DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

FOR AN INVERTER USING ARDUINO MICRO CONTROLLER

[HND PROJECT REPORT]

BY:

Muhammed shehu AFIT/HND/EEE/019/005

Supervisor:

ENGR. ADELEKE ABDULHAFEEZ.

AIRFORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY NAF BASE KADUNA,

NIGERIA.

JANUARY 2022

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

An inverter is simply an electronic or a circuitry device that converts direct current electricity
to Alternating current either for stand alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.
The basic role of the inverter is to change DC power into A.C power. The A.C power can be
supplied to homes and industries using power grid.
Inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and voltages
are present. They are also called AC drives or VFD (Variable Frequency Drives). It is also
responsible for controlling speed and torque for the electric motors.

However, the overloading of inverter reduces the lifespan of inverter. The problem of
overloading can be minimized by building in load shedding circuit in the inverter circuit
using Arduino Micro Controller.

Electrical device uses a certain amount of electricity when in operation, adding to the total
load in the circuit you get a circuit overload.
Overloading occur to a power system when the power consumption of the inverter reaches its
peak power output or used to its hilts. There is possibility of connecting too much equipment
to the inverter. It inevitably leads to the inverter exceeding its peak power output if and when
the inverter simultaneously powers all the machines.

In Avoiding Overloading of power system, Load Shedding is required. Load Shedding is a

way to distribute demand for electrical power across multiple power sources.
In this project, when the system experienced overloading, to avoid damages, there is need to
shed the load on the system. In that way, the supply of current is controlled, and the demand
and the generated capacity of current are balanced. It involves disconnecting or shedding
some circuits to prevent an overload condition.
In a power system, such as the inverter, an excess load puts a stress on the generating
equipment; it slows down part of the system as they attempt to cope with the excess load.

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 This eventually leads to power surging and overload which can cause the system becoming
unstable.

The Shedding is made possible in the system due to Arduino micro controller incorporated.
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy -to-use hard ware and software.
Arduino boards are able to read inputs-light on a sensor, a finger on a button and turn it into an
output.

This open source micro-controller board based on the micro-chip ATMega328P micro-controller
and develop by Arduino. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O)
pins that maybe interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuit.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problem statement for this project is the aftermath blackout experienced from power
system that has no power regulation. In most power systems, they are design that when battery
level Is down the system goes off and as a result of this there is total Blackout and eventually,
there could be system collapse if no power restoration.

1.3 The Area of Application

This project is widely used in various places such as , residential houses, small scale
industries for both medium and large scale organization to support the power supply form
Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) as a backup supply.

1.4 Aims Of The Project

The project is design to regulate the power load and voltage level sensitive of different
ouput of an inverter

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1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

1. To construct a 1kva inverter for power supply

2. To remove the effect of overloading by incorporating a shedding component with
Arduino Micro controller.
3. To build in a circuit with current sensor and relay that will aid the voltage level detecting
and switch off phases respectively in the inverter.

1.6 Limitation
This project is design not to carry too heavy loads such as water heater, refrigerator and
pressing iron all at once. It was design not to carry more than 1.5KVA maximum load.
It can only be used to power appliances with lesser power consumption in order to
maximize the life span. And this project cannot be used for industrial use.
1.7 Motivation
The main aim of any business that depends on light or electricity is to see their work get
done. As technological advancement is on the increase, advanced digital and analogue
devices are gaining popularity. Therefore, constant power supply for these machines is
needed to achieve the desired result. These reasons as a whole lead to my choice of this
project.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

1. To regulate use of power to prevent total Blackout and collapse of the system.
2. To prevent damages (reduce) that resulted to power system from the blackout of
the system.
3. To improve power saving of the power system.
4. It can be use in homes and labs to power electronics appliances.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 OVERVIEW OF INVERTER

Brief History

From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC
power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G
sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas-filled tubes began to be used as
switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron.

The origins of electro mechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early
AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a
generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly
the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in
which the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at
one end and a commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is
AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from
the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be
"mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or
rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an
inverted converter.

A power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on
the particular device employed. Inverters do the opposite of "converters" which were
originally large electromechanical devices converting AC to DC.

A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects

(such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts
in the conversion process.

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Power inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and
voltages are present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals, which
usually have very low currents and voltages, are called oscillators. Circuits that perform the
opposite function, converting AC to DC, are called rectifiers.
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a stable DC power source capable of
supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage
depends on the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:
12 V DC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a
rechargeable 12 V lead acid batteries or automotive electrical outlet.

24, 36, and 48 V DC, which are common standards for home energy systems.

200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.

300 to 450 V DC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid
systems.

Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a high-voltage direct current
power transmission system.

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 Fig. 2.0 Inverter Circuit

2.1.1 STAGES OF AN INVERTER

As the name suggests DC to AC inverter is an electronic device which is able to "invert" a DC

potential normally derived from a lead-acid battery into a stepped-up AC potential. The output
from an inverter is normally quite comparable to the voltage that is found in our domestic AC
mains outlet.

An inverter in its most basic form may be divided into three fundamental stages which are:
oscillator, driver, and the transformer output stage.

 OSCILLATOR
This stage is basically responsible for the generation of oscillating pulses either through an IC
circuit or a transistorized circuit.

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These oscillations are basically the productions of alternate battery positive and negative
(ground) voltage peaks with a particular specified frequency (number of positive peaks per
second.) This is so because they are too weak and therefore can never be used to power up high
current output transformers, these pulses are sent to inverter's amplifier for the required task.
Such oscillations are generally in the form of square pillars and are termed as square waves, and
the inverters operating with such oscillators are called square wave inverters.

 BOOSTER OR AMPLIFIER (DRIVER)

Here the received oscillating frequency is suitably amplified to high current levels using either
power transistors or mosfets.
Though the boosted response is an AC, it is still at the battery supply voltage level and therefore
cannot be used to operate electrical appliances which work at higher voltage AC potentials.
The amplified voltage is therefore finally applied to the output transformer secondary winding.

 OUTPUT POWER TRANSFORMER:

We all know a transformer works; in AC/DC power supplies. It is normally used to step down
the applied input mains AC to the lower specified AC levels through magnetic induction of its
two windings.

The transformer in a power inverter works in a similar way, but in a reversed manner. In this
stage, the low level AC power from the amplifier stage is applied to the secondary windings of
the inverter’s transformer. This process results in an induced stepped up voltage, which the
power inverters generate to allow a wide range of AC appliances usage.

2.1.2 TYPES OF INVERTERS

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 CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTER BASED ON THEIR OUTPUT
CHARACTERISTICS.

Inverters are primarily classified on the basis of their output characteristics. So there are three
different types of outputs from inverters, which are:

 The Square Wave inverter

A square wave inverter is one of the simplest inverter types, which convert a straight DC signal
to a phase shifting AC signal. But the output is not pure AC, i.e. in the form of a pure sine wave,
but it is a square wave.

At the same time they are cheaper as well. The simplest construction of a square wave inverter
can be achieved by using an on-off switch, before a typical voltage amplifying circuitry like that
of a transformer. This is shown below:

Fig. 2.1 SQUARE WAVE INVERTER

The output of this type of a circuit is a square wave.

 THE MODIFIED SINE WAVE INVERTER OR QUASI SINE WAVE INVERTER

The construction of this type of inverter is a bit more complex than a simple square wave
inverter, but still it is a lot simpler than a pure sine wave inverter.

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A Modified sine wave shows some pauses before the phase shifting of the wave, i.e. unlike a
square it does not shift its phase abruptly from positive to negative, or unlike a sine wave, does
not make a smooth transition from positive to negative, but takes brief pauses and then shifts its
phase.

The output waveform of a modified sine wave inverter is shown below:

Fig. 2.1.1 Sine Wave

 A PURE SINE WAVE INVERTER

The electrical circuit of a pure sine wave inverter is far more complex than a square wave or
modified sine wave inverter. Another way to obtain a sine output is to obtain a square wave
output from a square wave inverter and then modify this output to achieve a pure sine wave. A
pure sine wave inverter has several advantages over its previous two forms:

More efficiency, hence consumes less power.

They can be adjusted according to your personal power requirements, since several types are
available with different power outputs.

The output of a pure sine wave inverter is very reliable, but at the same time, there is a tradeoff
between the price and reliability.

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Due to this reason they are the best option for sensitive equipment.

2.1.3 OUTPUT PHASE WISE CLASSIFICATION

Inverters are classified into two type’s namely single phase and three phases

 Single Phase Inverter

A single-phase inverter converts DC input into Single phase output. The output voltage/current
of single-phase inverter has exactly one phase which has a nominal frequency of 50HZ or 60Hz a
nominal voltage. The Nominal voltage is defined as the voltage level at which Electrical system
operates. There are different nominal voltages i.e. 120V, 220V, 440V, 690V, 3.3KV, 6.6KV,
11kV, 33kV, 66kV, 132kV, 220kV, 400kV, and 765kV

Single phase inverters are classified into two types namely half-bridge inverter & full bridge
inverter

 Half Bridge Inverter

The half-bridge inverter is an essential building block in the full bridge inverter. It can be built
with two switches where each one of its capacitors includes an o/p voltage which is equivalent to
Vdc2. Additionally, the switches balance each other, if one switch is activated then automatically
another switch will deactivate.

 Full Bridge Inverter

The full bridge inverter circuit converts direct current to alternate current. It can be achieved by
opening as well as closing the switches within the correct series. This type of inverter has
dissimilar operating states which depend on closed switches.

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Single-phase inverters are used for low loads. There are more losses in single-phase as well as
the efficiency of single-phase is low with respect to three-phase inverter. Therefore, 3 phase
inverters are preferred for high loads.

Fig. 2.1.2 Three phase inverter

 Three Phase Inverter

A three-phase inverter is used to alter an input DC to a 3-phase output AC. Generally, its 3-arms
are deferred with 120° of an angle to produce a 3-phase AC supply. The inverter control which
has a 50% of the ratio as well as controlling can take place after every T/6 of the time T. The
switches used in the inverter complement each other. Three-phase inverters convert DC into
three-phase power. Three-phase power provides three alternating currents which are uniformly
separated in phase angle. Amplitudes and frequencies of all three waves generated at the output
are same with slight variations due to load while each wave has a 120 o phase shift from each
other.

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 Fig. 2.1.3 Three Phase Inverter

The 3-single phase inverters place across the similar DC source, and the pole voltages within a 3-
phase inverter are equivalent to the pole voltages within 1-phase half-bridge inverter. These
inverters have two conduction modes such as 120°-mode of conduction & 180° mode of
conduction.

2.1.4 INPUT SOURCE WISE CLASSIFICATION

The inverter can be defined as the device which converts DC input supply into AC output where
input may be a voltage source or current source. Inverters are mainly classified into two main
categories.

 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

The inverter is known as voltage source inverter when the input of the inverter is a constant DC
voltage source. The input to the voltage source inverter has a stiff DC voltage source. Stiff DC

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voltage source means that the impedance of DC voltage source is zero. Practically, DC sources
have some negligible impedance. VSI are assumed to be supplied with ideal voltage sources
(very low impedance sources). The AC output voltage is completely determined by the states of
switching devices in the inverter and the applied DC source.

 Current Source Inverter (CSI)

The inverter is known as current source inverter when the input of the inverter is a constant DC
current source. Stiff current is supplied to the CSI (current source inverter) from the DC source
where the DC sources have high impedance. Usually, a large inductor or closed loop-controlled
current are used to provide stiff current. The resulting current wave is stiff which is not
influenced by the load. The AC output current is completely determined by the states of
switching devices in the inverter and the DC applied source.

Fig. 2.1.4 Voltage and Current Source Inverter

The output voltage and current waveform of the inverter circuit, vo, and io respectively, are
assumed to be AC quantities. These are stated in terms of RMS values normally while the
deviation of these waveforms from their fundamental and sinusoidal components is represented
in the terms of THD factors. THD shows the total harmonic distortion.

2.1.5 COMPONENTS THAT MADE UP OF AN INVERTER

 Microcontroller

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 Microcontroller is the main and integral part of an inverter. The main working of
microcontroller is to control the switching of signals according to the requirements.

 A single microcontroller can perform multiple functions (e.g.) generating PWM for switching,
controlling the protection systems etc.

 There are various types and families of microcontrollers available in the market, for example :
 PIC Microcontrollers.
 AVRs (ATMEGA series).
 Atmel.
 Arduino.
 FPga (etc).
 8051 Microcontrollers Projects.
   Depending on the design specifications, any microcontroller can be used.

Fig. 2.1.5 Microcontroller.

 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)

 BJT or a bipolar junction transistor is a three layered device which is capable of controlling
the current flow.
 In a BJT, a small current at the input of the device can control larger currents at the output.
Thus, BJTs can amplify currents.

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 They can be used as a relay driver, as a switch, as a constant current source, as an amplifier
(etc.).
 Circuit symbol of a BJT is given in figure below :

FIGURE 1 : BJT symbols

Types of BJTs
 There are two types of transistors, NPN and PNP transistors
1. NPN Transistor :

 NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters “N” and “P” refer to the
majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.

 In other terms, an NPN transistor is “on” when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
 The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

FIGURE 2 : PNP Transistors

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2. PNP transistor

 PNP transistors have two layers of P-doped material and in between these two layers, there’s a
small layer of N-doped material.
 A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output.
In other terms, a PNP transistor is “on” when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.
 The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
 Below figure shows both NPN and PNP transistors.

FIGURE 3 : PNP Transistors

 H-Bridge
 H –bridge is a topology in which four switching devices BJTs, MOSFETs or IGBTs are
integrated together in a single circuit.
 The name H-Bridge is given to it because of the typical arrangement of this circuit.
 Mainly used switching devices in the H-bridge circuits are BJTs, MOSFETs or IGBTs.

Working

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 In an H-bridge, corresponding to the figure below when the switches S1 and S4 are closed, the
switches S2 and S3 are open.
 Thus a positive voltage issupplied across the motor or any other load attached to it instead of
motor (e-g) transformer.
 When S1 and S4 switches are opened, and S2 and S3 switches are closed, the voltage is
reversed, supplying negative voltages to the load.
 A problem with this is that the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as
this causes a short circuit on the input voltage source.
 The same thing applies on the switches S3 and S4. This condition is generally known as the
shoot-through condition.
 Following figure describes the above phenomena.
 

Fig. 2.1.6: H-Bridge Working

 MOSFETS

 The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor-Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET) is a voltage controlled

device and requires a very small input current.

 It is mainly used for switching of electronic signals as its switching speed is very high.
 It is the most commonly used FET in low-power high-frequency circuits.
 The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor material, and is
accordingly called an N-MOSFET or a P-MOSFET.
 Circuit symbols of MOSFET are shown in the figure below :
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 Fig. 2.1.7: MOSFET Types and Symbols

 Types of MOSFETS

There are two main types of MOSFETs.

 The Depletion-type MOSFET (DMOSFET)
 Enhancement-type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)

 FILTERS

 At times it is desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one frequency or range
of frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit.

 A circuit designed to perform this frequency selection is called a filter circuit.

 Low-Pass Filters
 A low-pass filter is a circuit offering easy passage to low-frequency signals and difficult
passage to high-frequency signals.

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 There are two basic kinds of circuits capable of accomplishing this objective, and many
variations of each one.

 LC Filters

 An LC filter is a low-pass filter which consists of an inductor attached in parallel with the
capacitor and the load. L and C connected together act as an electrical resonator.

 LC Filter over RC Filter

 RC filters have R thus they dissipate power. They have attenuation even in the pass band.
 To achieve a narrow transition band, RC circuits have to be of higher orders.
 Only certain types of filters can be implemented by an RC filter.
 Whereas, LC filter does not dissipate power.
 Better characteristics can be achieved by the LC filter than RC with a lower order.
 Thus it is desirable to choose an LC over an RC in the case of an inverter.

Fig. 2.1.7 FILTER

 Transformer

 A transformer is used to step up or step down the electrical voltages.

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 Fig. 2.1.8 Ideal Transformer

 Working of Transformer
 A changing electric flux in the primary of the transformer creates a changing magnetic field
which induces a changing voltage in the secondary.
 By adding load, one can transfer energy from one part to another.
 The secondary voltage Vs of an ideal transformer is scaled from the primary voltage Vp by a
factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings.
 By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
voltage to be stepped up by making Ns more than Np or stepped down, by making it less.
 If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit.
 Ideally,
 Pin = Pout
 IpVp= IsVs
 Where:
 Pin = Input Power.
 Pout = Output Power.
 Ip = Primary Current.
 Vp = Primary Voltage.
 Is = Primary Current.
 Ip = Primary Voltage

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2.2 CIRCUIT OVERLOADING

Electrical circuits are designed to handle a limited amount of electricity. Circuits are made up of
wiring, a breaker (or a fuse, in old wiring systems), and devices (such as light fixtures,
appliances, and anything plugged into an outlet). The electricity usage of each device (when
running) adds to the total LOAD on the circuit. Exceeding the rated load for the circuit wiring
causes the circuit breaker to trip, shutting off the power to the entire circuit. If there were no
breaker in the circuit, an overload would cause the circuit wiring to overheat, which could melt
the wire insulation and lead to a fire. Different circuits have different load ratings so that some
circuits can provide more electricity than others. Home electrical systems are designed around
typical household usage, but there’s nothing to prevent us from plugging in too many devices on
the same circuit. However, the more you know about the layout of your home’s circuits the more
easily you can prevent overloads.

Overloading occur to a power system when the power consumption of the inverter reaches its
peak power output or used to its hilts. There is possibility of connecting too much equipment to
the inverter. It inevitably leads to the inverter exceeding its peak power output if and when the
inverter simultaneously powers all the machines.

One of the problems with alternative power is that you no longer have the virtually infinite
power of the generating grid linked to your wall plug anymore. Most people have become so
used to any appliances they plug into wall simply working, they have trouble understanding that
this may no longer be possible when alternative power sources are used. This can sometimes lead
to unexpected problems that can be disconcerting and difficult to properly identify.

One of the more common problems you may experience when using Inverters is overload fault.

There can be many causes and possibly fixes, some specific to an inverter model but fortunately,
there are some standard steps you can follow to help you solve or at least narrow down the cause.

First, let us look at the possible causes of an inverter overload fault

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF INVERTER OVERLOAD

1. The power reaches the peak

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Although the power inverter can withstand 2 times the peak power, however, in some peak
period of time, monitors, televisions, and other appliances when start the motor peak power, peak
power some electrical power to meet the requirements may be exceeding the peak output power
converter. Then it will lead to inverter overload, in the off state.

The most common reason for a power overload is when the inverter is used to its hilt or instead
reaches its peak power output. You may argue here that industrial power inverters can withstand
as much as twice its peak power.

However, there is always the possibility of your connecting too much equipment to the inverter.
It inevitably leads to the inverter exceeding its peak power output if and when the inviter
simultaneously powers all the machines.

2. Driving a plurality of electrical appliances

When an inverter driven simultaneously multiple appliances when overload phenomenon also
occurs to disconnect. In this case, people need to do is turn off the electrical switch, then open
the inverter switching, finally open the highest peak electrical appliances, so that we can best
meet the electrical needs.
These two cases will cause the power inverter overload phenomenon and off state. In order to
avoid Appliance test: How to test that the appliances are not the source of the overload this
situation, it is best to avoid the peak period, when the appliances in the open, do not open
simultaneously.

1. Confirm that the total power consumption of the connected appliances does not exceed what
the inverter can handle. If necessary, connect one appliance to the inverter at time starting
with a low wattage appliance like a study lamp.
2. Check that the appliance’s surge power rating does not exceed what the inverter can handle.
An appliance can have a continuous power rating less than the inverter’s but still have a
surge rating that exceeds the inverters causing an inverter overload fault.
3. Could the appliances be faulty? A faulty appliances with a short-circuit can also trigger an
inverter overload fault when connected to the inverter

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2.2.1 HOW TO PREVENT AN OVERLOAD

It’s always better to prevent an overload in the first place. And the best way to do this is by
avoiding simultaneously powering maximum equipment or appliances during the peak period.
The chances of an overload occurring when there’s a power outage are higher then. Also,
inverter overloading can be prevented through the incorporation of Load shedding into the
inverter. The load shedding will be discussed in the next heading.

2.3 LOAD SHEDDING.

Load shedding, defined as “the act or process of disconnecting the electric current on certain
lines when the demand becomes greater than the supply”, is a very important element of
implementing emergency backup generator and peak shaving programs. Can also be said as the
operation of temporarily reducing the supply of electricity to an area, to avoid overloading the
generators. With load shedding, you will notice a slightly longer period between the power cut
and the time of the last circuit connected to the generator. This would only be a matter of
seconds and therefore not detrimental. Additionally, it would make sense to delay the connection
of a UPS to the generator as the battery backup, will provide the uninterrupted power throughout.

2.3.1 CURRENT SENSOR

In electrical engineering, current sensing is any one of several techniques used to measure
electric current. The measurement of current ranges from Pico-amps to tens of thousands of
amperes. The selection of a current sensing method depends on requirements such as magnitude,
accuracy, bandwidth, robustness, cost, isolation or size. The current value may be directly
displayed by an instrument, or converted to digital form for use by a monitoring or control
system.

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A current sensor is a device that detects electric current in a wire and generates a signal
proportional to that current. The generated signal could be analog voltage or current or a digital
output. The generated signal can be then used to display the measured current in an ammeter, or
can be stored for further analysis in a data acquisition system, or can be used for the purpose of
control.

Current sensing techniques include shunt resistor, current transformers and Rogowski coils,
magnetic-field based transducers and others.

The sensed current and the output signal can be:

Alternating current input,

analog output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current.

bipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current.

unipolar output, which is proportional to the average or RMS value of the sensed current.

Direct current input,

unipolar, with a unipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current

digital output, which switches when the sensed current exceeds a certain threshold

 Requirements in current measurement

Current sensing technologies must fulfill various requirements, for various applications.
Generally, the common requirements are:

 High sensitivity
 High accuracy and linearity
 Wide bandwidth
 DC and AC measurement
 Low temperature drift
 Interference rejection

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  IC packaging
 Low power consumption
 Low price

 Techniques

The measurement of the electric current can be classified depending upon the underlying
fundamental physical principles such as,

 Faraday's Law of Induction

 Magnetic field sensors
 Faraday Effect
 Hall effect sensor.
 Transformer or current clamp meter, (suitable for AC current only).
 Fluxgate sensor, (suitable for AC or DC current).
 Shunt resistor, whose voltage is directly proportional to the current through it.
 Fiber optic current sensor, using an interferometer to measure the phase change in the
light produced by a magnetic field.
 Rogowski coil, electrical device for measuring alternating current (AC) or high speed
current pulses.
 Giant Magnetoresistance(GMR): Magnetic field sensor suitable for AC & DC Current
with higher accuracy than Hall Effect. Placed parallel to the magnetic field.

 Current sensor based on Faraday's Law

Faraday's Law of induction – that states: the total electromotive force induced in a closed circuit
is proportional to the time rate of change of the total magnetic flux linking the circuit – has been
largely employed in current sensing techniques. Two major sensing devices based on Faraday’s
law are Current transformers (CTs) and Rogowski coils. These sensors provide an intrinsic

26
electrical isolation between the current to be measured and the output signal, thus making these
current sensing devices mandatory, where safety standards demand electrical isolation.

2.3.2 RELAY

Relays are electric switches that use electromagnetism to convert small electrical stimuli into
larger currents. These conversions occur when electrical inputs activate electromagnets to either
form or break existing circuits. By leveraging weak inputs to power stronger currents, relays
effectively act as either a switch or an amplifier for the electric circuit, depending on the desired
application.

Relays are highly versatile components that are just as effective in complex circuits as in simple
ones. They can be used in the place of other forms of switches, or they can be specifically
designed based on factors such as required amperage. A relay is an electromagnetic switch
operated by a relatively small electric current that can turn on or off a much larger electric
current. The heart of a relay is an electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a
temporary magnet when electricity flows through it). You can think of a relay as a kind of
electric lever: switch it on with a tiny current and it switches on ("leverages") another appliance
using a much bigger current. Why is that useful? As the name suggests, many sensors are
incredibly sensitive pieces of electronic equipment and produce only small electric currents. But
often we need them to drive bigger pieces of apparatus that use bigger currents. Relays bridge
the gap, making it possible for small currents to activate larger ones. That means relays can work
either as switches (turning things on and off) or as amplifiers (converting small currents into
larger ones).
Here are two simple animations illustrating how relays use one circuit to switch on a second
circuit.

27
 Fig. 2.3.2 Relay

When power flows through the first circuit (1), it activates the electromagnet (brown), generating
a magnetic field (blue) that attracts a contact (red) and activates the second circuit (2). When the
power is switched off, a spring pulls the contact back up to its original position, switching the
second circuit off again. This is an example of a "normally open" (NO) relay: the contacts in the
second circuit are not connected by default, and switch on only when a current flows through the
magnet. Other relays are "normally closed" (NC; the contacts are connected so a current flows
through them by default) and switch off only when the magnet is activated, pulling or pushing
the contacts apart. Normally open relays are the most common.

Here's another animation showing how a relay links two circuits together. It's essentially the
same thing drawn in a slightly different way. On the left side, there's an input circuit powered by
a switch or a sensor of some kind. When this circuit is activated, it feeds current to an
electromagnet that pulls a metal switch closed and activates the second, output circuit (on the
right side). The relatively small current in the input circuit thus activates the larger current in the
output circuit:

28
 Fig. 2.2.3 Relay

The input circuit (blue loop) is switched off and no current flows through it until something
(either a sensor or a switch closing) turns it on. The output circuit (red loop) is also switched off.

When a small current flows in the input circuit, it activates the electromagnet (shown here as a
dark blue coil), which produces a magnetic field all around it.

The energized electromagnet pulls the metal bar in the output circuit toward it, closing the
switch, and allowing a much bigger current to flow through the output circuit.

The output circuit operates a high-current appliance such as a lamp or an electric motors.

 Types of relays

There are different types of relays like:

 Electromagnetic Relays
 Latching Relays
 Electronic Relays
 Non-Latching Relays
 Reed Relays
 High-Voltage Relays
 Small Signal Relays
 Time Delay Relays
 Multi-Dimensional Relays

29
  Thermal Relays
 Differential Relays
 Distance Relays
 Automotive Relays
 Frequency Relays
 Polarized Relays
 Rotary Relays
 Sequence Relays
 Moving Coil Relays
 Buchholz Relays
 Safety Relays
 Supervision relays
 Ground Fault Relays

All these and many other relays are classified based on their function, application type,
configuration or structural features, etc. and just few will be explained further.

Fig. 2.2.4 Relay

 High-voltage relays: These are specifically designed for switching high voltages and
currents well beyond the capacity of normal relays (typically up to 10,000 volts and 30
amps).

30
 Electronic and semiconductor relays (also called solid-state relays or SSRs): These
switch currents entirely electronically, with no moving parts, so they're faster, quieter,
smaller, more reliable, and last longer than electromagnetic relays. Unfortunately, they're
typically more expensive, less efficient, and don't always work as cleanly and predictably
(due to issues like leakage currents).
 Timer and time-delay relays: These trigger output currents for a limited period of time
(usually from fractions of a second to about 100 hours, or four days).
 Thermal relays: These switch on and off to stop things like electric motors from
overheating, a bit like bimetallic strip thermostat.
 Over current and directional relays: Configured in various different ways, these stop
excessive currents from flowing in the wrong direction around a circuit (typically in
power-generation, distribution, or supply equipment).
 Differential protection relays: These trigger when there is current or voltage imbalances
in two different parts of a circuit.
 Frequency protection relays (sometimes called under frequency and over frequency
relays): These solid-state devices trigger when the frequency of an alternating current is
too high, too low, or both.

 Advantages

 Electromagnetic relays have fast operation and fast reset

 They can be used for both ac and dc systems for protection of ac and dc equipment
 Electromagnetic relays operating speeds which has the ability to operate in milliseconds
are also can be possible
 They have the properties such as simple, robust, compact and most reliable
 These relays are almost instantaneous. Though instantaneous the operating time of the
relay varies with the current. With extra arrangements like dashpot, copper rings etc. slow
operating times and reset can be possible.

31
  Disadvantages

 High burden level instrument transformers are required (CTs and PTs of high burden is
required for operating the electromagnetic relays compared to static relays)
 The directional feature is absent in electromagnetic relays
 Requires periodic maintenance and testing unlike static relays
 Relay operation can be affected due to ageing of the components and dust, pollution
resulting in spurious trips
 Operation speed for an electromagnetic relay is limited by the mechanical inertia of the
component

 Applications

 Electromagnetic relays are employed for the protection of various ac and dc equipment
 The over/under current and voltage protection of various ac and dc equipment
 For differential protection
 Used as auxiliary relays in the contact systems of protective relay schemes

2.3.4 ARDUINO

Arduino  is an open-source hardware and software company, project, and user community that

designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building
digital devices. Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The
boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced
to various expansion boards ('shields') or breadboards (for prototyping) and other circuits. The
boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some
models, which are also used for loading programs. The microcontrollers can be programmed
using the C and C++ programming languages, using a standard API which is also known as the
"Arduino language".

32
Advantages

 Not much knowledge required to get started

 Fairly low cost, depending on shields you need
 Lots of sketches and shields available
 No external programmer or power supply needed
 Inexpensive.
 Open source in hardware.
 Programming ease.
 Open source in software.
 IDE Software operates on any operating system.

The disadvantages of Arduino

1. Cannot run more than one program at the same time

2. No memory safety checks
3. Expensive for the CPU power and memory
4. Lack of built-in communications
5. Lack of built-in peripherals
This means that unless programmed to do so, Arduino doesn’t have real support for:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Display

6. Limited number of programming languages

7. Limited number of IDEs
8. More difficult to choose a board for beginners

33
What is an Arduino Board?

The Arduino board is not a Microcontroller; it is an open source electronics platform. The
Arduino board is a PCB which has Microcontrollers, LED’s, and many other connections.
Generally, it is used to do input & output operations like to control a motor, read from
the sensor and in small computations.

Types of Arduino Boards

There are different Arduino boards which are following

 Arduino UNO (R3)

 Lily Pad Arduino
 Red Board
 Arduino Mega (R3)
 Arduino Leonardo

Arduino UNO (R3)

The Arduino UNO R3 is a new board and by comparing with the previous Arduino boards it has
some additional features. The Arduino UNO uses the Atmega16U2 instead of 8U2 and it allows
faster transfer rate & more memory. There is no need of extra devices for the Linux & Mac and
the ability to have the UNO show up as a keyboard, mouse, joystick, etc.

Fig. 2.2.4 Arduino Uno.

34
The Arduino R3 adds SDA & SCL pins which are next to the AREF and in addition, there are
two pins which are placed near the RESET pin. The first pin is IOREF; it will allow the shields
to adapt to the voltage from the board.

The other pin is not connected and it is reserved for the future purpose. The working of Arduino
R3 is by all existing shields and it will adapt new shields which use these additional pins.

LilyPad Arduino

This board is an Arduino Programmable Microcontroller and it is designed to integrate easily

into an e-textiles & wearable projects. The other Arduino boards have the same functionality like
lightweight, round package designed to minimize snagging and profile, with wide tabs that can
be sewn down and connected with conductive thread.

Fig. 2.2.5 Lily Pad Arduino Boards

These Arduino boards consist of an At mega 328 with the Arduino boot loader and to keep it as a
small minimum external component are required. The power supply of this board is 2V to 5V
and offers large pin-out holes that make it easy to sew and connect. Each pin is connected to
positive and negative terminals and to control the input & output devices like light, motor, and
switch.

35
This Arduino technology was designed and developed by Leah Buechley and each LilyPad was
creatively designed to have large connecting pads to allow them to be sewn into clothing. There
is an available of various input, output, and sensor boards and they are washable.

Arduino Mega (R3)

The Arduino Mega is a type of Microcontroller and it is based on the ATmega2560. It consists of
54 digital input/output pins and from the total pins 14 pins are used for the PWM output, 16 pins
are used for the analog inputs, 4 pins are used for the hardware serial port of the UART. There
are pins like crystal oscillator of 16 MHz, USB connection, RESET pin, ICSP header, and a
power jack.

Fig. 2.2.6Arduino Mega R3

This Arduino Mega is also having SDA and SCL pins which are next to the AREF. There are
two new pins near the RESET pin which is IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage
provided by the board. The other is a not connected and is reserved for future purposes.

Features of the Arduino Mega (R3)

 ATmega2560 Microcontroller
 Input voltage – 7-12V
 54 Digital I/O Pins (14 PWM outputs)
 16 Analog Inputs

36
  256k Flash Memory
 16Mhz Clock Speed

Arduino Leonardo

The Leonardo Arduino board is a Microcontroller board and it is based on the ATmega32u4 data
sheet. This Arduino board has 20 digital input/out pins and from the total number of pins, seven
pins are used for the pulse width modulation output and 12 pins are used as an analog input and
there are the 16MHz crystal oscillator, a micro USB connection, RESET pin and power jack.

Fig. 2.2.7 Arduino Leonardo

It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer

with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Leonardo
differs from all preceding boards in that the ATmega32u4 has built-in USB communication,
eliminating the need for a secondary processor.

This allows the Leonardo to appear to a connected computer as a mouse and keyboard, in
addition to a virtual (CDC) serial COM port. It also has other implications for the behavior of the
board; these are detailed on the getting started page.

Arduino Red Board

The Arduino red board is programmed by using the USB cable of mini-B with the help of
Arduino IDE software.

37
 Fig. 2.2.8Arduino Red Board

Without any modifications in the security system there, it will work in Windows8 OS. The
Arduino red board is more constant because USB and FTDI chips are used and they are flat on
the back.

Creating it is very simple to utilize in the project design. Just plug the board, select the menu
option to choose an Arduino UNO and you are ready to upload the program. You can control the
RedBoard over USB cable using the barrel jack.

Components of an Arduino Board

 ATmega Microcontroller
 USB or barrel Jack
 Reset button
 Power indicator LED
 TX RX LED’s
 Main IC
 Voltage regulator
 Pins like analog, digital, PWM (pulse width modulation), AREF, 5V, 3.3V

Advantages of Arduino Board

 The Arduino boards are very easy to get started.

 The Arduino boards are used in the automatic room light control.
 On the Arduino, software, hardware, and IDE are open source.

38
  The Arduino boards are used in the real-time application.

2.2.5 Review of the related work

A lot of research work has been carried out over the years in the quest to achieve a
noiseless, cheap, and portable converting dc power to ac power. A circuit was designed
by Lane-Fox in 1970, which consisted of two power transistors which were connected in
switching mode and controlled by an oscillator from a 9v dc source (battery) to a 120v ac
output through a transformer secondary. (Andrew, 1998) The problems with this circuit
are:
 Very low load current (in the order of milliamps).
 Poor power efficiency
In 1986, Jacob designed and constructed a dc-to-ac converter that yielded an output power of
6KVA, 220V AC and 50Hz with efficiency of 93.5%. This solved the problem of low output
power and poor efficiency encountered by Lane-Fox’s circuit. Everon, a manufacturing
company which produces Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS) designed an inverter circuit that
gave a 4KVA output, 270V AC 50Hz and an efficiency of 95% in the year 2000. This was a
huge achievement in the design of inverters and uninterrupted power supplies. (Andrew, 1998)

MICROCONTROLLER BASED FREQUENCY METER POWER INVERTER

In recent years, with the microcontroller incorporated into an appliance, it becomes
possible to use it to measure the output frequency of the inverter. A model is developed to
study the propagation of these frequencies through the input and output leads of the
inverter. It had been explained that the voltage source PWM inverters generate high
frequency common mode voltage, which induces high shaft voltage, leads to bearing
current, and results in premature failure of the bearing.
(Hongfei, 2004) The generating mechanism of common mode voltage of voltage source PWM
inverter is discussed, which illustrates that common mode voltage is ladder-type high
dv/dt and high frequency step voltage and its amplitude varies with the states of
switching devices. According to theoretical analysis and based on conventional
sinusoidal output filter, common-mode connection is introduced i.e., the neutral point of

39
 filter Y-connected RC network is connected to the midpoint of DC bus of the inverter.
Thus, an improved common-mode sinusoidal output filter is achieved, which can
eliminate over-voltage and suppress common-mode voltage. Thus the differential-mode
and common-mode problems can be solved synchronously. Results of simulations and
experiments indicate the effectiveness of the proposed common-mode filter
Authors in [1] designed and implemented a modified sine wave 0.75 kVA inverter for the
viewing center in Iloro community, Ondo State, Nigeria to provide backup alternative
source of electric power to the community. The inverter design applied three units or
stages namely oscillation and driver amplifier units, power MOSFET Amplifier unit and
center-tapped Isolated step-up transformer unit. The results obtained from the load test
show that the higher the load, the higher the input direct current power drawn from the
battery. According to the authors, the average efficiency of the inverter was about 70%.
Author in [2] designed and developed a 600 VA DC-AC inverter system to provide alternative
backup power supply for a community in Rwanda. The result from the author showed
that the inverter worked very well in meeting the objective of the design
Goltlies designed and constructed a 1000W inverter in 2004 using KASTRON TECHNOLOGY.
He uses an IC NE555 timer for the oscillation stage which is better than the transistor
oscillator. Here the limitations of this design are:
The design still uses transistors as switching devices, the 10Ω 20w resistor used could not
last longer when the charging time exceeded one hour. The circuit system also lacked
isolation in case of sudden flash from public power supply and the output supply which
uses three pairs of transistor (2N3055) for switching device and for stable transistor
vibrator. And the system lacked voltage regulation.
LAWAN OJEWOLE in 2002 designed and constructed a 2.5KVA inverter using transistor for
both switching and oscillating circuit with a step-up transformer. With an input of 12Volt
D.C and an output of 240VAC. The limitations of this inverter were:
The inverter has no means of isolating the battery when fully charged. The square wave
output frequency could not be used to power any inductive loads e.g fan, the circuit lack
the basic feedback control element and the efficiency of the system was below the
expectation and the inverter has no means of protection and automatic.
2.2.6 Present Research Work

40
 The architecture and system analysis of the proposed system is described in this section.
A. System Overview
This research paper was done to arrive at a construction that ensures maximum efficiency
at a reduced consumption of energy. Here, readily available components such as SG3524
timer, Current Transformer, Arduino Uno Micro Controller, Relay and the MOSFET
Transistor were used. Finally, the transformer was locally fabricated by buying a burnt
15000W transformer ,loose it and got the lamination. New coils were purchased locally
for the transformer windings.
B. System Design
The system design stage involves the series of object modification and manipulations
until the desired results of the small prototype are evolved. It is this manipulation that
gives rise to the newly evolved load shedding inverter. The main feature guides the
simulation of this application and such features include: -

2.2.7 Conclusion
The load shedding Inverter required extensive research into previous related works. By
reviewing others work, this insight was used to develop our system. To this end, research
papers from various Inverter design were used as guides in the development of this work.

41
 CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes and shows how various components and their values for the design
and construction of load shedding inverter power supply will carry out and how it was
developed stage by stage. a step by step method in carrying out the design is shown. The
basic building blocks of the system include the oscillator which serves as frequency
generator, the amplifier, driver stage, transformation, stage and control stage.

Overload battery
Level output 1
Oscillator Amplifying

Port for Load

12V Power Driver
Unit Control
Supply Stage Or
Unit Overload battery
Transformer Level output 2

Stage Overload battery

Level output 3

LCD

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram Of Load Shedding Inverter.

3.2 Construction Specification

The design and construction of 1500 watts inverter is based on the following technical
specification listed below:
Input D.C voltage 12 volt
Output power 1500 watts
Output AC voltage 240 volt
Battery ampere hours 100 AH
Input current limit 156.A

42
 Output current unit 125A
Frequency 50HZ
Efficiency 80%

Design Analysis
The design analysis of this project construction was based on the specification and the
following mathematical relation.

3.2.1 Power Supply Unit

From the above given mathematical relations
Input power = output power
Efficiency
= 1500 = 1875 watts
0.8
= 1875 = 156
12
Secondary current I2 = Input power
Input voltage
1500 = 125A
12

Batteries

The runtime of an inverter powered by batteries is dependent on the battery power and the
amount of power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment
using the inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime of an
inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter.

Formula to calculate inverter battery capacity:

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Load (In Watts) X Usage Time (in hours) / Input Voltage (V)
Series configuration

43
If the goal is to increase the overall input voltage to the inverter, one can daisy chain batteries in
a series configuration. In a series configuration, if a single battery dies, the other batteries will
not be able to power the load.
Applications

DC power source usage

Inverter designed to provide 115 V AC from the 12 V DC source provided in an automobile. The
unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough to power two 60 W light
bulbs. An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC
electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC
equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

3.2.2 OSCILLATOR STAGE

THEORY OF OPERATION OF AN OSCILLATOR

Sg3524 consist of an error amplifier which share the same terminal with current limiting
circuitry and short down circuitry at the comparator input, this common terminal is called the
compensation pin, and this pin can be used to either control the error amplifier or to compensate
the error amplifier. it can also be used to provide additional control to the regulator. the
frequency of the Sg3524 is determined by the timing resistor (RT) and the timing capacitor (Ct)
and this established a constant charging current for the timing capacitor (Ct) leading to a linear
voltage ramp at (Ct) which is fed to the comparator input and a linear control of the output pulse
width produced by the error amplifier. External ladder network divides the internal reference
voltage to provide a reference within the common mode range of the error amp and the output
error signals is amplified; this amplified error signal voltage is compared to the linear voltage
ramp at the timing capacitor (Ct) by the comparator. Oscillator output pulse (also known as blank
pulse) ensure that both output are never ON simultaneously during the transition time, the
duration of the pulse (bank pulse) is controlled by the value of the timing capacitor (Ct). The
resulting modulated pulse from the output of the high gain comparator is steered to appropriate
output pass transistor by a pulse steering flip flop which is synchronously toggled by the
oscillator output. The image of the circuit diagram of Sg3524 is shown below.

44
 Fig. 3.2.Circuit Diagram of oscillator Stage

3.2.3 DRIVER STAGE

The input of MOSFET has very high input impedance which makes the driver stage
dispensable, but when MOSFETs are connected in parallel, it is often require that their gate be
isolated. The driver stage not only matches the oscillator to the amplifier, it also ensures that the
gates of the parallel MOSFET are properly isolate from each other when they are driven from
the same source.

The driver stage is an emitter follower transistor configuration. The emitter follower does not
really amplify current but also increases the current sourcing capability to the limits of the
transistor. Hence the Emitter follower ensures transfer from the oscillator to the base of the
push-pull amplifier.

45
In this case, Rc which is the collector resistance is the resistance of the relay is 400Q for the

relay

Fig. 3.3. Driver Stage Circuit.

used in the project.

Hence, given that RC = 400Q (relay coil resistance)

V+ = I .75V (regulated voltage from power supply voltage stage)
VBE = O.7V (silicon)
VCE = OV (when the transistor is switched)
VIN = 5V (from the flip - flop stage) hfe =
300 (from data sheet for C945)
Since, V+ = IcRc + VCE
VIN = IRRB + VBE
IC = hfe
53
RB = IRRB + VBE
IC = hfe
IB
RB = VIN - VBE
IB

46
 Where IC = COLLECTOR CURRENT
IB = BASE CURRENT
VIN = INPUT VOLTAGE

V+ = SUPPLY VOLTAGE
VCB = COLLECTOR - EMITTER VOLTAGE
hfe = CURRENT GAIN
From 1.0
24 = IcRc + VCE
24 = IC (400) + 0
IC + 0.006A = 60Ma
From 3.0
IB = 60mA/300
2 x 10 = 200μA
From 2.0
For 5v,
5 = 200μA RB + 0.7
5 - 0.7 = 200μA RB
4.3/ 200 x 10-6 RB = 21
RB = 21,500 = 22,000Ω
RB = 22Ω

3.2.4 THE TRANSFORMATION SECTION

47
This has to do with conversion of energy from one circuit to other. AC (stepped up) goes to the
terminal 2 of the rectifying diode with capacitor at its input to perfectly filter the conversion of

AC to DC and stepped down AC charges the battery. The output of the battery will be controlled
by the relay on the panel as to when charge or not.

Fig. 3.4 Transformer Circuit State

Transformer
By sizing transformer equation as
V1 = N1 ___________ (1) where
V2 N2
V1 represent primary voltage
N1 represent primary turns
N2 represent secondary turns
N2 represent secondary voltage
During the coiling of the transformer one turn represent one voltage i.e 1 turn = 1 voltage.
The primary winding of the transformer is expected to operate at 12v then 8.
N1 = 1 x 12 = 12 turms
To determined the frequency winding N2 using the transformer equation.
V1 = N1 where N1 = 12 turns V1 = 12, V2 = 240v

48
 V2 = N2
N2 24 = 240 x 24
N2 = 240 x 24
24
= 240 turns
Table 3.3.3 shows transformer section parameters
Calculated Value Practical value
N1 24 35
N2 240 240
G1 18 18
G2 12 12

3.3.3 Transformer Stage Analysis

It is a fact that in any transformer its efficiency can be up to 95% but for safer side and
for the sake of this project design and construction 80% transformer efficiency was
chosen to accommodates the constraints such as air gap winding hysteresis and the
copper losses eddy current etc therefore, for calculating the expected wattage rating of
these transformer tile have.
WT = continuous power rating x efficiency
= 1.500 x 0.8 = 1200 watt
Transformer power rating = 1200 watt
3.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The load is connected to secondary winding of the transformer the alternating current flowing in
primary winding established on alternating EMF which in forms setup on alternating flux Q
confine mostly to the iron core because of the high permeability. Thus flux cuts both primary and
secondary windings thereby including emf Ep and Es respectively.

Assure that the flux linking NP and (the two winding) varies sinusoidally as follows:

Q = Qm Sin (wb)

Therefore by faraday’s law of induction the induced emf is given by

49
EMF = - NdQ/dt

E = di/dt

= -Nd/Qm sin wt)

dt

Where N is the number of turns of the coil and Q is the flow linkage. The induced EMF is
maximum when cos wt = 1

Emf = - NWQM

= - 2 + Q MN

And the rms value becomes Ems = emf/2

= 2FNQM

= -4.44FNPQM

This for the primary winding

EP = 4.44FNPQM____________________(3)

And for the secondary winding

Es = 4.44 FNSQM

It is the sum from the two equations that

Ep = Es _________________ (5)

NP Ns

= 4.44 FNQm

50
3.2.5 CONTROL UNIT
This unit serves as the brain of the system, it accepts input from the current sensor and also send
command to the display units, the control unit consist of the microcontroller (Arduino Uno),
programming language, display unit and load shedding unit. is an open-source electronics
platform based on easy -to-use hard ware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs-
light on a sensor, a finger on a button and turn it into an output.

This open-source micro-controller board based on the micro-chip ATMega328P micro-controller

and develop by Arduino. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O)
pins that maybe interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuit.

Fig. 3.5 Control unit circuit

51
3.2.6 Load Shedding

This Unit consist of the current transformer also Known as CT, and Relay. The CT is responsible
for the detection of the output voltage of the inverter and generates an Analog Signal which is
transmitted to the Arduino uno. The Arduino uno read input-light and send a digital signal to the
L.C.D and Relay Circuit to display at the same time. The signal received by the Relay from
Arduino uno is to cut-off the load from the system.

Fig. 3.6 Load Shedding Circuit Diagram

52
Fig. 3.7Complete Circuitry Diagram

53
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONSTRUCTION AND PACKAGING

4.1 Introduction

This chapter gives the detailed explanation of the construction and

packaging of this project.

4.2 Implementation

This project was first implemented on Proteus software, and the code was written in C
programming language, which is then simulated and corrections were made until the
desired performance was achieved. All components were then transferred to the
breadboard for physical verification of it. After the verification process, all components were
transferred to the Vero board for effective soldering following the simulated design on
the proteus software. The components were mounted on the Vero board one after the other
and then soldered, while observing the basic rules the government layout, with the Vero
board cleaned thoroughly with iron brush to remove dirt from the surface which may affect
soldering quality and neat job.

The figure 4.2 below shows a layout of the construction.

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 Figure 4.2 Pictorial Image of the Circuit Construction

4.2.1 Soldering Precaution

When carrying out soldering, great care needs to be taken into consideration so as
to achieve a perfect result, some of these precautions includes: -

i. Hold the wires firmly to its position and solder neatly.

ii. Never touch the element of the soldering iron, it is 400o C!
iii. Turn off and unplugged the soldering iron when not in use.
iv. Keep the clearing sponge wet during use
v. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use
vi. Never put the soldering iron on work bench when in use.
vii. Avoid over heating of the components.

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