒ → 27 Co
(* means excited , unstable state)

Radioactive decay curve and half-life

 Activity of a radioactive sample is the number of disintegrations made per second.

 Half-life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for the number of radioactive atoms
to decay by half.
Suppose you have a sample with a half-life of 10 minutes and an initial activity of 80
disintegrations per second. This means that the activity will fall from 80 to 40
disintegrations per second in 10 minutes, from 40 to 20 in the next 10 minutes, from
20 to 10 in the third 10 minutes and so on.
This information can be represented in a radioactive decay curve as shown below.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 7 of 18

Note.
A decay curve is a curve obtained when a graph of mass/count rate activity in a
radioactivity substance is plotted against time. Time corresponding to half the half of
the original count rate gives the half-life of a radioactive substance.
The number of nuclides undecayed (N) after a time (T) is given by :

NO=original count rate activity

N= remaining count rate activity
t= half life
T= total lengh of decay
Examples
(a) The half-life of a radioactive substance is 4 years. If an initial mass of 40g of the
substance is used, how much will remain unchanged after 12 years?
Solution
1
After 4 years, fraction left =
2
1
After 8 years, fraction left =
4
1
After 12 years, fraction left =
8
1 1 1
1→ → →
2 4 8
1
of 40g is 5g
8

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 8 of 18

∴After 12 years 5g remains unchanged.

(b) In an experiment to find the half-life radioactive iodine, the count-rate falls from
200 counts per second to 25 counts per second in 75 minutes. What is its half-life?
Solution
200c/s→ 100 c / s →50 c/ s → 25 c / s
There are 3 half-live in 75 minutes
3 T =75 minutes
T =25 minutes
∴ Half −life=25 minutes

Background Radiation
Background radiation is the radiation that is present or can be detected even in the absence of
a radioactive substance.
Sources of background radiations

Uses of radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are simply isotopes which are radioactive. They have the following uses:
 Thickness gauge of paper or metal sheets
 Detection of leakages
 Detection of cancer
 Treatment of cancer
 Radiocarbon dating
 Archaeological aging
 Measurement of fluid flow rate

Dangers of radioisotopes
 The radiation emitted by radioactive materials is harmful to humans and other living
organisms. An overdose can damage cells and cause cancer.

Precautions against radioisotopes

 Do not handle sources with bare hands, use tongs.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 9 of 18

 Sources should be stored in lead containers.

 Return sources to their containers after use.
 Wear radiation badges or dose meters.
 Do not eat food in an area where there are radioactive sources.
 Do not point sources at anyone.
 Do not stay aimlessly in an area where there are radioactive sources.
 Do not pipette liquid sources using your mouth.

 Radiation waste should be enclosed in tight containers and buried in

designated places in concrete bunkers or under the sea bed.

Exercise
QUESTION 1
Which type of radiation from radioactive materials:
(a) Has a positive charge
(b) Is the most penetrating
(c) Consists of waves
(d) Causes the most intense ionization
(e) Has the shortest range in air
(f) Has a negative charge

QUESTION 2

A nitrogen nuclide is written as147 N .

(a) What information about the structure of nitrogen nucleus can be deduced from this
symbol?
(b) What other information about the nitrogen atom as a whole can be deduced from this
symbol?
16
(c) A nuclide whose symbol is 7 N is an isotope of nitrogen. In what way is an atom of
this type of nitrogen different from the atom147 N ?
(d) The nuclide167 N decays to become an oxygen nuclide by emitting an electron. Write
down an equation to show this process.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 10 of 18

QUESTION 3

(a) The half-life of a radioactive gas is 2 minutes. To what fraction will the activity fall
after 8 minutes?

QUESTION 4

(a) The half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 4 years. If an initial mass of 40g of
the substance is used, how much will remain unchanged after:
(i) 4 years
(ii) 8 years
(iii) 12 years
(iv) 16 years?
(b) Plot a graph of mass remaining unchanged against time
(c) Use the graph to estimate the mass that remains unchanged after 14 years.

QUESTION 5

Radioactive isotopes can be used to locate internal bleeding in the body. A commonly
used radioactive isotope is iodine-131. This emits gamma radiation and has a half-life of
8 days.
(a) Describe what is meant by a radioactive isotope.
(b) Describe what is meant by half-life.
(c) The activity of a sample of iodine-131 was measured over a period of 20 minutes
on three separate occasions. The readings obtained were:
338Bq, 326Bq, 356Bq.
(i) Explain why the readings were not all the same.
(ii) Calculate the average count rate for the radioactive isotope.
(d) A patient has internal bleeding from a blood vessel in her leg. A small quantity of
the isotope iodine-131 is injected into her blood stream. A detector is used to find
the internal bleeding. The diagram below shows the arrangement and the results of
the test.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 11 of 18

(i) State the name of the suitable detector.

(ii) The radioactive isotope used for this purpose is a gamma emitter and not
an alpha emitter. Why is a gamma emitter used?
(iii) How will the doctor tell from the results where the internal bleeding is
taking place?
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

QUESTION ONE

a. Define the following terms

i. Mass( Nucleon) number
ii. Atomic (Proton) number
b. Two isotopes of Thorium decays by emitting an alpha particle. The mass and atomic
numbers are given in the table below.

S/N Mass Atomic

number number
1 234 90

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 12 of 18

2 235 90

i. State the number of protons and neutron for isotope 1.

ii. Construct an equation to show the decay of isotope 2 by alpha radiation.
c. Explain why alpha particles have a strong ionization effect.

QUESTION TWO
(a)Define the term half-life.

(b)A radioactive substance has a mass of 160g. Its half-life

is 40 years.
(a) How much of this substance will remain after 200 years.
(c) The following were obtained from the reading of a counter
connected to a Geiger-Muller tube placed in front of
radioactive source. Given that the corrected counts of
background radiation recorded by the Geiger-Muller tube was 15.
Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Corrected counts 135 89 53 45 35 27 23 20

(i) Draw another table showing the actual corrected counts taking into account of the
background.
(ii) Plot the graph of the count-rate against time and deduce the half-life of radioactive.

QUESTION THREE

(a) Uranium-234 decays to polonium-218 by emitting alpha particles. The atomic number of
uranium is 92.
(i) Write down the nuclear equation representing the decay.
(ii) How many alpha particles are emitted?

(b) Uranium -234undergoes decay to become Neptunium (Np) of atomic number 93.
(i)Find the number of beta particles emitted in the process.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 13 of 18

(ii)Write down the nuclear equation to show the decay.

(c) Bismuth undergoes a series of decay processes first by releasing two (2) alpha particles,
then one (1) beta particle followed by gamma rays.
(i)State the mass of an alpha particle.
(ii)Write down the charge on an alpha particle.

(iii)Show, by way of constructing decay equations

QUESTION FOUR
(a) Define the term half-life.

b) Radon -222 has half-life of 4 days. A sample of radon has mass of64g.
How many grams will remain after:-
(i) 4 days (ii) 8 days

(c)The graph below shows how some atoms of a radioactive substance decayed.

(i) State the value of the half-life of

the substance. Show how you
arrived at the answer your answer

(ii)The half-life of another substance

is 10 minutes. What is the fraction
of this sample has decayed after
30 minutes?

(c)(ii) What is the fraction of the

undecayed?

QUESTION FIVE

(a)Write down four uses of radioactive radiations

(b)List three dangers of radioactive radiations.

(c)State the precaution which must be taken when handling radioactive substances.
(d)Describe how radioactive substances are stored.
QUESTION SIX

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 14 of 18

A stream of charged particles is deflected in magnetic field. The diagram below shows
alpha beta and gamma radiations being emitted from a radioactive source S into the region
where there is magnetic field.

(a) (i)Suggest which one of the three tracks A, B

or C shows the gamma radiation.
(ii) Give a reason for your answer.

(b) The tracks A and C show opposite deflections.

What does this tell you about the difference
between the radiation A and C?
(c) Suggest why the deflection of C is much
stronger than that of A.

QUESTION SEVEN
The following were obtained from the reading of a counter connected to a Geiger-Muller tube
placed in front of a radioactive source. Plot the graph of the count-rate against time and
deduce the Half-life of radioactive.

Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Corrected counts 120 74 48 30 20 12 8

(a) What is?

I. An alpha particle
II. Beta particle
III. Gamma particle
(b)(i)A scientist claims that a small radioactive source is emitting alpha, beta and gamma
particle. Give an outline description of an experiment which could be carried out to
check the claim.
(ii) What observations would be made during the experiment?
(ii)What is a radioisotope?
(a) A certain radioactive source emits particles which make straight
tracks in a cloud chamber. Explain how the tracks are formed and
suggest why they are all straight.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 15 of 18

QUESTION EIGHT

The diagram below shows the penetrating power of the 3 radioactive radiations. Identify the
radiations P, Q and R and suggest the absorbing material M, C and J.

a. Which of the following radiations is a

i. Beta
ii. Alpha
iii. Gamma
b. Suggest the materials from which J must be made from
c. Explain one the use of radiation R

QUESTION NINE
The table below gives details about some radioactive isotopes.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 16 of 18

(a) (i) Uranium-235 has a proton number (atomic number) of 92 and a nucleon number
(mass number) of 235.Describe the structure of an atom of Uranium-235.
(ii) Uranium-235 and Uranium-238 are isotopes. Explain what is meant by this
statement.
(iii) Uranium-235 can be involved in nuclear fission. Describe what happens to a nucleus in
nuclear fission.
(iv) When the Earth was formed there was about 64 times more Uranium 235present than
there is now. Use this information to estimate the age of the Earth.
(b) Radioactive sources are used to detect leaks from pipes underground.
A liquid containing the source is placed in the pipe. Some liquid leaks from the pipe and
then radiation it emits can be detected above ground.
(i) State the most suitable radioactive isotope in Table 11.1 for this purpose.
(ii) Explain why the half-life of the isotope you have chosen and the radiation it emits are
suitable for this purpose.

QUESTION TEN

a. State the nature of

i. Alpha particles
ii. Beta particles
iii. Gamma rays
b. Explain why the
i. Alpha particles have a strong ionization effect
ii. Beta particles are deflected toward the positive plate in an electric field.
iii. Gamma rays have a high penetrating power

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 17 of 18

QUESTION ELEVEN
The figure below shows the process that occurs in the core of a nuclear reactor.

(a) State the name of the process illustrated in the figure above.
(b) Describe what happens during this process.

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Page 18 of 18

NDOTECH 2014 ATOMIC PHYSICS