Cell Structures and Their Functions

The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organisms consist
of single cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. All organisms are
made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells
(multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients
taken from the food into energy. Cells are complex, and their components perform
various functions in an organism. They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much
like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.
Cells are the lowest level of organization in every life form. From organism to organism,
the count of cells may vary.
Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialized functions to
carry out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary
material of the organisms is also present in the cells.

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Learning outcomes for Lesson#1:
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Explain how the structures of a cell contribute to its function.

Who discovered cells?

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of
bottle cork under a compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that
reminded him of small rooms. Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells.
However, his compound microscope had limited magnification, and hence, he could
not see any details in the structure. Because of this limitation, Hooke concluded that
these were non-living entities.
Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound
microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited
some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these
microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of other observations, these
entities were named as animalcules.
In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into
the cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

The Functions of the cell

1. Cell metabolism and Energy use
 The chemical reactions that occur within cells are referred to as metabolic
reactions and collectively known as CELL METABOLISM.
 The energy released from some metabolic reactions fuels cellular activities,
such as the synthesis of molecules and contraction.
 During some metabolic reactions, energy is released as heat, which maintains
body temperature.
2. Synthesis of Molecules
 The different cells of the body synthesize various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
 The structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the
molecules they produced.
3. Communication
 Cells produced to respond to chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells produce chemical
signals by which they communicate with muscle cells, and muscle cells respond
by contracting or relaxing.

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 4. Reproduction and Inheritance
 Most cells contain a complete copy of all genetic information of the individual.
This genetic information ultimately determines the structural and functional
characteristics of the cell.
 As a person grows, cell divide to produce new cells, called gametes are
responsible for transmitting genetic information to the next.
5. Allows Transport of Substances
 Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical
processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical
processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport.
The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport
where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different laborers’ and departments that work
towards a common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based
on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:
1. Prokaryotes
2. Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Cells
a. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria
have a region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended.
This region is called the nucleoid.
b. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea,
bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
c. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
d. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
e. Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, a form of sexual reproduction.
Eukaryotic Cells
a. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.
b. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
c. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.

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 d. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients
and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell
communication.
e. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
f. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. (eg. the
plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the
animal cells do not.)

PARTS OF THE CELL

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external
environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other
organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred
to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement
of selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane
also protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell
and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect from
them from external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made
up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost
layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical
shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane.

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  Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA
from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.
Cell Organelles
 Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes.

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Movement through the Cell Membrane
Despite differences in structure and function, all living cells in multicellular
organisms have a surrounding cell membrane. As the outer layer of your skin
separates your body from its environment, the cell membrane (also known as the
plasma membrane) separates the inner contents of a cell from its exterior environment.
This cell membrane provides a protective barrier around the cell and regulates which
materials can pass in or out.
The cell membrane is an extremely
pliable structure composed primarily of back-to-
back phospholipids (a “bilayer”). Cholesterol
is also present, which contributes to the fluidity
of the membrane, and there are various proteins
embedded within the membrane that have a
variety of functions.
A single phospholipid molecule has a
phosphate group on one end, called the “head,”
and two side-by-side chains of fatty acids that
make up the lipid tails.
The phosphate group is negatively
charged, making the head polar and
hydrophilic—or “water loving.” A
hydrophilic molecule (or region of a
molecule) is one that is attracted to
water. The phosphate heads are thus
attracted to the water molecules of both
the extracellular and intracellular
environments. The lipid tails, on the other hand, are uncharged, or nonpolar, and are
hydrophobic—or “water fearing.”
A hydrophobic molecule (or region of a molecule) repels and is repelled by
water. Some lipid tails consist of saturated fatty acids and some contain unsaturated
fatty acids. This combination adds to the fluidity of the tails that are constantly in
motion. Phospholipids are thus amphipathic molecules. An amphipathic molecule is
one that contains both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region. In fact, soap works to
remove oil and grease stains because it has amphipathic properties. The hydrophilic
portion can dissolve in water while the hydrophobic portion can trap grease in micelles
that then can be washed away.

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 The cell membrane consists of two adjacent layers of phospholipids. The lipid
tails of one layer face the lipid tails of the other layer, meeting at the interface of the
two layers. The phospholipid heads face outward, one layer exposed to the interior of
the cell and one layer exposed to the exterior. Because the phosphate groups are polar
and hydrophilic, they are attracted to water in the intracellular fluid. Intracellular fluid
(ICF) is the fluid interior of the cell. The phosphate groups are also attracted to the
extracellular fluid. Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid environment outside the
enclosure of the cell membrane. Interstitial fluid (IF) is the term given to extracellular
fluid not contained within blood vessels. Because the lipid tails are hydrophobic, they
meet in the inner region of the membrane, excluding watery intracellular and
extracellular fluid from this space. The cell membrane has many proteins, as well as
other lipids (such as cholesterol), that are associated with the phospholipid bilayer. An
important feature of the membrane is that it remains fluid; the lipids and proteins in the
cell membrane are not rigidly locked in place.

MEMBRANE PROTEINS
The lipid bilayer forms the basis of the cell membrane, but it is peppered
throughout with various proteins. Two different types of proteins that are commonly
associated with the cell membrane are the integral proteins and peripheral protein. As
its name suggests, an integral protein is a protein that is embedded in the membrane.
A channel protein is an example of an integral protein that selectively allows particular
materials, such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell.

Another important group of integral proteins are cell recognition proteins, which
serve to mark a cell’s identity so that it can be recognized by other cells. A receptor is
a type of recognition protein that can selectively bind a specific molecule outside the
cell, and this binding induces a chemical reaction within the cell. A ligand is the specific

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molecule that binds to and activates a receptor. Some integral proteins serve dual
roles as both a receptor and an ion channel. One example of a receptor-ligand
interaction is the receptors on nerve cells that bind neurotransmitters, such as
dopamine. When a dopamine molecule binds to a dopamine receptor protein, a
channel within the transmembrane protein opens to allow certain ions to flow into the
cell.
Some integral membrane proteins are glycoproteins. A glycoprotein is a
protein that has carbohydrate molecules attached, which extend into the extracellular
matrix. The attached carbohydrate tags on glycoproteins aid in cell recognition. The
carbohydrates that extend from membrane proteins and even from some membrane
lipids collectively form the glycocalyx. The glycocalyx is a fuzzy-appearing coating
around the cell formed from glycoproteins and other carbohydrates attached to the cell
membrane. The glycocalyx can have various roles. For example, it may have
molecules that allow the cell to bind to another cell, it may contain receptors for
hormones, or it might have enzymes to break down nutrients. The glycocalyces found
in a person’s body are products of that person’s genetic makeup. They give each of the
individual’s trillions of cells the “identity” of belonging in the person’s body. This identity
is the primary way that a person’s immune defense cells “know” not to attack the
person’s own body cells, but it also is the reason organs donated by another person
might be rejected.
Peripheral proteins are typically found on the inner or outer surface of the lipid
bilayer but can also be attached to the internal or external surface of an integral protein.
These proteins typically perform a specific function for the cell. Some peripheral
proteins on the surface of intestinal cells, for example, act as digestive enzymes to
break down nutrients to sizes that can pass through the cells and into the bloodstream.

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

One of the great wonders of the cell membrane is its ability to regulate the
concentration of substances inside the cell. These substances include ions such as
Ca++, Na+, K+, and Cl–; nutrients including sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids; and
waste products, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), which must leave the cell.
The membrane’s lipid bilayer structure provides the first level of control. The
phospholipids are tightly packed together, and the membrane has a hydrophobic
interior. This structure causes the membrane to be selectively permeable. A
membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain
criteria to pass through it unaided. In the case of the cell membrane, only relatively
small, nonpolar materials can move through the lipid bilayer (remember, the lipid tails

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of the membrane are nonpolar). Some examples of these are other lipids, oxygen and
carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol. However, water-soluble materials—like glucose,
amino acids, and electrolytes—need some assistance to cross the membrane because
they are repelled by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer. All substances
that move through the membrane do so by one of two general methods, which are
categorized based on whether or not energy is required. Passive transport is the
movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular
energy. In contrast, active transport is the movement of substances across the
membrane using energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
In order to understand how substances, move passively across a cell
membrane, it is necessary to understand concentration gradients and diffusion.
A concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of a substance
across a space. Molecules (or ions) will spread/diffuse from where they are more
concentrated to where they are less concentrated until they are equally distributed in
that space. (When molecules move in this way, they are said to move down their
concentration gradient.)
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration. Imagine being inside a closed bathroom. If a bottle of
perfume were sprayed, the scent molecules would naturally diffuse from the spot
where they left the bottle to all corners of the bathroom, and this diffusion would go on
until no more concentration gradient remains.
Another example is a spoonful of sugar placed in a cup of tea. Eventually the
sugar will diffuse throughout the tea until no concentration gradient remains. In both
cases, if the room is warmer or the tea hotter, diffusion occurs even faster as the
molecules are bumping into each other and spreading out faster than at cooler
temperatures. Having an internal body temperature around 98.6° F thus also aids in
diffusion of particles within the body.

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 Whenever a substance exists in greater concentration on one side of a
semipermeable membrane, such as the cell membranes, any substance that can move
down its concentration gradient across the membrane will do so. Consider substances
that can easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane, such as the gases
oxygen (O2) and CO2. O2 generally diffuses into cells because it is more concentrated
outside of them, and CO2 typically diffuses out of cells because it is more concentrated
inside of them. Neither of these examples requires any energy on the part of the cell,
and therefore they use passive transport to move across the membrane.
Because cells rapidly use up oxygen during metabolism, there is typically a
lower concentration of O2 inside the cell than outside. As a result, oxygen will diffuse
from the interstitial fluid directly through the lipid bilayer of the membrane and into the
cytoplasm within the cell. On the other hand, because cells produce CO2 as a
byproduct of metabolism, CO2 concentrations rise within the cytoplasm; therefore,
CO2 will move from the cell through the lipid bilayer and into the interstitial fluid, where
its concentration is lower. This mechanism of molecules moving across a cell
membrane from the side where they are more concentrated to the side where they are
less concentrated is a form of passive transport called simple diffusion
Large polar or ionic molecules, which are hydrophilic, cannot easily
cross the phospholipid bilayer. Very small polar molecules, such as water, can cross
via simple diffusion due to their small size. Charged atoms or molecules of any size
cannot cross the cell membrane via simple diffusion as the charges are repelled by the
hydrophobic tails in the interior of the phospholipid bilayer. Solutes dissolved in water
on either side of the cell membrane will tend to diffuse down their concentration
gradients, but because most substances cannot pass freely through the lipid bilayer of
the cell membrane, their movement is restricted to protein channels and specialized
transport mechanisms in the membrane.

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 Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion process used for those substances that
cannot cross the lipid bilayer
due to their size, charge,
and/or polarity. A common
example of facilitated
diffusion is the movement of
glucose into the cell, where it
is used to make ATP.
Although glucose can be
more concentrated outside of
a cell, it cannot cross the lipid
bilayer via simple diffusion
because it is both large and
polar. To resolve this, a
specialized carrier protein
called the glucose
transporter will transfer
glucose molecules into the
cell to facilitate its inward diffusion.
As an example, even though sodium ions (Na+) are highly concentrated
outside of cells, these electrolytes are charged and cannot pass through the nonpolar
lipid bilayer of the membrane. Their diffusion is facilitated by membrane proteins that
form sodium channels (or “pores”), so that Na+ ions can move down their concentration
gradient from outside the cells to inside the cells. There are many other solutes that
must undergo facilitated diffusion to move into a cell, such as amino acids, or to move
out of a cell, such as wastes. Because facilitated diffusion is a passive process, it does
not require energy expenditure by the cell.
Water also can move freely across the cell membrane of all cells, either through
protein channels or by slipping between the lipid tails of the membrane itself.

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 Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. The
movement of water molecules is not itself regulated by cells, so it is important that cells
are exposed to an environment in which the concentration of solutes outside of the
cells (in the extracellular fluid) is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cells
(in the cytoplasm). Two solutions that have the same concentration of solutes are said
to be isotonic (equal tension). When cells and their extracellular environments are
isotonic, the concentration of water molecules is the same outside and inside the cells,
and the cells maintain their normal shape (and function).

Osmosis occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell versus

inside the cell. A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another
solution is said to be hypertonic, and water molecules tend to diffuse into a hypertonic
solution. Cells in a hypertonic solution will shrivel as water leaves the cell via osmosis.
In contrast, a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution
is said to be hypotonic, and water molecules tend to diffuse out of a hypotonic solution.
Cells in a hypotonic solution will take on too much water and swell, with the risk of
eventually bursting. A critical aspect of homeostasis in living things is to create an
internal environment in which all of the body’s cells are in an isotonic solution. Various
organ systems, particularly the kidneys, work to maintain this homeostasis.

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Please use a separate sheet for this activity (use a long bond paper)
write your answers in a readable manner. Submit the picture of your
answers to [email protected]

Answer the following Questions:

1. What is an active transport?
2. What is a secondary active transport?
3. What is cystic fibrosis? (you can watch the movie: “6 Feet
Apart”) for better understanding 
4. What is endocytosis and exocytosis?

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ORGANELLES

 Cytoskeleton: supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in
place. it is also responsible for changes in cell shape and movement of cell
organelles.
 Cytoplasmic Inclusions: the cytosol also contains cytoplasmic inclusions,
which are aggregates (collection of particles) of chemical either produced or
taken in by the cell.

Nucleus and Other Cytoplasmic Organelles

Organelles are structures within cells that are specialized for particular
functions, such as manufacturing proteins or producing ATP. Organelles can be
thought as of individual workstations within the cell, each responsible for performing
specific task.

NUCLEUS
It is a large, membrane-bound structure usually located near the center of the
cell. it may be spherical, elongated, or lobed, depending on the cell type. All body cells
have a nucleus at some point
in their life cycle, although
some cells, such as RBC,
lose their nuclei as they
develop. Other cells, such as
skeletal muscle cells and
certain bone cells called
osteoclasts, contains more
than one nucleus.
Nucleolus
It is a dense region
within the nucleus that lacks
a surrounding membrane. Usually, one nucleolus exists per nucleus. The nucleolus
incorporates portions of chromosomes that contain DNA from which rRNA is produced.
Within the nucleolus, the subunits of ribosomes are manufactured. The nucleus consist
of nucleoplasm surrounded by a nuclear envelop composed of two membranes
separated by a space. At many points on the surface of the nuclear envelope, the inner
and outer membranes fuse to form pore-like structure called nuclear pores. Molecules
move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through these openings.

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes an organism's genetic
blueprint. In other words, DNA contains all of the information required to build and
maintain an organism. DNA was discovered in 1868, when twenty-four-year-old Swiss
physician Friedrich Miescher isolated a compound from the nuclei of white blood
cells. This compound was neither a protein nor a lipid nor a carbohydrate, so it was
therefore a novel type of biological molecule. Miescher named his discovery "nuclein,"
because he had isolated it from the
nuclei of cells. Today, this molecule is
called DNA. Nearly all of the cells
within a single organism include
exactly the same DNA.
DNA is a linear molecule
composed of four types of smaller
chemical molecules called nucleotide
bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and thymine (T). The
order of these bases is called the
DNA sequence. Segments of DNA
that carry genetic information are
called genes, and they are inherited by offspring from their parents during reproduction.
In the nucleus, DNA forms a complex with proteins. This complex is called chromatin
and is formed when the DNA wraps around nuclear proteins and then wraps around
itself multiple times to condense the DNA into a smaller volume. Additionally, DNA
chromosomes are often recognized and depicted
as X-shaped structures. DNA takes this form
following DNA replication during the process of cell
division, when replicated chromosomes are highly
condensed and appear in an X shape.

What is a chromosome?
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA
molecule is packaged into thread-like structures
called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made
up of DNA tightly coiled many times around
proteins called histones that support its structure.

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Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a microscope—
when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes
more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a microscope. Most
of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing
chromosomes during cell division. Each chromosome has a constriction point called
the centromere, which divides the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short
arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is
labeled the “q arm.” The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the
chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of
specific genes.

Ribonucleic Acid (Rna)

It is a (polymeric Adenine-thymine/uracil, guanine-cytosine) large molecule, or
macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits) molecule essential in various
biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.
3 types of RNA
1. mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a
polypeptide.
2. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during
translation.
3. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the
ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA
Ribosomes
They are the sites of proteins synthesis. Each ribosome is composed of a large
subunit and a small subunit. The nucleus and proteins produced in the cytoplasm. The
ribosomal subunits then move through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm, where the
ribosomal subunits are assembled with mRNA to form the functional ribosome during
protein synthesis. Ribosomes can be found free in the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Is the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope it is a continuous series of
membranes distributed throughout the cytoplasm. The E.R consist of broad flattened,
interconnecting sacs and tubules that are called CISTERNEA and are isolated from
the rest of the cytoplasm.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: it is called rough because the RIBOSOMES
are attached to it. The ribosomes of the rough E.R, are sites where proteins are
produced and modified for the use as an integral membrane proteins and for

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 the secretion into the extracellular space. Cells with abundant rough E.R within
the cytoplasm synthesized large amount of protein, which are secreted for
outside the cell.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: E.R without attached ribosomes,
manufactures lipids, such as phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid hormones,
as well as carbohydrates. Smooth E.R also participates in detoxification, the
process by which enzymes act on chemicals and drugs to change their
structure and reduce their toxicity. The smooth E.R of skeletal muscles stores
ions that function in muscle contraction.

Golgi apparatus
Is composed of flattened, membranous sacs, containing cisternae, stacked on
each other like a dinner plates. It can be thought of as a packaging and distribution
center because it modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactures
by the rough and smooth E.R. Proteins produced at the ribosomes (rough E.R) enters
the E.R. these proteins are later packaged into TRANSPORT VESICLES that move to
the golgi apparatus. It chemically modifies the proteins by attaching carbohydrate
molecules to form glycoproteins lipids to form lipoproteins.

Secretory Vesicles
The membrane-bound secretory vesicles that pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus move to the surface of the cell. their membrane is fused with plasma
membrane, and the contents of the molecules are released. Secretory vesicles
accumulate in some cells, but their contents frequently are not releases to the exterior
until the cell receives a signal. For example, secretory vesicles that contain hormone
insulin do not release it until the concentration of glucose in the blood increases and
acts as a signal for the secretion from the cells.

Lysosomes
Are membranes-bound vesicles that form at the Golgi apparatus. They contain
a variety of hydrolytic enzymes that function as INTRACELLULAR DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM. Various enzymes within the lysosomes digest nucleic acids, proteins,
polysaccharides, and lipids. White Blood Cells have large numbers of lysosomes to
digest bacteria. Lysosomes also digest the organelles of the cell that are no longer
functional.

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Peroxisomes
Are membrane-bound vesicles that are smaller than lysosomes. They contain
enzymes that breakdown fatty acid and amino acid. Cells that are active in
detoxification, such as liver and kidneys cells, have many peroxisomes.
Proteasomes
Are large protein complexes containing enzymes that break down and recycle
other proteins within the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria provide energy for the cell. Consequently, they are often
called the CELL'S POWER PLANT/HOUSE. It is the major sites for the production of
ATP, which is the primary energy source for most energy-requiring chemical reactions
within a cell.
Cilia and Flagella
 Cilia are the structures that protects from the surface of cell and are capable of
movement. they vary from one to thousand per cell.
 Cilia are numerous on the surface cells that line the respiratory tract and the
female reproductive tract. In these region cilia move in a coordinated fashion,
with power stroke in one direction and recovery stroke in the opposite direction.
Their motion moves materials over the surface of the cells.
Flagella
 Has a structure similar to that of cilia, but they are longer. sperm cells are the
only human cells that possess flagella. Furthermore, whereas cilia move small
particles across the cell surface, flagella move the entire cell.
Microvilli
 They are found on the cells of the intestine, kidneys, and other areas where
absorption is important function. In certain locations of the body, microvilli are
highly modified to function as sensory receptors. For example, elongated
microvilli in hair cell of the inner ear respond to sound.

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Please use a separate sheet for this activity (use a long bond paper)
write your answers in a readable manner. Submit the picture of your
answers to [email protected]

Answer the following Questions:

1. What is gene expression
2. What is the role of your mRNA in gene expression?
3. Differentiate transcription form translation.
4. Draw the process of CELL CYCLE and briefly describe its phases.
5. What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
6. What happens to your cells when there is cancer?
7. Identify the 5 aspects of aging.

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