Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies

TABLES OF CONTENTS
TABLES OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................................................II
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE..........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................................................................1
USES OF COMPUTERS .............................................................................................................................................................................1
HISTORY OF COMPUTING......................................................................................................................................................................2
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS ..........................................................................................................................................................3
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes.......................................................................................................................................3
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors.........................................................................................................................................3
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits...............................................................................................................................3
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors ...........................................................................................................................3
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence ............................................................................................................4
SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE ................................................................................................................................................................4
DIFFERENT PARTS OF A COMPUTER AND THEIR USES...............................................................................................................4
The monitor..............................................................................................................................................................................................5
The system box or computer console.......................................................................................................................................................5
The keyboard (Pressing)..........................................................................................................................................................................5
The Mouse (Clicking and Dragging).......................................................................................................................................................6
The Peripherals.......................................................................................................................................................................................7
Disk Size Conversion Chart (Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, and Gigabytes)...................................................................................8
TYPES OF COMPUTERS.............................................................................................................................................................................8
ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM .....................................................................................................................................................9
COMPUTER HARDWARE.........................................................................................................................................................................9
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)............................................................................................................................................9
INPUT DEVICES.......................................................................................................................................................................................10
OUTPUT DEVICES...................................................................................................................................................................................11
STORAGE DEVICES................................................................................................................................................................................11
SYSTEM MEMORY..................................................................................................................................................................................11
HARDWARE CONNECTIONS .................................................................................................................................................................12
COMPUTER SOFTWARE .........................................................................................................................................................................12
SYSTEM SOFTWARE..............................................................................................................................................................................12
OPERATING SYSTEM....................................................................................................................................................................................13
Function of the OS.................................................................................................................................................................................14
Classification of OS...............................................................................................................................................................................14
The Difference between Windows &Macs ............................................................................................................................................14
UTILITY SOFTWARE.....................................................................................................................................................................................14
APPLICATION SOFTWARE....................................................................................................................................................................15
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO SIZE ........................................................................................................15
COMPUTER VIRUSES AND SECURITY................................................................................................................................................16
COMPUTER VIRUSES.............................................................................................................................................................................16
TYPES OF VIRUSES ......................................................................................................................................................................................16
SPREAD of Viruses ……….......................................................................................................................................................................17
PREVENTION OF COMPUTER VIRUS.............................................................................................................................................................17
VIRUS DETECTION.......................................................................................................................................................................................18
COMPUTER SECURITY..........................................................................................................................................................................18
BASIC COMPUTER MAINTENANCE ....................................................................................................................................................19
MAINTENANCE.......................................................................................................................................................................................19
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE........................................................................................................................................................................19
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE.......................................................................................................................................................................22
INSPECTIONS................................................................................................................................................................................................26
 Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
WORKING WITH DESKTOP....................................................................................................................................................................27
WORKING WITH WINDOWS..................................................................................................................................................................28
DIALOG BOXES............................................................................................................................................................................................29
THE SINGLE DOCUMENT INTERFACE (SDI) ................................................................................................................................................29
THE MULTIPLE DOCUMENT INTERFACE (MDI)..........................................................................................................................................29
THE WINDOWS CONTROLS ..........................................................................................................................................................................29
MAIN MENU DISPLAY .................................................................................................................................................................................30
CATEGORIES OF MENUS...............................................................................................................................................................................30
MAIN AND CONTEXT -SENSITIVE MENUS....................................................................................................................................................31
USING THE SYSTEM (BOOTING/SHUTTING DOWN).....................................................................................................................33
INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET...................................................................................................................................................34
COMPUTER NETWORK (NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING) .............................................................................................................34
TYPES OF NETWORKS...........................................................................................................................................................................36
Local Area Networks (LANS)................................................................................................................................................................36
Wide Area Networks (WANS)................................................................................................................................................................36
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANS)..............................................................................................................................................36
Intranet: A Secure Internet-Like Network for Organizations..............................................................................................................36
Extranet: A Secure Means for Sharing Information with Partners.....................................................................................................37
HISTORY OF THE INTERNET................................................................................................................................................................37
WHY THE INTERNET ?..................................................................................................................................................................................38
PROTOCOLS (RULES OF NETWORKING).........................................................................................................................................................38
THE WORLD W IDE WEB .............................................................................................................................................................................38
FILE SHARING AND TOPIC SEARCHING........................................................................................................................................................40
BROWSERS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................40
WEB SITE/WEB PAGE..................................................................................................................................................................................41
SEARCH ENGINES ........................................................................................................................................................................................42
DOWNLOADING ...........................................................................................................................................................................................43
CHAT OR INTERNET TELECONFERENCE.......................................................................................................................................................43
TELNET .......................................................................................................................................................................................................43
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTER.........................................................................................................................................44
TYPING/KEYBOARDING..........................................................................................................................................................................44
USING HELP AND SUPPORT KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS................................................................................................................44
FILE PROCESSING.....................................................................................................................................................................................48
SIMPLE DISK MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................................................51
DOCUMENTS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................51
FILE MANAGEMENT ...............................................................................................................................................................................54
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
The main goals of this course are:
1. to understand the general scope of the computer system fundamentally
2. to interact effectively with the computer
3. to know the uses of the basic computer components
4. to manage the system to some extent before involving an expert

5. to know some basic things about the computer and the world and

6. To access beautiful and meaningful ideas.

INTRODUCTION

“In their capacity as a tool, computers will be but a ripple on the surface of our culture. In their capacity as
intellectual challenge, they are without precedent in the cultural history of mankind” By Edsger Dijkstra, 1972

The computer as a revolution leaves no area of life untouched in the present world. It is of tremendous help in all
fields of life. Hence, the knowledge of computer is a necessity for the existence of everybody in this global village.
The invention of computer has transformed our simple manual works to sophisticated lives of automated works to
meet the global demands for the higher productivity and increased efficiency with high precision.

The computer is increasingly becoming compulsory in all educational departments and being introduced and used
in all walks of life because of its speed, accuracy and versatility in processing data. Many tasks at home or office
are being automated rapidly with the the computer. Thus it is becoming apparent that in whatever discipline or
working sector, the computer is now a very vital tool for efficiency improvement and precision of job or task
execution. A computer is designed to meet the prerequisite need of everybody that are interested and wish to know
about computers science and computing in general.

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its memory. These
instructions tell the machine what to do. The computer is capable of accepting data (input), processing data
arithmetically and logically, producing output from the processing, and storing the results for future use. There are
two types of system units; the desktop that sits on top of a table and a tower type that stands perpendicularly to
save space.

The "computer" is an ensemble of different machines that you will be using to get your job done. A computer is
made up of: input unit, Memory unit, Central Processing Unit referred to as the processor, storage unit and the
output unit.

In everyday life activities, we process data or encounter cases of data processing. A typical example of data
processing is the generation of student result statement from the marks score in an examination and continuous
assessment. It is essential to know that information is as useful as data from which it has derived, and the
transformation process subjected to it. Meaningless data or inappropriate processing produces wrong information.
Therefore, computers give results corresponding to what data is supplied and how to process (i.e. garbage- in,
garbage out).

Summarily, the intelligent performance of a computer depends on the correctness of input data and the
intellectual performance of the human being that drives it.
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
USES OF COMPUTERS

People use computers in many ways;

Business, computers are used to track inventories with bar codes and scanners, check credit status of customers,
and transfer funds electronically. Homes, tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most appliances
control the indoor temperature, operate home security systems, tell the time, and turn video cassette recorders
(VCRs) on and off, automobiles regulate the flow of fuel, thereby increasing gas mileage, they also entertain,
creating digitized sound on stereo systems or computer-animated features from a digitally encoded laser disc.

Computer programs, or applications, exist to aid every level of education, from programs that teach simple
addition or sentence construction to programs that teach advanced calculus. Educators use computers to track
grades and communicate with students; with computer-controlled projection units, they can add graphics, sound,
and animation to their communications. Computers are used extensively in scientific research to solve
mathematical problems, investigate complex data, or model systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such
as testing the air flow around the next generation of aircraft. The military employs computers in sophisticated
communications to encode and unscramble messages and to keep track of personnel and supplies.

HISTORY OF COMPUTING

Since the creation of man, a significant amount of human activities have been ascribed to organizing and
processing information so that it could be more easily presented for easy comprehension. Many devices have been
used in the past before the advert of computer. It is then necessary to vividly look into their evolution. Early
computing machines:

1. Abacus (-2500BC): This is a hand- held device made of beads stung on rods in a frame. The rods
correspond to positions of the digits while the beads correspond to the digits.
2. Napier s Bone (2500BC): This was invented by John Napier s (1550 - 1617). This consists of small
rods with appropriate markings on them. It is a mechanical aid to computation that consists of nine such rods
(called bones) with one for each digit 1 through 9. He also invented logarithms which made possible to do division
and multiplication by performing addition and subtraction.
3. Slide Rule (1600AD) by William Oughtred (1575 - 660): He invented it in 1622 but announced it in
1632 this consist of rules on which markings represent logarithms of numbers and also permits calculation
involving exponents, trigonometric functions, etc.
4. Pascal mechanical calculator (1600) or Numerical wheel calculator:-Blaise Pascal (1623 -1664) in
1642 invented the first adding machine called Pascaline. The brass rectangular box used eight moveable dials to
add and sum up of eight figures long using base 10. It can perform all the four arithmetic operation with previous
unheard speed.
5. Leibnitz mechanical multiplier (1600): In 1694 Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibnitz (1646 -1716) improved
upon the pascaline by creating a machine that can also multiply using a system of dials and gear.

6 Colmar s Calculator (1820) by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar: This presented a more practical
approach to computing.
7 Punched-Card machine (Jacquard s loom) (1801): Joseph Marie Jacquard.
8 Mechanical computer: Charles Gabbage (1792-1871) Father of the computer. Difference engine
powered by steam and large as locomotive the machine has a stored program and could perform calculations and
print the result automatically. We also have Analytical engine credited to him. 9 Hermann Hollerith (1860-1929)
 Hollerith s system punch-card reader machine:-for counting census result in 1890 in US.
 formed tabulating machine company in 1896(TMC)
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
 Automatic Tabulating Machine (ATM)-1900
 TMC was renamed to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1924 after series
of mergers.

In summary, the history of computing began with an analog machine. In 1623 German scientist Wilhelm
Schikard invented a machine that could add, and with the aid of logarithm tables, multiply and divide. Since then
the development has pass through a lot of stages such as the invention of punched cards to program patterns to
create woven fabrics by Joseph-Marie Jacquard a French inventor in 19th century. Another early mechanical
computer was the Difference Engine, designed in the early 1820s by British mathematician and scientist Charles
Babbage. In the 1930s American mathematician Howard Aiken developed the Mark I calculating machine, which
was built by IBM. This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic components to replace
mechanical components.

To be sincere, the world has left the era of hearing stories about computer. We are now in the world of
what you can use it for to serve its desired purposes.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful,
efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied
on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are
examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client. It was used in the 1951U.S. Bureau Census.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energyefficient
and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Second-generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from
a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic
energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be
linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and
nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and
selforganization.

SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE

Hardware is the term given to the physical components of a computer: e.g. keyboard, monitor, system box or floppy
disk drive. Software, on the other hand, is electronic information: files, operating system, graphics, computer
programs are all example of software. The difference between hardware and software reflects the duality between
the physical and mental worlds: for example, your brain is hardware, whereas your mind is software.

Software is the stuff that makes your computer do things for you. The computer without software would
be like a home entertainment system with no tapes, CD s, or movies - you have the machine, but there s nothing to
play on it. Software is continually developed. Each time the software maker (Microsoft, Adobe, Corel, etc)
develops a new version of their software they assign it a version number. Before Microsoft Word 7, there was
Microsoft Word 6.0.1, and before that Word 6.0. The larger the developments made to the software, the larger the
version number changes. Usually a large change will result in a whole number upgrade; a small change may result
in a tenth of a decimal place. Hardware are those components or physical pieces (things you can touch) that make
up the computer. The different pieces of the computer s hardware are monitor, speakers, mouse, CDROM, floppy
drive, hard drive, keyboard, CPU, RAM, Processor, etc. Each piece plays a role in the operation of a computer.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF A COMPUTER AND THEIR USES

The standard computer consists of a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse and the system unit. One can attach
accessories such as printers and scanners by means of ports. Increasingly in the workplace, computers are
connected to printers and other computers by means of a network.
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies

Figure 1: Computer System Hardware

The monitor
This is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). There are various technologies for the display unit,
cathode ray tube (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or electro luminescent screens or the
projector. The monitor or screen displays your work. Facing it down reduces reflected glare
from room lights. This reflection may affect your sight. Monitors come in different sizes. The
(most important) size of the monitor is measured diagonally on the screen (in inches). Based on
this, the monitors range in sizes of 12", 14", 15", 17", 19", 21", 29", etc. Monitors are also
characterized by the flatness of their screen. The flatter and the wider screens are usually the better.

The system box or computer console

The system box is where all the computations that the computer performs take place. Inside
are the CPU processor, the motherboard, the hard disk, any network or sound cards, memory
chips (RAM), printer ports (at the back) and the drive bays for floppy disks, Zip disks or CDs.
Outside the casings are the power buttons (ON/OFF and Restart) with some additional facilities
like the casing USB ports, Webcams, etc.

The keyboard (Pressing)

This is the basic input device. It is one of the ways you can tell the computer what to do. It
consists of the standard typewriter keys as well as a numeric keypad and function keys. You
can use it to give the computer commands, name folders and files, and type text in word
processing documents. The keyboard is made of three main categories of keys with
each used for a different purpose.

i. Character Keys: These comprise of letters, numbers and the symbols. They are used to insert/display readable
characters on the screen which is equivalent to the keystroke pressed. Letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o,
p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z
Numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
Symbols
Accent ` Dash/Minus - Equal = Opening Square [ Closing Square ]
Bracket Bracket
Backslash \ Semi-Colon ; Single-Quote ' Pipe | Greater than >
Less than < Comma , Period . Forward Slash / Question mark ?
Tilde ~ Exclamation Mark ! At @ Pound # Dollar $
Dollar $ Percent % Caret ^ Ampersand & Asterisk *
Asterisk * Opening Parenthesis ( Closing ) Underscore _ Plus +
Parenthesis
Opening { Closing Curly } Colon :
Curly Bracket
Bracket

ii. Action Keys: These are not used to type anything, instead they cause an action. Escape, Tab, Caps Lock,
Shift, Control, Alt, Backspace, Enter, Windows, Win Menu, Print Screen, Scroll Lock, Pause Break, Number
Lock, Insert, Home, Page Up, Delete, End, Page Down, Power, Sleep, Wake up, Up Arrow, Left Arrow, Right
Arrow, Down Arrow, and Space Bar.
iii. Application-Dependant Keys: These are called function keys. They are F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9,
F10, F11, and F12. Although the F1 key is usually used to get help while working in Microsoft Windows, the use
of the other keys varies from one application to another. Eventually, the application you use will give you
instructions on what to do and how to use the function keys. Key Combinations
Some keys can be combined to produce uppercase letters or to access the upper symbols of some keys (i.e. the
Shift and Control keys). Keys are also combined for many other reasons. In some situations, you have to press
keys simultaneously, which means that you may be expected to press two or more keys at the same time, or almost
at the same time. In some other situations, you may have to press and release one key, followed by another.

Shortcuts
A shortcut is a quick action you ask a program to perform when you press one particular key or a combination of
keys. Some shortcuts are universal or almost, that is, the computer responds regardless of what application is
running. Some other shortcuts depend on what you have on your screen. Some shortcuts are already known to the
computer (as part of the operating system). Most other shortcuts are set by the programmer of the particular
application you are using. Yet some applications allow you to create your own shortcuts. Some shortcuts are readily
obvious and can be seen from the main menu of the application. Some other shortcuts are either part of Microsoft
Windows (and can be applied in your program) or are not easily displayed, you might have to search the Help
documentation of the program you are using.

The Mouse (Clicking and Dragging)

This is another input device used to move a small white arrow pointer-the Cursor (but the shape will
change depending on the context in which the mouse is being used) on the screen. By pointing and
clicking you can carry out commands. The computer may ask you to verify that you are sure to rename
a file, by clicking on the Ok button. A mouse is primarily made of three parts: the buttons, the handling
area, and the sensor (rolling object or light). There are either one, two or three mouse
buttons. By default, a mouse has two buttons: left and right. Most mice nowadays are also equipped with a wheel
on top of the middle button called the Scroll Button.
To use the mouse, the first decision you make is to know which of your two hands you will be using to handle the
mouse. By default, the mouse is configured to work for the right hand. If you are left-handed, the settings can be
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
changed to suit your needs: Start  Control Panel  Double-click Mouse  on the Buttons Tab, Check the
Switch Primary and Secondary Buttons check box.

You can also change the cursor from the default Up-Left Pointing to another but you should know that this is best
determined by the computer as this varies from program to program. To change, click the Pointer s Tab. Also click
the other tabs to review the different properties.

Note: The expression "by default" means "if everything is not (yet) changed from the original or normal settings".

Figure 2: Mouse Properties Dialog Box

The tip of the mouse pointer must be positioned on the item you want to use (Pointing). To select an item,
point to the item and click once (Selection Left Clicking). Double-clicking (left button) on an icon invokes a
command or launches an application. Dragging an item (icon or other object) from one location to another, position
the mouse pointer on the item, click and hold the mouse buttons (left, right) down, and move the item to the new
location. Right Clicking (right button) invokes a shortcut (contextual) menu that contains all the actions that are
related to the item. Some applications, namely programs used to manipulate text (they are called word processors),
allow you to triple-click.

On Windows machines, there is a left and right mouse button. Most time you use the left mouse button (if
you are right-handed). On some newer Macs, the same feature can be used with their single mouse button by
holding down the Control key as you click an item on the screen.

The Peripherals
All the parts we have reviewed so far are usually required for the computer to function. Some other parts, not
required, can also be connected to the computer to complement it. A peripheral is an object attached to the
computer to help it perform some necessary assignments none of the other parts can handle. In most scenarios,
no peripheral is required but nowadays, it is unusual for a computer not to have any peripheral at all. The most
used peripherals are the printer, a digital camera, a scanner, a projector, an external drive (such as an external
CD burner for an old computer), etc.
Disk Size Conversion Chart (Bits, Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes and Gigabytes)

Bit- Binary digit:-a single elements in the computer memory that can store either 1 or 0
 Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
Word 1Byte, 2Byte or 4Byte depending on the machine. Generally computer word length is giving in bits; hence
we have 8bit, 18bit or 32bit microprocessor computer.

Table 1: Computer Storage Devices Unit Conversion

Unit Equivalent to
1Byte 8 Bits
1kilobyte (kB) 1,024Byte
1MB 1,024KB = 1,024,000Byte
1GB 1,024MB = 1,024,000,000Byte
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Analog computer
These systems were the first type to be produced. It is an electronic machine capable of performing
arithmetic functions on numbers which are represented by some physical quantities such as temperature, pressure,
voltage, etc. Analog refers to circuits or numerical values that have a continuous range. Popular analog computer
used in the 20th century was the slide rule.
Digital Computers
Virtually all modern computers are digital. Digital refers to the processes in computers that manipulate
binary numbers (0s or 1s), which represent switches that are turned on or off by electrical current. A bit can have
the value 0 or the value 1, but nothing in between 0 and 1. A desk lamp can serve as an example of the difference
between analog and digital. If the lamp has a simple on/off switch, then the lamp system is digital, because the
lamp either produces light at a given moment or it does not. If a dimmer replaces the on/off switch, then the lamp
is digital, because the amount of light can vary continuously from on to off and all intensities in between. Digital
computers are more common in use and it will be our focus of discussion.
Hybrid Computer
This is when a computer make is of both analog and digital components and techniques. Such computer
require analog to digital and digital to analog converter which will make analog and digital data palatable to it. The
basic classification nowadays uses the following.
1. The Desktop

A computer is referred to as "desktop" when it is relatively small enough to be positioned on top of

a table where a person is working. Such a computer can also be placed on the floor or somewhere
under, or aside of, the table, in which case the monitor would be placed on top of the table. This is
the most common type of computers used in the office or at home. A desktop computer is made of
different parts that are connected with cables.
2. The Laptop

A computer is called laptop when it combines the CPU, the monitor, the keyboard, and the
mouse in one unit to be so small that you can carry it on your laps when traveling or commuting. A
laptop is also called a notebook. Other parts, such as an external mouse, an external keyboard, or
peripherals such as a printer or a projector, can be connected to the laptop. A laptop is only
physically smaller than a desktop but, everything considered, it can do anything that a desktop can
do. 3. The Server
 Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
A server is a computer that holds information that other
computers, called workstations, can retrieve. Such workstations
are connected to the server using various means. This means that
they could be connected using cable, wireless connection, etc.
Only computers that maintain a type of connection with the server
can get the information that is stored in the server.
Normally, although not particularly recommended, any computer,
including a desktop or even a laptop can be used as a server, as
long as it can do the job required. A server is more defined by the program (called an operating system) that is
installed in it, not how the machine looks.
Any type of computer, including a desktop, a laptop, a CD or DVD machine, etc can be connected to a server. The
person who sets up a server also defines the types of connections it is made for.
4. The Mainframe

A mainframe is a computer, usually physically big, that does almost all the jobs for other types of
computers that are connected to it. This is a broad definition but other aspects are involved. Like a
server, the program (operating system) that runs in the mainframe defines its role.

ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

A typical computer system irrespective of its size, class or type consists of hardware and software,
integrated and harmonized together to perform computational work (scientific or military) or data processing.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware system: Computer hardware consists of the components that can be physically handled. It refers
to the physical units or machine of functional units, which makes up the computer configuration which is done to
suit the goals and objectives of the user. The function of these components is typically divided into three main
categories: input, output, and storage. Components in these categories connect to microprocessors, specifically, the
computer s central processing unit (CPU), the electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and
control of the computer, via wires or circuitry called a bus. Hardware may be classified into Central Processing
Units (CPU) and the peripherals. The CPU entails Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the
Internal Memory Unit (IMU) or main memory. The peripherals consist of the input, output and Auxiliary Storage
Units.
Strictly speaking, computer is made up of five district elements to include:

1. A central processing unit (ALU and CU)

2. Input unit
3. Output unit
4. Storage unit (Internal and Auxiliary)
5. The communication network; Bus that links all the elements of the system, and connects the
6. External world. (Cables and Cords)

MOTHERBOARD: The motherboard is a printed circuit board that connects other components through
the use of traces, or electrical pathways. The motherboard is indispensable to the computer and provides the main
computing capability. Personal computers normally have one central processing unit (CPU) on the motherboard.
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This is the main brain of the computer that accepts data, performs operations on the data and sends out the
result.Information from an input device or from the computer s memory is communicated via the bus to the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the part of the computer that translates commands and runs programs.
It consists of ALU and CU, and a single chip or series of chips that performs arithmetic and logical calculations
and controls the operations of the other elements of the system.

Most CPU chips are composed of four functional sections:

1. ALU: Calculating ability either arithmetical or logical operations.

2. Registers: Temporary storage areas that hold data, keep tracks of instruction, and hold the location and results
of these operations.
3. Control section: Times and regulates the operation of the entire computer system, by using its instruction
decoder to read patterns of data in a designated register and translate the patterns into activities, such as addition
or comparison. It also uses its interrupt input to indicate the order in which individual operations uses the CPU
and regulates the amount of CPU time allotted to each operation.
4. Internal Bus: Network of communication lines that connects the internal elements of the processor and also
leads to external connectors that links the processor to the other element of the computer.

The main functions of the microprocessor (CPU clips) includes the following.

a. Control use of the main storage in storing data and instructions (i.e the ROM).
b. Control the sequence of operations.
c. Give commands to all parts of the computer system.
d. Carry out processing.

INPUT DEVICES

Input unit consists of external devices that is, components outside the computer s CPU. It provides or
fetches information and instructions to the computer. These include keyboard, mouse (mechanical/
optomechanical/ opticals), light pen, joystick, scanner, microphones (voice recognition modules), Optical
Character Reader (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader Recognition (MICR), bar code reader, badge reader,
digitizer, touch screen and optical mark reader (OMR).
A. Light pen: This is a stylus with a light sensitive tip that is used to draw directly on a computer s video
screen or to select information on the screen by pressing a clip in the light pen or by pressing the light pen
against the surface of the screen. The pen contains light sensors that identify which portion of the screen
it is passed over. It is mostly used with Laptop.
B. Mouse: This is a pointing device designed to be gripped by one hand. It has a detection device (usually a
ball) on the bottom that enables the user to control the motion of an on-screen pointer, or cursor, by
moving the mouse on a flat surface. As the device moves across the surface, the cursor moves across the
screen. To select items or choose commands on the screen, the user presses a button on the mouse.
C. Joystick is a pointing device composed of a lever that moves in multiple directions to navigate a cursor
or other graphical object on a computer screen.
D. Keyboard: Keyboard is typewriter-like devices that allows the user to type in text, numeric and execute
commands with the aid of the functional keys on the keyboard.
E. Optical Scanner: This is light-sensing equipment that converts images such as a picture or text into
electronic signals that can be manipulated by a computer. For example, a photograph can be scanned into
a computer and then included in a text document created on that computer. The two most common
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
scanner types are the flatbed scanner, which is similar to an office photocopier, and the handheld scanner,
which is passed manually across the image to be processed.
F. Microphone: This is a device for converting sound into signals that can then be stored, manipulated, and
played back by the computer. A voice recognition module is a device that converts spoken words into
information that the computer can recognize and process.
G. Modem: It stands for modulator-demodulator, is a device that connects a computer to a telephone line or
cable television network and allows information to be transmitted to or received from another computer.
Each computer that sends or receives information must be connected to a modem.
OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices consists of hardware that transfer information from the computer s CPU to the computer
user. This includes the monitor, Printer, plotters, or speaker.
Video Graphic Adapter: This is a device that converts information generated by the computer into visual
information called Monitor. It looks similar to a television set. Information from the CPU is displayed on the
screen of the monitor.
Printers: Information and graphics processed or produced with the aid of computer are printed out as hardcopy
with the aid of printer. There are different types of printers; Dot-matrix printers, Laser printers, Inkjet, etc.
Plotters: Computer output to microfilm or fiche (COM) which process information on rolls of film (drum plotter)
or slide of film (flatbed plotter).

STORAGE DEVICES

Storage devices provide permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by the computer. The
two main types of storage devices are disk drives and memory. There are several types of disk drives: hard disk
drive, floppy disk, magneto-optical, and compact disk.
Hard disk drives store information in magnetic particles embedded in a disk. Usually a permanent part of the
computer, hard disk drives can store large amounts of information and retrieve that information very quickly.
The disks are of different sizes such as 1G, 10G, 40G, etc.
Floppy disk drives also store information in magnetic particles embedded in removable disks. Floppy disks
store less information than a hard disk drive and retrieve the information at a much slower rate. It is of 2 type
51/4 floppy disk and 31/2 floppy disk.
Magneto-optical disc drives store information on removable discs that are sensitive to both laser light and
magnetic fields. They can typically store as much information as hard disks, but they have slightly slower
retrieval speeds.
Compact Disc Drives store information on pits burned into the surface of a disc of reflective material such as
CD-ROM. CD-ROMs can store about as much information as a hard drive but have a slower rate of information
retrieval.
Digital Video Disc (DVD): This is similar and works like a CD-ROM but can store more than 15times as much
information.
Flash drives work as floppy disks but more sensitive as a hard disk that must be ejected logical before final removal
from the computer system. It has more memory than floppy disks.
Memory Cards work as flash drive but with an additional device called the card reader. This is very effective
and more durable than the flash drives.
Some devices serve more than one purpose. For example, floppy disks may also be used as input devices if they
contain information to be used and processed by the computer user. In addition, they can be used as output devices
if the user wants to store the results of computations on them.
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
SYSTEM MEMORY

Memory refers to the computer chips that store information for quick retrieval by the CPU. They are
basically divided into two ROM and RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store information and instructions that operate the computer
s programs. Typically, programs are transferred from storage on a disk drive to RAM. RAM is also known as
volatile memory because the information within the computer chips is lost when power to the computer is turned
off or the computer hanged.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) contains critical information and software that must be permanently available
for computer operation, such as the operating system that directs the computer s actions from start up to shut down.
ROM is called non-volatile memory because the memory chips do not lose their information when power to the
computer is turned off.

HARDWARE CONNECTIONS

To function, hardware requires physical connections that allow components to communicate and interact.
A bus provides a common interconnected system composed of a group of wires or circuitry that coordinates and
moves information between the internal parts of a computer. A bus is characterized by two features: how much
information it can manipulate at one time, called the bus width, and how quickly it can transfer these data.

A serial connection is a wire or set of wires used to transfer information from the CPU to an external device such
as a mouse, keyboard, modem, scanner, and some types of printers. This type of connection transfers only one
piece of data at a time, and is therefore slow. The advantage of using a serial connection is that it provides effective
connections over long distances.

A parallel connection uses multiple sets of wires to transfer blocks of information simultaneously. Most scanners
and printers use this type of connection. A parallel connection is much faster than a serial connection, but it is
limited to distances of less than 3 m (10 ft) between the CPU and the external device.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is the set of instruction that tells the computer what to do and when to do it. The computer uses
this instruction to manipulate data, and enhance the proper functioning of the hardware components. It is designed
to exploit and provide the potential capabilities of the hardware to the user. It converts data into information and
allows users to use the computer in different ways.

Computer programs are written by human beings, like you. This means that the person who writes a
program also decides on its functionality and behaviour; which explains why two programs that are supposed to
do the same thing, don't do it the same way. This is why, regardless of your expertise, you need to be acquainted
with a particular program in order to make better use of it. The fact that you don't know a particular program doesn't
say anything about your intelligence or lack of it. It simply means that you are not familiar with that program.

These programs are usually stored and transferred via the computer s hardware to and from the CPU.
Software also governs how the hardware is utilized; for example, how information is retrieved from a storage
device. The interaction between the input and output devices is controlled by software called the Basic Input Output
System (BIOS) Software. Software as a whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the types of
work done by programs. The two primary software categories are system software, and application software.
Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

This refers to set of programs that facilitate the optional use of the hardware systems by coordinating them.
It consists of programs that start up the computer and perform some utility functions such as checking and getting
the computer ready for use. They are usually written to accomplish loading, execution, storage, and retrieval of
files from/into the computer. They are basically operating system, utility software, and language translators.

Operating System

An operating system is a program that acts as an intermediary between the application programs and the
computer hardware.You cannot directly use computer applications (or programs) with computer hardware without
a translation system between the hardware and the applications. This translation system is called the operating
system (OS). The Windows or Mac OS works behind-the-scenes to run your computer (i.e. the software and the
hardware). It tells the computer what to do when it starts up and keeps track of your documents, files, and other
software. It also provides the standard user interface component (like menus and the desktop) that you see when
you look at your computer screen. Both the Windows and the Mac OS operating systems use a graphical interface
(pictures or icons instead of text) that allow you to immerse yourself in multitasking (accessing multiple
applications and files simultaneously). You work with windows in this interface. These windows are a series of
boxes, which can be opened and closed as needed.

We shall be using Microsoft Windows Operating System as it is the most common on the personal
computers. There are various types of Microsoft Windows. A type of Microsoft Windows is referred to as a version.
Examples of versions are Microsoft Windows 3.3, Microsoft Windows 95, Microsoft Windows NT Workstation,
Microsoft Windows NT Server, Microsoft Windows 98, Microsoft Windows 98 Second Edition,
Microsoft Windows Millennium, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server,
Microsoft Windows XP Home Edition, Microsoft Windows XP Professional, and Microsoft Windows Server
2003.

Operating System Components

Process management Networking

Memory management System Protection

File management Command-interpreter system

Secondary storage management

The Operating System Layer

Computer Training Fundamentals of Computer Studies
Figure 3: Operating System Layers

Operating System is the basic software that controls the major operation of the computer. It is the master control
program, permanently stored in memory, which interprets users commands requesting various kinds of services
Computer Training Computer Basics
such as display, print or copy a data files; list all files in a directory; or execute a particular program. It provides the
link between the user, the application program and the computer hardware with a view to controlling and managing
the operation of the computer. The operating system has four major functions: It coordinates and manipulates
computer hardware, it organizes and manages files on a variety of storage media, it manages the function of
processor, and it interfaces with user.

Function of the OS

• Resource sharing: manages resources by ensuring proper and effective use.

• Provision of virtual machine: Hidings the hardware details from the user.
• Memory management: It manages the effective usage of internal memory, RAM while running multiprograms.
• Protector and error handling. File management.
• Facilitates booting
• Manages multitasking: determines which application should run, in what order, and how much time should be
allowed for each application before giving another application access to run.

Classification of OS

This could be done based on the number of program they can handle at the same time or the number of
user(s) that can be accommodated on the system simultaneously. Hence we have single tasking and multitasking
(for class1) and, single user and multi-user OS (for class 2).

Single user OS is multitasking but can only allow only one user at a time e.g. PC-DOS, MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2.
Multi-user OS is multitasking and at the same time multi-user. This is done when a number of computers
(workstation) connect to a central computer so that all the other computers can use the work on the central computer
e.g. UNIX, XENIX, PC-MOS, windows NT, Linux and Novell.

The Difference between Windows &Macs

The personal computer industry has generally sorted itself out along the lines of two major operating
systems: Mac and Windows. The Mac OS runs on CPUs made by Apple Computer. The Windows OS, made by
Microsoft, runs on CPUs made by many different companies, but not Apple. Some of these companies are: IBM,
Dell, Compaq, Gateway, Fujitsu, Sony, etc. When people talk about the differences between Windows and Macs,
in general, they are expressing a personal preference about which operating system or hardware they believe to be
superior.

Utility Software

This program is produced by the manufacturers to provide useful facilities for performing common computing tasks
of a routine nature to many computer system e.g. system generator, text editor, antivirus, dumping routine,
housekeeping operations etc.

Language translator

The language the computer understand is machine language (Os and 1s) which is very tedious, time consuming,
hard to write/read, or debug. Any program written in another language than this needs language translator which

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carries out the translation to this machine language. The 3 main types of translators are Assemblers, Compilers and
Interpreter.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application Software is a computer program designed to help people perform a certain type of task. An
application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance
or general-purpose tasks), or a language translator (with which computer programs are created). Depending on the
work for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these
elements. Some application packages offer considerable computing power by focusing on a single task, such as
word processing, spreadsheet, graphics, and a database program.

Table 2: Different computer programs with their areas of application

Application Areas Package
Word processing NotePad (text editor), WordPad, Word perfect, WordStar, Microsoft word
Budgeting, accounting Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft excel,
Databases Database 3,4 oracle, Microsoft excel, Corel Paradox, dBase, SQL, M-Access
Graphics CorelDraw, Adobe Photoshop, Jasc Paint Shop Pro, Instant Artist, Print Artist
Spreadsheets Microsoft Excel and Access, Corel Quattro Pro, Sun StarCalc
Book publishing PageMaker, Microsoft publisher
Seminar presentation PowerPoint
Engineering drawing AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, electronic desktop
Statistical analysis SPSS, SPLUS, statistical
Web design Microsoft FrontPage
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO SIZE

Computers exist in a wide range of sizes and power. The smallest are embedded within the circuitry of
appliances, such as televisions and wristwatches. These computers are typically pre-programmed for a specific task,
such as tuning to a particular television frequency, delivering doses of medicine, or keeping accurate time. They
generally are hard-wired that is, their programs are represented as circuits that cannot be reprogrammed.

Mini Computers (Laptop, Notebook Computers and Desktop PCs) are typically used in businesses and at
home to communicate on computer networks, for word processing, to track finances, and for entertainment. They
are equipped with a keyboard; a mouse, trackball, or other devices; and a video display monitor or liquid crystal
display (LCD) to display information. Laptop and notebook computers usually have similar hardware and software
as PCs, but they are more compact and have flat, lightweight LCDs instead of television-like video display monitors.
If equipped with a cellular phone, they can connect to worldwide computer networks to exchange information
regardless of location.

Workstations are similar to personal computers but have greater memory and more extensive mathematical
abilities, and they are connected to other workstations or personal computers to exchange data. They are typically
found in scientific, industrial, and business environments especially financial ones, such as stock exchanges that
require complex and fast computations.

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Mainframe computers have more memory, speed, and capabilities than workstations and are usually
shared by multiple users through a series of interconnected computers. The most powerful mainframe computers,
called supercomputers, control businesses, industrial works, scientific research and process complex and time-
consuming calculations, such as those used to create weather predictions. Large businesses, scientific institutions,
and the military use them. Some supercomputers have many sets of CPUs. These computers break a task into small
pieces, and each CPU processes a portion of the task to increase overall speed and efficiency. Such computers are
called parallel processors. As computers have increased in sophistication, the boundaries between the various types
have become less rigid.

COMPUTER VIRUSES AND SECURITY

COMPUTER VIRUSES

Virus is a self-duplicating computer program that interferes with a computer s hardware or operating system.
They range from being merely irritating (or disturbing) to the very destructive. Computer viruses activate when the
instructions (payload of the virus) or executable code that run programs are opened. Once a virus is active, it may
replicate by various means and infect the computer s files or the operating system. For example, it may copy parts
of itself to floppy disks, to the computer s hard drive, into legitimate computer programs, or it may attach itself to
e-mail messages and spread across computer networks by infecting other shared drives. Viruses attached to e-mail
messages can infect an entire local network in minutes (this is specifically called WORM).

Thousands of viruses and worms exist and can quickly contaminate millions of computers. People who
intentionally create viruses are computer experts called HACKERS; they also violate confidentiality by observing
computer monitors and by impersonating authorised users in other to gain access to the user s computer databases
to steal the identities of other people by obtaining privately identified information about them. They also engage in
software piracy and deface website on the internet. They develop powerful software
crime tools such as the following:

a. Internet eavesdropping snuffers which intercepts internet messages sent to other computers
b. Password guessers that tries millions of combinations of characters in an effect to guess a computer s password.
c. Vulnerability testers that look for software weaknesses
d. Computer services saturator
e. Automatic computer virus generator.

Types of Viruses

a. A boot sector virus stores itself at the start of a disk and becomes activated by reading, starting or restarting
the computer when that disk is in the boot drive.
b. A file infector virus attaches itself to program files i.e. files that give instructions to a computer. These files
usually have extensions like exe, com, or bat. When the program is run, the virus executes.
c. A macro virus affects data files, especially Word documents and Excel workbooks. This virus type accounts
for the vast majority of infected files. When the infected document is opened and the macro are run, the virus
is triggered and can perform system operations such as creating or deleting files or writing into already existing
files and thus have the potential to cause a great deal of damage.
d. Worm or an email virus (for the purpose of this guide) is not really a virus at all (in that it is not selfreplicating)
but a chain letter phenomenon sent through email. The message will, for some reason or other, tell you to pass
this message on to as many people as possible. Hoax virus alerts are typical examples of chain emails. These
are distinct from viruses in that they do not have host file like most other viruses but are carried on the internet
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and can spread from one computer to another by themselves without the need for a user to assist the process by
giving someone an infected file or disk. They are usually spread through the internet as an attachment.
e. Trojan horses are programs that have some hidden, generally malicious functionality that the computer does
not expect. They claim to be a thing (e.g. an audio for example), when they are actually another (e.g. code that
will overwrite a portion of your hard disk). They do not run their own like a virus does but rely on tricking the
user to run them. They don t also replicate themselves which is a major distinction between a virus and a Trojan.

How Viruses are Spread

Viruses are spread by running infected programs or opening infected files. This can occur by using any of the
following methods:

Passing floppy disks from PC to PC

Downloading (copying) infected files from the Internet

Opening an email attachment

Booting a PC with an infected bootable disk.

Computer viruses work in two phases: infection phase and the attack phase.

Infection phase: in order to infect a computer, a virus has to possess the chance to get executed before it can infect
the computer system and spread to others. Events that can trigger the execution of virus are included above.

Attack phase: viruses do destructive things such as deleting files, erasing data on a hard disk, sending random emails
or slowing down the processor by sending millions of looped instructions. Since most users will try their best to
delete the virus once it launches the attack, most virus delay revealing their presence by launching their attack only
after they have had ample opportunity to spread. This means the attack may be delayed for a long time after the
infection.

Prevention of Computer Virus

Computer users can prepare for a viral infection by creating backups of legitimate original software and
data files regularly so that the computer system can be restored if necessary. However, the best prevention may be
the installation of current and well-designed antiviral software. Such software can prevent a viral infection and
thereby help stop its spread.

Or obtain a virus checker for your own machine then register the program with the manufacturers. They will
regularly send you updated versions of the software while your agreement is current. New viruses keep appearing,
so out of date virus software will not protect you and the checker is essential. Install the available security patches,
particularly for Microsoft products. Keep your floppy disk write-protected whenever possible. If you are really
cautious, change the set-up option in your computer s BIOS so that it will always boot from the hard disk, not from
floppies.

Write protect MS Word s Normal template to get limited protection against macro viruses. This template will be a
file called Normal.dot. Select the Read Only bod. Note that this will not disinfect existing infected files.

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In Word, turn on the Macro Virus Protection Option in Tools, then Options, then Security Tab and finally Macro
Security button, by setting the level of security you desire for the macros.. This will warn you if files contain macros.
You or a colleague may have created the macros for some legitimate purpose but they could also be viruses. If a
warning appears, open the file only it comes from a trusted source. Note that this procedure will warn you about
macros (whether malicious or benign) but will not disinfect existing infected files.

Virus Detection

Several types of antiviral software can be used to detect the presence of a virus. Scanning software can recognize
the characteristics of a virus s computer code and look for these characteristics in the computer s files. Antivirus
software packages provide complete protection against viruses. Other types of antiviral software include monitoring
software and integrity-shell software. Monitoring software is different from scanning software. It detects illegal or
potentially damaging viral activities such as overwriting computer files or reformatting the computer s hard drive.

COMPUTER SECURITY

These are techniques developed to safeguard information and information systems stored on computers.
Potential threats include the destruction of computer hardware and software and the loss, modification, theft,
unauthorized use, observation, or disclosure of computer data.
I Simple Techniques: A variety of simple techniques can help prevent computer crimes, such as protecting
computer screens from observation, keeping printed information and computers in locked facilities, backing up
copies of data files and software, and clearing desktops of sensitive information and materials.
Increasingly, however, more sophisticated methods are needed to prevent computer crimes. These include
using encryption techniques, establishing software usage permissions, mandating passwords, and installing
firewalls and intrusion detection systems. In addition, controls within application systems and disaster
recovery plans are also necessary.
II Backup: Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and communication
capabilities are important basic safeguards because the data can then be restored if it was altered or destroyed
by a computer crime or accident. Computer data should be backed up frequently and should be stored nearby
in secure locations in case of damage at the primary site. Transporting sensitive data to storage locations
should also be done securely.
III Encryption: Another technique to protect confidential information is encryption. Computer users can
scramble information to prevent unauthorized users from accessing it. Authorized users can unscramble the
information when needed by using a secret code called a key. Without the key the scrambled information
would be impossible or very difficult to unscramble. A more complex form of encryption uses two keys, called
the public key and the private key, and a system of double encryption. Each participant possesses a secret,
private key and a public key that is known to potential recipients. Both keys are used to encrypt, and matching
keys are used to decrypt the message. However, the advantage over the single-key method lies with the private
keys, which are never shared and so cannot be intercepted.
IV Approved Users: Another technique to help prevent abuse and misuse of computer data is to limit the use of
computers and data files to approved persons. Security software can verify the identity of computer users and
limit their privileges to use, view, and alter files. The software also securely records their actions to establish
accountability. Military organizations give access rights to classified, confidential, secret, or top-secret
information according to the corresponding security clearance level of the user. Other types of organizations
also classify information and specify different degrees of protection.
V Passwords: Passwords are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make use of
specified computers, software, or information. To be effective, passwords must be difficult to guess and should
not be found in dictionaries. Effective passwords contain a variety of characters and symbols that are not part

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of the alphabet. Another advantage of this password is because it is case sensitive (i.e. Advent is different from
advent). To thwart imposters, computer systems usually limit the number of attempts and restrict the time it
takes to enter the correct password.
VI Firewalls: Computers connected to the communication networks such as internet are vulnerable to electronic
attack because many people have access to them. They can be protected by firewalls computer software placed
between the networked computers and the networks. The firewalls examines filters and reports on all
information passing through the network to ensure its appropriateness. These functions help to prevent
saturation of input capabilities that might otherwise deny usage to legitimate users.
VII Intrusion Detection Systems: These are software that detect unusual and suspicious activities and in
some cases, stop a variety of harmful actions.

BASIC COMPUTER MAINTENANCE

MAINTENANCE
One of the most common questions computer users ask is, How do I maintain my computer and keep it
running great? A computer is a lot like a car...it costs more than you think it should, it starts going down in value
as soon as you bring it home and it requires regular maintenance to keep it running smoothly.
To properly deal with repairable systems, we need to first understand how components in these systems are
restored (i.e. the maintenance actions that the components undergo). In general, maintenance is defined as any
action that restores failed units to an operational condition or retains non-failed units in an operational state. For
repairable systems, maintenance plays a vital role in the life of a system. It affects the system s overall reliability,
availability, downtime, cost of operation, etc. Generally, maintenance actions can be divided into three types:
corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance and inspections.

Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is the practice of replacing components or subsystems before they fail in order to promote
continuous system operation. The schedule for preventive maintenance is based on observation of past system
behaviour, component wear-out mechanisms and knowledge of which components are vital to continued system
operation. Cost is always a factor in the scheduling of preventive maintenance. In many circumstances, it is
financially more sensible to replace parts or components that have not failed at predetermined intervals rather than
to wait for a system failure that may result in a costly disruption in operations.

Here are a few basic guidelines required.

I Surge Protection: Power surges, spikes, lightning and brown - outs are all things that can literally burn up
your computer and its peripherals. Save yourself lots of money in repairs by buying a decent surge protector
(a.k.a. Power strip) for your computer and use it. A UPS (uninterruptible power supply), though slightly more
expensive, is even better.
II Anti-Virus Protection: Everyone should know about this by now, but we often see computers with either no
virus protection at all, or anti-virus software that is badly out-of-date . Nothing can wreck your
computer faster than a virus (except for may be electricity), but with a small investment in good anti-virus
software and making sure you set it to update itself daily.
III Minimize the number of Software you install: This is another thing many people overlook. Installing lots of
programs on your computer is a lot like pulling a bunch of rowdy children together on a playground. Some of
them may not play well together. A good rule of thumb is if you don t need, don t install. This is especially true
when you surf the web. You will likely get bombarded with pop-up ads trying to get you to install all kinds of
flee utilities they claim your computer can t live without most of these are spyware, adware and junk.

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IV Backup your important files: To minimize the potential of loosing important information, always make a
backup of your crucial files. To do this, you can use a CD-burner, a backup tape system, or a removable disk
drive (such as a Jazz, Zip, floppy or flash drive). Keep copies of these backups in another location, just in case
you need to perform a disaster recovery.
V Firewall Protection: Symantec s Norton personal Firewall keeps personal data in and hackers out. Right out
of the box, it makes your PC invisible on the Internet so that hackers can t find it. The program s Intelligent
Intrusion prevention technology blocks suspicious Internet traffic. And easy-to-use privacy controls prevent
personal information from being sent out without your knowledge.
VI Internal/External Component Cleaning: Dust is one of the leading causes of hardware failure. All moving
components are thoroughly cleaned and lubricated during service visits. The case is opened and dust is
removed from the motherboard and all system boards. The CPU fan, power supply fan and any other board
fans are cleaned, lubricated and tested. All data cables are checked to be sure they are securely heated on
system boards. CD and floppy drives are opened, cleaned and tested for data transfer. External components
such as keyboard, mouse, monitor and printers are cleaned of dust and debris and all cable connections are
checked. Connections to surge protectors or UPS are checked.
VII Scan and defragment your hard drive on arrive: Your hard drive stores information in open areas of
your hard drive. As you delete data on your drive, open space appears. The computer will utilize this open
space to store new information. Sometimes information for a particular file or application is separated on a
drive into several different locations. The totality of the information may not fit in the open space in one area,
so the computer will divide the information into several pieces. When you scan and defragment your hard
drive, you are minimizing the risk of having problems and slowdowns caused by separated data on your hard
drive. The defragmentation will locate, delete open spaces and place associated files back together again,
helping your computer to run smoothly and faster. To do this, Right-Click on the drivePropertiesTools
TabDefragmentation sectionDefragment nowselect the driveAnalyze OR Defragment

Disk Defragmenter

Disk Defragmenter is a system utility for analyzing local volumes (an area of storage on a hard disk. A volume is
formatted by using a file system, such as FAT or NTFS, and has a drive letter assigned to it. You can view the
content of a volume by clicking its icon in windows Explorer or in My Computer. a single hard disk can have
multiple volumes, and volumes can also span multiple disks) and locating and consolidating fragmented files and
folders. You can also defragment (Defragmentation is the process of rewriting parts of a file to contiguous sectors
on a hard disk to increase the speed of access and retrieval. When files are updated, the computer tends to save
these updates on the largest continuous space on the hard disk, which is often on a different sector than other parts
of the file. When files are thus fragmented, the computer must search the hard disk each time the file is opened to
find all of the file s parts, which slows down response time) disks from a command line using the defrag
command. The best practices for fragmenting a volume are enumerated below.

Analyzing before defragmenting

Analyze volumes before defragmenting them. After analyzing a volume, a dialog box tells you the percentage
of fragmented files and folders on the volume and recommends whether to defragment the volume. Analyze
volumes regularly and defragment them only when Disk Defragmenter recommends it. A good guideline is to
analyze volumes at least once a week. If you seldom need to defragment volumes, analyze volumes monthly
instead of weekly.

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Analyzing after large numbers of files are added

Volumes might become excessively fragmented when users add a large number of files or folders, so be sure
to analyze volumes after this happens. Generally, volumes on busy file servers should be defragmented more
often than those on single-user workstations.
Ensure that your disk has at least 15% free space
A volume must have at least 15% free space for Disk Defragmenter to completely and adequately defragment
it. Disk Defragmenter uses this space as a sorting area for file fragments. If a volume has less than 15% free
space, Disk Defragmenter will only partially defragment it. To increase the free space on a volume, delete
unneeded files or move them to another disk.
Defragmenting during low-usage periods
Defragment file server volumes during low-volume usage periods to minimize the effect that the
defragmentation process has on file server performance. The time that Disk Defragmenter takes to defragment
a volume depends on several factors, including the size of the volume, the number of files on the volume, the
number of fragmented files, and available system resources.
Defragmenting after installing software or installing Windows
Defragment volumes after installing software or after performing an upgrade or clean install of Windows.
Volumes often become fragmented after installing software, so running Disk Defragmenter helps to ensure
the best file system performance.

Defrag

At times, it might be difficult to even select the drive to be defragmented; hence the use of command line.
Locates and consolidates fragmented boot files, data files, and folders on local volumes. Syntax defrag
volume; defrag volume [/a]; defrag volume [/a] [/v]; defrag volume [/v]; defrag volume [/f]

Parameters definitions
VolumeThe drive letter or a mount point of the volume to be defragmented.
/a Analyzes the volume and displays a summary of the analysis report.
/v Displays the complete analysis and defragmentation reports. When used in combination with /a, displays
only the analysis report. When used alone, displays both the analysis and defragmentation reports.
/f Forces defragmentation of the volume regardless of whether it needs to be defragmented.
/? Displays help at the command prompt.
Remarks

• A volume must have at least 15% free space for defrag to completely and adequately defragment it. Defrag
uses this space as a sorting area for file fragments. If a volume has less than 15% free space, defrag will only
partially defragment it. To increase the free space on a volume, delete unneeded files or move them to another
disk.
• You cannot defragment volumes that the file system has marked as dirty, which indicates possible corruption.
You must run chkdsk on a dirty volume before you can defragment it. You can determine if a volume is dirty
by using the fsutil dirty query command.
• While defrag is analyzing and defragmenting a volume, it displays a blinking cursor. When defrag has finished
analyzing and defragmenting the volume, it displays the analysis report, the defragmentation report, or both
reports, and then exits to the command prompt.
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• By default, defrag displays a summary of both the analysis and defragmentation reports if you do not specify
the /a or /v parameters.
• You can send the reports to a text file by typing >filename.txt, where filename.txt is a file name you specify.
For example: defrag volume /v >filename.txt
• To interrupt the defragmentation process, at the command line, press CTRL+C.
• Running the defrag command and Disk Defragmenter are mutually exclusive. If you are using Disk
Defragmenter to defragment a volume and you run the defrag command at a command-line, the defrag
command fails. Conversely, if you run the defrag command and open Disk Defragmenter, the defragmentation
options in Disk Defragmenter are unavailable.
Formatting legend
Format Meaning
Italic Information that the user must supply
Bold Elements that the user must type exactly as shown
Ellipsis (...) Parameter that can be repeated several times in a command line
Between brackets ([]) Optional items
Between braces ({}); choices separated by
Set of choices from which the user must choose only one
pipe (|). Example: {even|odd}
Courier font Code or program output

VIII Checking Errors on the Hard Drive: this is done to rectify bad sectors. To do this, Right-Click on the
drivePropertiesTools TabError-Checking SectorCheck NowAutomatically fix file system errors
OR Scan for and attempt recovery of bad sectorsStart

Corrective Maintenance

Corrective maintenance consists of the action(s) taken to restore a failed system to operational status. This
usually involves replacing or repairing the component that is responsible for the failure of the overall system.
Corrective maintenance is performed at unpredictable intervals because a component s failure time is not known at
prior. The objective of corrective maintenance is to restore the system to satisfactory operation within the shortest
possible time. Corrective maintenance is typically carried out in three steps:

i. Diagnosis of the problem. The maintenance technician must take time to locate the failed parts or otherwise
satisfactorily assess the cause of the system failure.
ii. Repair and/or replacement of faulty component(s). Once the cause of system failure has been
determined, action must be taken to address the cause, usually by replacing or repairing the components
that caused the system to fail.
iii. Verification of the repair action. Once the components in question have been repaired or replaced, the
maintenance technician must verify that the system is again successfully operating.

System Diagnosis

The diagnosis practice is usually called troubleshooting. Much of the troubleshooting guide treated here
caters for users of Windows operating systems.

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Always keep detailed records of all errors and steps taken to correct these errors. Error numbers and codes
are important to log. They tell technicians/network administrators specific information about the problems you are
having. To document errors, press the Details button or simply write down the first couple of lines of information
given in the error screen.

Check all cables first. The most frequent problem with computers is a loose or disconnected cable. Don t be
afraid to make mistakes. Don t let the machine intimidate you. Before calling an expert for technical support, always
shut your computer down totally and reboot; wait until the CPU is not making any sounds and then turn it on again,
by pressing the power button.
1. Booting Problems
When you press the power button, you give the instruction to the electricity to "wake" up the computer. This
instruction causes the computer to start giving its own instructions to internal parts. One of the instructions is
called BIOS. The BIOS instruction starts checking "everybody", asking "Are you OK?", "Are you OK?", "What
about you?". If a certain part that is important doesn't respond (for example if a certain important object such as
the keyboard or mouse is not connected, which means it will not respond when the BIOS asks, "Are you OK?"),
then the BIOS may interrupt everything, or it may continue checking. If the BIOS comes to a conclusion that this
computer is not worth using, it would display an error and may not let you do anything significant. If the
BIOS "thinks" that everything is alright and that the computer can be used, then it gets the hardware parts ready.
a. I am receiving an error that says, Invalid system disk, replace and press any key when ready: This error is
caused by the presence of a floppy disk in the floppy drive while the computer is booting up. Whenever you
turn your computer on, remember to eject all disks from the floppy drive (unless a bootable floppy disk). If
you get this error, eject the floppy disk and hit enter. Your computer should continue to boot as normal.
b. Receiving a keyboard related error: This error occurs when the keyboard has become unattached from the
rear of the computer. Check behind the computer to see if your keyboard is still firmly attached to the
computer. Also check to see if something has been pressing on top of the keyboard during booting. Remove
all items that are pressing keys and re-plug the keyboard into the computer. Restart your computer.
c. I am receiving a no signal error, or there are no visuals on my monitor : A no signal error means that the
monitor is .not receiving a signal from the computer. Check to see if the computer is on and running. Then
check the connection (cord) between the computer and the monitor. If everything is connected, turned on,
and running, then there might be an internal error causing this error to occur.
Contact a technician for assistance
d. Scan disk appears on a blue screen, stating that Windows was not properly shut down: Scan Disk is a
utility that Windows runs automatically when it thinks there might be a problem with your system. This does
not mean that there is a problem, but Windows will automatically take this step to ensure that the problem is
rectified. Let Scan Disk run and wait, to see if your machine will boot properly after scan disk is complete. If
it does not, turn the computer off, and reboot to see if the problem clears up on its own. If rebooting the
computer does not solve the problem, contact your technician.
2. Safe Mode Problems
If your computer boots to a screen giving you a choice to boot into safe mode, or it automatically boots into
safe mode, Windows has run into an error that it cannot bypass to run smoothly. In most cases, you can reboot
and the problem will resolve itself automatically. If you continue to get the safe mode screen, or it goes away
and comes back frequently, then contact your technician. .
3. The system is ON but it Is not responding
My system is locked and nothing I press or click is working. What now? Sometimes your computer will stop
responding, or freeze , either during operation or after unused for a period of time. If the computer has not
been used recently, press a few keys and wait several minutes. If the computer freezes during operation, stop
using the keyboard and the mouse for several minutes. If you continue to use the computer when it is frozen ,

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it will prolong your waiting period. If, after waiting for several minutes, you cannot get your computer to
respond by using the keyboard or the mouse, turn the computer off by pressing the power button on the front
of the machine. Let the computer shutdown (the CPU is no longer making any sounds) and then reboot. If you
still get no response from the machine, your mouse and keyboard may have become dislodged from the rear
of the machine, check those connections and reboot again. If the computer freezes again after plugging the
mouse and keyboard into the back of the computer and rebooting, contact your technician.
4. Rebooting Problems
a. Windows won t shut down, it stays at the please wait screen, or won t power down: This is a problem
with the way Windows is talking to your computer. The computer wants to suspend activity, but Windows
is telling it to shut down. This is causing confusion for the computer. In some cases, this can be solved with
a patch from the Microsoft web site. A patch is an update to a software product that fixes a known problem.
You can get this update by downloading it from www.Microsoft.com. Windows 98 generally has a problem
with shutting down, especially when the computer is attached to a network. Generally, this doesn t hurt
anything. It is just a bit of a nuisance. See Booting Problems on what to do during subsequent reboots.
b. A window pops up with End Task, Shut Down, and Cancel buttons, what do I do? This message usually
appears when you press and hold Control , Alt , and Delete while running an application or program. This
keystroke tells the computer to shut itself down, despite the fact that applications are running. If you would
like to turn off the computer without manually closing or saving anything, click the
Shut Down button. If you would like to close just the program you are running currently, ensure that the
correct program is highlighted in the box and click End Task. If this window was opened accidentally, click
Cancel and you will return to the program you were just using.
c. An internal error or KernaI32 error box appears suggesting that I restart Windows: This error has occurred
because Windows has come across an error that it cannot continue with. If something like this happens and
you are in the middle of your work, try to save your work before you click OK . If your work caused the
error to occur, everything, after the last time you saved your work, will be lost. Restart your computer.
Remember to always document errors thoroughly. Misbehaving software often causes these errors. If the
error occurs repeatedly, call for assistance from your technician.
5. Monitor Problems
My monitor has no display, the monitor turned off for no reason, or my display is faded: Ensure that the
monitor and the computer are turned on. Next, check both the power cord to the monitor and the power cord to
the computer. If you are using a power strip, ensure that it is turned on. You can also check the settings on your
monitor (the buttons are located on the lower front of the monitor). Check the contrast and tint to see if they are
set correctly. Next, check the connection between the monitor and computer; at the rear of the computer (this is
the cord that connects the monitor to the computer). The next thing to check is your screen saver settings. Right
click on your desktopProperties or you can click StartSettingsControl PanelDisplay (display settings
dialog box will appear) Screen Saver tab. Make sure your screen saver is set to go off in a reasonable amount
of time (usually 10 minutes or more). Also, make sure your Energy Savings settings are marked correctly. You
can locate the energy savings settings button in the Screen Saver box, near the bottom. When you click on
Settings , you will be able to adjust the amount of time that your computer waits to turn off the monitor if the
computer is not in use. If you don t ever want the monitor to be shut down by the energy saver mode, choose
Never. If all these things don t fix the problem, contact a technician.
6. Monitor flashes on and off
Usually this is caused by a loose or bad connection at the back of your computer. You should be able to
retighten the connection, and continue as normal. If that is not the problem, then it needs to be diagnosed by a
professional.
7. Mouse Problems

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a. My mouse is sticky and/or the cursor won t move Check to see if your mouse cord is pulled too tightly. If
your cord doesn t have enough room to maneuver, then you will have less control over it. Next, check the
mouse s connection to the back of the CPU and ensure that it is plugged in. If neither of these possibilities
were the problem, you may need to clean the ball on the inside of the mouse. You can flip over the mouse
and take the ball out by twisting the round disc that holds it in place (turn the round piece in the direction of
the arrows). Once you have taken out the ball, clean the ball off with a clean, dry, and lint-free cloth. Never
use water on any computer part! Put the mouse back together again. If that doesn t fettle problem, it might
be time to replace the mouse.
b. My mouse won t right click, or won t double click: Press Ctrl-Alt-Esc and use the arrow key up to get to
Shutdown, and then choose reboot. This should fix the problem, if not a technician should look at the
machine.
8. Keyboard Problems
a. I am receiving a keyboard error when booting my computer: This is usually caused by a key being pushed
down while the computer starts. Make sure nothing is on top of the keyboard during boot time. Also this
could be caused by the keyboard becoming disconnected from the back of the computer. If neither of these
are the problem, contact your technician.
b. My Keyboard won t respond at all: If your computer has frozen and the keyboard will not respond at all, the
first thing to do is to check the keyboard connection to the computer and restart the computer. If your
keyboard still does not respond, you may need technical assistance.
9. Printer Problems
a. The printer won t print my document: Check the printer to make sure it is plugged in and turned on. Click
StartSettingsPrinters. If the printer you want to use is not listed, you will have to install that printer.
You can do this by clicking Add Printer and following the installation process through to completion. If the
printer appears light or grayed-out, your printer is offline. Double-click on the printer in question, then click
Printer and uncheck Pause Printing and Use Printer Offline or Right-Click the printer and select Online.
Next, make sure that you have chosen the correct printer. You can check this by going back into the file you
were trying to print and click on FilePrint. The name of the printer will appear near the top of that
window next to Name . If the correct printer does not appear in this box, click on the down arrow to the
right of the name of the printer being used. Find your printer s name and highlight it by clicking the left
mouse button on it. Once you have ensured that the correct printer is chosen and that the printer is not
offline or paused, ensure that you are logged onto the network. To do this, click Start and look to see if your
logon name is listed after Log Off . If your logon name is not there, you need to log back onto the network.
To start this process, ensure that you have saved your work. Then, click StartLog Off. This will bring up
a dialog box. Click Yes. You will be prompted to enter your name and password to log back onto the
network. Once you finish this, click Ok or Enter. Open your file again and try to print it. If you still cannot
print, please call a technician.
b. Documents come out faded or striped: This is usually due to dirty or clogged print heads, or the printer
being out of ink. Try running a print-head cleaning utility to clean the heads. Most printers come with this
to help with dirty or clogged heads. Do this by going to StartSettingsPrinters, and then right clicking
on the printer in question. Try cleaning the heads, and then print a page. If you still get fades or stripes, try it
once more. If after two times your pages are still coming out faded or striped, then you may need to replace
the ink. If, however, the ink is not an issue, you should contact a professional.
c. I am receiving an out of memory error or a spooter error: This is caused when the machine that the printer is
connected to runs out of memory, or has an internal error. This usually happens because of large print jobs.
If you get this error frequently you might want to consider upgrading the memory on the computer with the
printer attached to it. It can also be caused by lack of free disk space. Check to see if
you have enough free space. To do this, double click on My ComputerRight-Click C

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DriveProperties. The free space should be listed on that screen. If you only have a couple of megabytes
or less, that could be your problem. You will need to either clean up your drive or replace it with a bigger
drive. Call a technician to help with either of these processes. If you have adequate disk space, try
uninstalling and then reinstalling the printer. To do this, Click StartSettingsPrintersRight-Click on
the printer in question and select Delete. You want to remove it completely from the system. Then click Add
Printer and reinstall the same printer. If it was used across a network make sure you reestablish the share
with the same name. This can be done by right clicking on the printer and choosing Share This Printer .
10. CD-Rom Issues
a. I have no audio and/or my CD player won t come on when playing an audio CD: First, check to see if your
speakers are turned on and the volume levels are adequate. At the Task bar tray is a little speaker, double
click it to get its properties. Make sure the volume levels are turned up and that none of the controls are
muted. Next, look at the back of the computer where the speakers plug in. If there is a volume control there,
make sure it is turned up. Then check to see if the speakers are plugged into the correct jack for audio out.
There are usually three jacks on the back of a sound card plug as appropriate. Next, we want to open the CD
player application by clicking StartProgramsAccessoriesEntertainmentCD Player. If the
application will not open, you will need to reinstall the CD player application of the
Windows CD. You can do that by going into StartSettingsControl PanelAdd/Remove
ProgramsWindows SetupMultimediaDetails. You should see the CD Player checked (if it is not,
check it and click ok and then apply), uncheck it and click Ok. Then click Apply, but don t shut the panel.
We now need to go back to Multimedia and recheck the CD Player, click Ok, and then click Apply again. If
this was not the issue, contact your technician.
b. I am receiving a CD ROM is not accessible error: Check to see if you have placed the CD you want to read
in the CD ROM drive. Pick up the CD and check to see if it is dirty, or scratched. If your CD is clean and
fully inserted in the drive, try to read from the drive again. You can also insert another CD into the drive
and try to read the new CD. Some burned CDs cannot be read by certain CD R0M drives. If your issue goes
unresolved, call a professional for assistance.

Inspections

Inspections are used in order to uncover hidden failures (also called dormant failures). In general, no maintenance
action is performed on the component during an inspection unless the component is found failed, in which case a
corrective maintenance action is initiated. However, there might be cases where a partial restoration of the inspected
item would be performed during an inspection. For example, when checking the motor oil in a car between
scheduled oil changes, one might occasionally add some oil in order to keep it at a constant level.

About Backups

A backup is a copy of your file, made in case you lose or damage the original. For those using system in offices or
at home, it will be necessary to follow a strict backup regime, using floppy disks or ZIP disks, Flash drives and
other secondary memory devices. A zip disk is like a floppy disk except that it hold 70 times as much information:
obviously useful for graphics and multimedia projects. A flash drive can hold larger information than a ZIP drive.

Be Disciplined

It requires discipline from the user for a backup strategy to work. Make backups at the end of every day or every
week depending on how much work you do and how important the data is. To make backups of individual files,
copy them to disk using Explorer or My Computer. Note that you can also copy entire folders with this method.

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Alternatively, open the file and use the Save as option in the application perhaps the most convenient method is to
make a copy of the Zip or floppy disk, using Copy Disk.

Don t work directly with backup files (i.e. Zip/floppy disk), you work on the hard disk and thereafter
copy to a ZIP or floppy disk. We cannot stress enough just how important it is to make backups, horror stories exist
when people loose months or years of work. Unfortunately even people, who know they should make backups, tend
not to bother until they have been stung. So follow the advice in this book and be an exception to this tendency!
WORKING WITH DESKTOP

Figure 4: Window s Desktop Figure 5: Display Properties Dialog Box

The computer s interface uses a desktop metaphor. The desktop is the coloured background you see
on the screen when you start your computer (this may vary for different computer since it is customizable). It is the
place where you manipulate the work you are doing by handling icons (a little pictures that represent your files,
folders, and disks). It summarises the systems properties by enabling you to have access to all these properties. It
serves as an intermediary between the system and the user.

The desktop elements include the icons, the taskbar (Start Menu, Taskbar and the System Tray) wallpaper
and screen saver. The icons are images, pictures, symbols, or logos that represent items on the desktop. For instance,
the desktop above has 30 icons. An icon may represent an application, a file, a folder, a shortcut or even a location
on the hard drive. The taskbar is the horizontal (by default) bar placed separately on the desktop but will never
appear on the screen saver. The wallpaper represents the picture used as the desktop image. It is the placeholder for
the icons (i.e. the icons are placed on it). The screen saver is the animated picture shown instead of the wallpaper
when the system is idle for some time. It differs from wallpaper in that it can t harbour the icons.

There are two entities that mainly need to interact with icons:

• As a person using the computer, icons allow you to familiarize with the various programs that are installed in
a computer. Every application or every category of application has its own icon. This is easily possible
because every person who creates an application has the possibility of providing a special icon for that
particular application.
• The operating system also has an interior mechanism to identify an icon or a type of icon and associate it with
a particular application or a series of applications of the same type. Microsoft Windows ships with various
icons for its own use. For example, every version of Microsoft Windows ships with a special icon for the My
Computer program. There is also a special icon for Recycle Bin, etc.

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The sizes of icons are standardized and they should not have just any random dimensions. For example, the
icons on the desktop are 32x32 pixels. Sometimes, the icons display in a 16x16 dimension.

You can customize your desktop s elements using the Display Properties Dialog box (shown above) which
can be accessed by either Right-Clicking the desktopProperties or StartControl PanelDoubleClick on
Display. This window will enable you to change the appearance of your desktop, such as the background
(wallpaper), screen saver, colours, font sizes, and screen resolution. Use the various tabs to change the various
properties.
You can also right click any section of the taskbar and select Properties to customize it. This will display
the Taskbar and Start Menu Properties Window where you can select the Tab you need as the case may be. To
customize the System tray section, Click the Customize button on the Taskbar Tab of the window.

WORKING WITH WINDOWS

Working with windows gives you the ability to look at something. It allows you to look into a document, or
a folder, or a disk. When you begin using your PC, you will be confronted with the desktop, which is simply the
term used for the space on your screen. When you want to run a particular application, you need to load the package
(launch). To do this depends on the location of the package. a. Desktop
i. Click its icon/ press Enter
ii. Double-click the icon
iii. Right-click/open
b. Start menu

Start/All Programs/Navigate to where it resides/Select the application

c. Quick Launch (this is just beside the start button for easy launch)

Click on the icon once.

d. Taskbar Tray (this is at the right on the task bar)

Double-Click on the icon.

Note that for all the methods, you double-click twice to launce any application. This is also true for any icon
(files, folders or executables).

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Standard toolbar Menu bar Title bar Program Close button

Window Close button

Formatting bar

Drag Indent
Rulers Task Pane

Document Area
Page Layout
View Scroll bars
Drawing bar
Status bar
Start Menu Browse bars
Task bar

Task bar Tray

Figure 6: Common Application Window
For any method you use, you ve performed some actions. Each action is stored in a particular program and
kept under a button or a menu. A program's menu, simply referred to as a menu, is a series of words usually aligned
on a (vertical) column, each line of words indicating a particular action.

For any window you open, what is common to all packages is the title bar.
There are different types of windows we will encounter when working with the computer. Some of them include a
dialog box, a Single Document Interface (SDI), and a Multiple Document Interface (MDI).

Dialog Boxes
A Dialog Box is a square or rectangular window whose main role is to carry, hold, or host, other windows.
The objects it carries define its role and name. A dialog box is made of two main sections. On top, it displays a
Title Bar (with the title and System Close Button). By convention, a dialog box cannot be minimized or maximized.
Therefore, it doesn't have those system buttons. Sometimes, a dialog box will have a button with a question mark
(the Help button). A dialog box equipped with the Help button indicates that you can get quick help on the items
displayed on the dialog box. The second section of a dialog box is its body (programmers call it the Client Area).
This is the area where the objects the dialog box is hosting are positioned. Examples include the Save As Dialog
Box and the Open Dialog Box in most applications.

Figure 7: A Typical Dialog Box (The Run Dialog Box)

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The Single Document Interface (SDI)

This is a window that allows the user to work on only one opened document at a time. It is similar to a typical
window. An example is the WordPad

The Multiple Document Interface (MDI)

This is similar to the SDI except that you can work on more than one document at a time. An example is the
Microsoft Word.

The Windows Controls

The controls on a window refer to the objects that are available on the window. There are various controls to include
Command buttons, Text boxes, List boxes, Option (Radio) buttons, Check boxes, Combo boxes, Scroll bars,
Progress Bar, etc. For all the objects that may be present on a window, only one of them can receive focus at a time.
The focus is a visual aspect that indicates that a control is ready to receive input from you. Various controls have
different ways of expressing that they have received focus. Button-based controls indicate that they have focus by
drawing a dotted rectangle around their text. In the following picture, the button on the right has focus. A text-based
control indicates that it has focus by displaying a blinking cursor. A list-based control indicates that it has focus
when one of its items has a surrounding dotted rectangle.

To give focus to a control, you can click it. Alternatively, if the focus is already on one of the controls, to give focus
to a particular control, you can press Tab continuously until the control shows that it has focus. On a browser, if
you press Tab continuously, the focus would move from one link or control to another. This means that a link on a
web page can receive focus as if it were a control.

Main Menu Display

We have just seen that, when you know where a menu is available, to access it, you can just click or right-
click the item that holds the menu. How a menu appears can be influenced by the available room. The operating
system decides on the availability of room to display the menu. If a menu is accessed from the middle to top section
of a window, the operating system would display it under the item that was clicked. If the menu is being accessed
from the bottom section of the screen, the operating system would calculate the available room under the item that
was clicked. If there is enough room, the menu would be displayed under the item that was clicked. If there is not
enough room, then the operating system would decide to display the menu above the item that was clicked

Categories of Menus

To diversify the actions that can be performed on a computer, there are six main categories of menus, each of which
depends on the person who created the menu.
a) Stand-Alone Items: The simplest menu item displays a word or a group of words on its line. To use this menu
type, you can simply click it. What happens depends on the program and the familiarity with it. Example is the
Refresh menu on most browsers.
b) Disabled Menu Items: If a menu appears gray, this means that the menu is not available at this time. Such a
menu is said to be disabled. Clicking a disabled menu would not do anything, at all. Most of the time, such a
menu would require a prerequisite action in order to become available or enabled.
c) Ellipsis Menus ( ): A menu with three periods indicates that an intermediary action is required. To use such a
menu, click it. Once clicked, sometimes another window would be displayed. Example is the Save As option
of the file menu in several windows.

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d) Check Menus: A menu that appears with a check mark is used as a "witness" of a window object being available
or not. This means that, when the check mark is set, the object the menu item refers to is visible. If you click
such a menu item, the check mark disappears along with the item it refers to; the menu item is still visible: only
its check mark and the item it refers to disappear.
e) Radio Menus: Some menu items appear in a group of two or more (usually not more than 7). The group is
delimited by a horizontal line above the top menu item and another horizontal line below the bottom object. At
any time, one of the menu items has a big round dot on its left side. This dot is called a radio button. The item
that is currently active has the radio button and the other menu items don't. If you click an item other than the
one with the radio button, the dot moves to the item you clicked and the previous item looses the radio button.
This type of menu is used when the programmer wants only one item of the group to indicate which item of a
category is active.
f) Arrow Menus: When a menu appears with an arrow, this means that the menu item holds its own list, called a
submenu. Again, this design depends on the person who created the menu and is not subject to any
preconceived rule. To access the menu item, simply position the mouse cursor on the menu item that has the
arrow. How the submenu appears may depend on the section of the screen from where the menu is being
accessed. The operating system decides how to display this submenu based on the available room.
Main and Context-Sensitive Menus
We have seen that a menu on the same object can be different depending on what item you click to access
such a menu. Based on this, a menu that appears when you simply click an object is considered the regular menu
of the object, and it is simply called the menu. Sometimes when you click or even right-click an object, a menu
might not appear. On the other hand, if a menu appears when you right-click an item or an area of a window, this
menu is referred to as the context-sensitive menu.
Most applications display a menu in their top section, the Main Menu, below the Title Bar. The main menu
displays columns of menus, each column is represented by a word (sometimes it will be more than one word for a
menu item). To use this main menu, you can click a word. This causes a list of menu items to display. There are no
strict rules (only suggestions) on what items must appear under what word. The person who creates an application
also decides on the menu columns, their items, and their roles.
After clicking a menu column, if you find the item you are looking for, you can click it. If you don't see the
item you are looking for and you want to check another column, you have two options. You can simply move the
mouse to another menu column of your choice. You can also click the menu item you had opened, then click the
new column you desire. If you still don't see what you are looking for, you can dismiss the menu.
There are various ways you can dismiss the menu if it is opened. If you click an item in the list of the
displayed column, the menu would retract and close itself. If you have opened a menu but don't want to use it
anymore, you can click one of the menu items on top. You can also click anywhere other than the opened menu;
this also closes the menu.
To access or close the menu using the keyboard, use Alt + the Access Key (underlined letter on the menu)
for the menu. Once this is initiated, you just press the access key for each command under the main menu. To
dismiss a displayed menu, press the Esc key. You can also use the navigation keys to move from menu to menu
(Left and Right Arrows) or down a menu using the Up and Down Arrows.

 The Control/System Buttons (located at the top right corner of a window)

i. Minimize button: Click this to reduce the programs to a button on the Taskbar.
ii. Restore/Maximize button: This switches the window size between full-screen size (docked window) and
Half-Window (or customized) size (floating or cascade window). You can also double-click the empty
space of the title bar to toggle between the options.
iii. Close button: Click this to dispense with the window until the next time you open the program. If the file
inside the window has not been saved, it will prompt you to save it.
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You can also access any of the actions by clicking the application logo or right-clicking the empty space of the title
bar and then select the action you want.

 Moving Windows

If a window gets in the way of what you are doing, you can move it to a different place on the screen by
clicking and holding the Title bar using the Left Mouse button (only possible for floating window).

You can change a windows shape or size so that you can see more of its contents or so that you can arrange
windows side-by-side manually. This is possible when the window is restored down. Place the mouse over the edge
of the window so that the mouse pointer changes shape to a double-pronged arrow (either side or edge), drag inwards
or outwards to reduce or enlarge the window (default Restored).

 Splitting Window

This is usually done when you want to compare different places of a particular document. For instance, view
pages 50 and 350 of a particular document at the same time. To do this, select Windowsplit; the cursor will
change to a horizontal line which you will click at the desired location. You can work on each of them as if you are
dealing with a single window. To remove WindowRemove split.

 Arranging Windows

For a particular document, more than one window can be opened simultaneously. To do this, select
WindowNew Window. The new window will change the name of the document by adding index. The name will
be like Filename:index_number e.g. Adebisi:1 while the second name will be Adebisi:2. You can add as many as
you want. You can now arrange the window using WindowArrange All. This will arrange the windows
horizontally. To change the arrangement to side-by-side, select WindowCompare Side by Side. To change to
horizontal, select WindowClose Side by Side.

Note that these two procedures may seem similar in that both are used for comparing a document in different
windows. Thus, the major differences are:

i. Splitting windows does not use name index; both bear the same name.
ii. Splitting windows has only one title bar and toolbars while each window in New Window has its own title
bar and toolbars.
iii. Splitting windows can only be viewed horizontally whereas New Windows can be viewed in two ways (either
horizontal or vertical).

To arrange windows of different documents, Right-Click on the taskbar  Choose either Cascade windows
(all windows restored), Tile Windows Horizontally, Tile Windows Vertically, or Show the Desktop (all windows
minimized).

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 The Taskbar

The taskbar appears at the bottom of the screen and displays all the programs that are currently open. When you
minimize a window, it still appears as a button on the taskbar. Click the program button on the taskbar to restore
it to a window. By selecting different program buttons on the taskbar, you can switch easily between currently
open programs or press Alt + Tab key or WIN + Tab key + Enter.

 The status bar

The status bar, which is a horizontal area at the bottom of the document window (e.g. in Microsoft Word) which
provides information about the current state of what you are viewing in the window and any other contextual
information. To display the status bar, click ToolsOptionsView tabselect the Status bar check box under
Show. The elements on the status bar for the above window include the following.

i. Page number: Shows the page number.

ii. Sec number: Shows the section number of the page shown in the window.
iii. Number/number: Shows the page number and the total number of pages based on the physical page count
in the document.
iv. At measurement: Shows the distance from the top of the page to your insertion point. No measurement is
displayed if the insertion point is not in the window.
v. Ln number: Shows the line of text where the insertion point is located. No measurement is displayed if the
insertion point is not in the window.
vi. Col number: Shows the distance, in number of characters, from the left margin to the insertion point. No
measurement is displayed if the insertion point is not in the window.
vii. REC: Shows the macro recorder status. Double-click REC to turn the macro recorder on or off. When the
recorder is off, REC appears dimmed.
viii. TRK: Shows the track changes status. Double-click TRK to turn the Track Changes feature on or off. When
changes are not being tracked, TRK appears dimmed.
ix. EXT: Shows the extend selection mode status. Double-click EXT to turn the mode on or off. When selection
mode is off, EXT appears dimmed.
x. OVR: Shows the overtype mode status. Double-click OVR to turn the mode on or off. When overtype mode
is off, OVR appears dimmed.
xi. Spelling and Grammar: Shows the spelling and grammar checking status. When Word is in the process of
checking for errors, an animated pen appears over the book. If no errors are found, a check mark appears. If
an error is found, an X appears. To resolve the error, double-click this icon.
xii. Background save: When a pulsating disk icon appears, Word is saving your document in the background as
you work.
xiii. Background print: When a printer icon appears, Word is printing your document in the background as you
work. A number next to the printer icon shows the current page number being printed. To cancel the print
job, double-click the printer icon.

Note that the status bar are grouped into sections: Page (i, ii, and iii), Measurement (iv, v, vi), while others shows
the current status of the commands.

USING THE SYSTEM (BOOTING/SHUTTING DOWN)

Turning the system ON (Booting) is very easy. It only requires you to press the On Button once. This button is
usually the upper button in front of the system console. Before doing this, you must ensure that power supply has
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entered into the power supply unit. To enforce this, switch on the UPS, turn the console box ON if there is ON/OFF
button at the back of the box (optional).

Shutting down has many options. The settings in the Shut Down Windows dialog box include Stand by,
Hibernate, Shut down, Restart, Log off, and Disconnect. To display the Shut Down Windows dialog box, click
StartShut Down. Stand by and Hibernate appear only if your computer supports these features and you have
turned them on in Power Options. Disconnect appears only if you are connected to a Windows Server running
Terminal Services. On Windows 2000 Server products, you will be prompted to supply information regarding why
you are shutting down or restarting the computer. This feature is turned off in Windows XP.

Stand by mode: A state in which your computer consumes less electric power when it is idle, but remains available
for immediate use. Typically, you put your computer on standby to save power instead of leaving it on for extended
periods. In standby mode, information in computer memory is not saved on your hard disk. If the computer loses
power, the information in memory will be lost. This option appears only if your computer supports this feature and
you have selected this option in Power Options.

Hibernate: A state in which your computer saves any Windows settings that you changed, writes any information
that is currently stored in memory to your hard disk, and turns off your computer. Unlike shutting down, when you
restart your computer, your desktop is restored exactly as it was before hibernation.

Shutdown: A state in which your computer saves any Windows settings that you changed and writes any
information that is currently stored in memory to your hard disk. This prepares your computer to be turned off.
Restart: A state in which your computer saves any Windows settings that you changed, writes any information that
is currently stored in memory to your hard disk, and then restarts your computer.

Log off: A state in which your computer closes all your programs, disconnects your computer from the network,
and prepares your computer to be used by someone else. When connected to a Windows 2000 Server running
Terminal Services, Log off closes all programs running in your Terminal Services session, disconnects your session,
and returns you to your Windows desktop.

Disconnect: A state in which your Terminal Services session is disconnected, but remains active on the server.
When you reconnect to Terminal Services, you are returned to the same session, and everything looks exactly as it
did before you disconnected.

Make sure that you always shut the system down in the normal way, else you are hastening to destroy the system
especially when you are using Window XP.

INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET

Computer Network (Networking and Internetworking)

Until recently, getting a computer was mostly equivalent to getting a machine that would be used to perform
office-related assignments and other calculations. This type of computer was commonly referred to as standalone.
A network is a group of computers linked together so that they can share resources such as printers, software
programs and documents. Computer network is the interconnectivity of autonomous computers. In order for two
computers to share what they have, they must establish some type of communication. This is easily done using a
cable and an appropriate object (a network card, also called NIC) inserted in each computer. This means that a cable
would go from this object of one computer to the same type of object on the other computer. This is perfectly
possible to connect two computers. If you have more than two computers, then you use a type of intermediary object
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whose job is to "direct traffic". This object is called a hub. For example, when one computer A requests to use or
open a piece of text that is located in a computer B but to print it in a printer that is connected to a computer C, this
intermediary object is able to know what computer has the text, what computer has the printer, and what computer
needs these two services. For these reasons, most connections use this intermediary object: the hub
There are two types of networking relationship: computer workstations (clients) are connected to a number
of central network servers, which allocate resources. In a peer-to-peer relationship, computer workstations serve
each other: one workstation may have access to a printer and allocates this resource to others in the network; another
may have access to file storage and allocates this to others (including the workstation with the printer).

Figure 8: Connection of Computers using the Hub

Only computers that are connected can share what they have. A computer A that is connected to a computer
B can access what computer B has. When two or more computers are connected, the idea is to let them share and
exchange what they contain. If the computers are small, like regular desktop computers, they may become
overwhelmed and they may not have enough to share. The next step is to have a "bigger" central computer that
holds even more things that other small computers would need (the word big here doesn't necessarily mean that this
computer is physically big; it implies that this computer can do more things, for example it can perform more and
faster calculations, than the other small computers). Such a central computer is called a server, because its job is to
serve other computers (these other small computers are then called workstations):
As information and resources (things to share) became more and more useful and in demand, servers of
different companies started establishing types of connections among themselves, of course following some rules.
In fact, in some situations, some big computers (servers) were made simply to provide information to other
computers, without needing to know who owned these small computers, why these small computers needed this
information, or what to do with them. The internet was born.
The Internet is a group of big computers connected to share the information they hold. Some of these
computers belong to the government, schools (mostly universities), big companies (corporations), small companies
and some to individuals. The computers that are connected may not have anything at all in common. To make sure
that this communication is possible, a few rules (called protocols) were established so that anybody who wants to
make his or her information available to other people through the Internet must follow these rules, no matter what
he or she does with the server or computer.
The rules to make a server available on the Internet are numerous and complicated. Therefore, another type
of computers was created that allows casual users to get on the internet without knowing, or being interested to
know how these servers communicate. These new intermediate computers are held by companies called service
providers (they are the middle man). When you have a computer and want to get on the internet, you use an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) who will establish the connection for you and will make sure that your computer can get on
the Internet. Based on this, the Internet can be illustrated as follows:

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Figure 9: The internet

The advantages of using a network are:
a) Data and information sharing
b) Resources sharing such as a printer, even if they are not physically connected. c)
Reliability and security
d) You can use email
e) You can access the internet

TYPES OF NETWORKS
In describing the basics of networking technology, it will be helpful to explain the different types of networks in
use.

Local Area Networks (LANS)

A net work is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with, each other over a shared
communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usually confined to a limited geographic area, such as
a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link
hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media
has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

There is another advance LAN called the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), used when we consider the distance
covered to be between 1 to 10km unlike the LAN that spans within 1km.

Wide Area Networks (WANS)

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that
are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines such
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as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet
carrier services. WANs can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to dial into, or it
can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked. Special muting protocols and filters minimize the
expense of sending data over vast distances.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANS)

Wireless LANs, or WLANs, use radio frequency (RF) technology to transmit and receive data over the air. This
minimizes the need for wired connections. WLANs give users mobility as they allow connection to a local area
network without having to be physically connected by a cable. This freedom means users can access shared
resources without looking for a place to plug in cables, provided that their terminals are mobile and within the
designated network coverage area. With mobility, WLANs give flexibility and increased productivity, appealing to
both entrepreneurs and to home users. WLANs may also enable network administrators to connect devices that may
be physically difficult to reach with a cable.

Intranet: A Secure Internet-Like Network for Organizations

With advancements in browser-based software for the Internet, many private organizations have implemented
intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only within that organization.
For large organizations, an intranet provides easy access to corporate information for designated employees.
Extranet: A Secure Means for Sharing Information with Partners
While an intranet is used to disseminate confidential information within a corporation, an extranet is commonly
used by companies to share data in a secure fashion with their business partners. Internet-type tools are used by
content providers to update the extranet. Encryption and user authentication means are provided to protect the
information, and to ensure that designated people with the proper access privileges are allowed to view it.

HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

More than just a technology, the Internet has become a way of life for many people, and it has spurred a
revolution of sorts for both public and private sharing of information. The most popular source of information
about almost anything is on the Internet as used daily by technical and non-technical users alike. With the
meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a major communications highway for millions
of users. It is a decentralized system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope.

The development of computers and advances in the ability to link up several computer units within the same vicinity
called the Local Area Network (LAN) and in remote locations called Wide Area Network (WAN) prepared the
ground for the emergence of this powerful and awesome phenomenon which is known as Internet (INTERnational
NETwork). The internet is a global network of computers linked together by telephone lines, microwave and
satellite links to form a large single information pool. It is the most advanced, sophisticated and fastest growing
information system available today.

The internet was as a result of some visionary thinking by people in the early 1960s who saw great potential value
in allowing computers to share information on research and development in scientific and military fields. J.C.R.
Licklider of MIT, first proposed a global network of computers in 1962, and moved over to the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DAPGA) in late 1962 to head the work to develop it. Leonard Kleinrock of MIT and
later UCLA developed the theory of packet switching, which was to form the basis of internet connections.
Lawrence Roberts of MIT connected a Massachusetts computer with a California computer in 1965 over dial-up
telephone lines. It showed the feasibility of wide area networking, but also showed that the telephone line s circuit
switching was inadequate. Kleinrock s packet switching theory was confirmed. Roberts moved over to DARPA in
1966 and developed his plan for ARPANET.
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The internet, then known as ARPANET, was brought online in 1969 under a contract led by the renamed Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) which initially connected four major computers at universities in the
Southwestern US (UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UCSB, and the university of Utah). The contract was carried
out by BBN of Cambridge, MA under Bob Kahn and went online in December, 1969.

In the 1970s, Arpanet grew, but in 1984, the National Science Foundation (NSF) of the US government built its
own network research called the NSF net. Other US government agencies such as NASA followed and got their
own networks. As the network grew, different internet domains were generated and standardized. They are com for
commercial institutions, edu for education, gov for government, mil for military, net for network operations and
services, org for nonprofit organizations while some are used for countries like za for South Africa ca for Canada,
ng for Nigeria, fr for France, sa for Saudi Arabia and uk for United Kingdom, etc.

In 1993 the National Science Foundation, who had been running the network pulled out and the Net became open
to anyone, anywhere.
Why the Internet?
The Internet is a fast, easy way to communicate. An email message can be sent anywhere in the world to any number
of people and can arrive within minutes. Documents, pictures, sounds and video clips can be sent to anyone with
internet access anywhere in the world. Software such as shareware packages, demos of commercial packages and
games can be accessed. An enormous range of knowledge and data useful for research can be searched for and
shared. Other advantages include News group (group on the internet that share news with one another about matters
that interest individuals which range from commercial, business, sports, medical, etc.), Internet teleconference
(people on the net that conduct real life discussion by typing your own contribution that others can read and reply),
online training and learning (e.g. GRE, TOEFL, etc.), e-registration (e.g. WASSCE, NECO, JAMB, NYSC, etc.)
and e-commerce/business.

Protocols (Rules of Networking)

Information is shared on the Internet by means of protocols. Protocols are rules that are followed by computers as
standards of communications that allow them understand each other. Transferring data in the form of files is one of
the most common uses of the internet. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is one of the most popular method used for file
transfer through the internet. The reason for its popularity is that it has the capability to transfer files between
different types of computer. Computers that store information that can be transferred via FTP are called FTP servers.
Those that store information that can be accessed by anybody are called anonymous servers. Some require a specific
user name and password to login.
Table 3: Protocols
Acronym Full Name Purpose
FTP File Transfer Protocol For transferring files
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol For sending email
POP,IMAP Post Office Protocol, Interactive Mail Access Protocol For accessing email
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions For enhancing email-
especially for attachments
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol Used to transfer web pages

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The World Wide Web

Developed by CERN in Geneva in 1990, the World Wide Web (www), also known as the web changed the face of
the Internet to the extent that people mistakenly think the terms Internet and Web are synonymous. This hypertext
system allows text, sound, video and pictures to be put on one page of information. These pages can, and often do,
contain links to other pages whose source can be located anywhere in the world. The Web has made the internet
much more user friendly and, as such infinitely more popular. It has brought about a time when anyone with the
necessary resources can gain better access to information (to use the web to locate, read and download document
stored on computer systems around the world). The Web is cross-platform, i.e. the same information can be viewed
regardless of the type of computer you use. On the web however, the document are presented as a series of pages
commonly known as web pages that are linked together to form a web site.

A web browser, such as Netscape, has the ability to enable access to many different forms of Internet distribution:
FTP, the Web, Newsgroup and mail all through one application.
Web Server Addresses

Web pages that are accessible to all on the Internet are stored on special computers called as web server. Each web
server is assigned a unique address e.g. www.state.gov.ng. Typically web addresses start with www. The name of
the site is the name of the organization or person whose pages we are trying to access while type of site is a two or
three characters code indicating the nature of work.

Domain Names

A Domain Name is the name by which an individual or organization chooses to be known on the Internet. It is
needed for email addresses and for the names of servers connected to the Internet. Once registered it is recognized
throughout the world and cannot be used by anyone else. The uniqueness of a domain name is crucial to the working
of the Internet because it ensures that email names and web addresses can t be duplicated. See the following table
to see how domain names are used:
Table 4: Domain Names
Name Type Example
Domain name City.ac.uk
Personal name Bilbo Baggins
User ID Ab123
Email [email protected] or [email protected]
Website server www.city.ac.uk
Personal web space http://www.student.city.ac.uk/~ab123
Unix CPU Server Swindon.city.ac.uk
Email Clients There are special mail programs available to compose, receive and send mail. They are referred to
as email client as they reside on the user s computer and are used to communicate with the email server. Email
client also offer other facilities like maintaining an address book of email addresses that make emailing very simple.
Examples are Outlook express, Eudora etc.

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Electronic Mail (E-mail)

This is a popular resource on the Internet for sending and receiving information. It represents a large portion of all
Internet traffic and is for many the only Internet resource they use. It can be use for business and personal
correspondence and exchange of information. Just like normal mail, addresses are required for the exchange of
email. Everyday person who wishes to use or receive email must have an email address. When a user applied for
an email address, an account referred to as his email address is created for him on the email server. All email
addressed to him is received into this account. Email accounts are password protected, thus preventing other users
from accessing the mail. There are various companies or web sites that provide free email addresses that you can
use at your convenience and that allow you to access your messages from any computer connected to the internet.
Some of these companies are Yahoo, Netscape, Hotmail, Google, etc.

The email address is of this format [email protected]: The username is the identity of the user whose
account it is. The symbol @ separates the Username and the domain name. The domain name is the unique name
given to the email server e.g. pacific.com. Domain name have two components. Thus pacific is the name of the
Organization while com is the type of organization (e.g. net, org, etc.). this is also referred to as the Uniform
Resource Location (URL)
News Group

Newsgroup allow for group discussion on specific topic. Some newsgroup focus on buying and selling, health,
stamp collection, romance, politics etc. There are thousand of newsgroups, once a user gained access to newsgroup
site there is no cost to subscribe to them. For example imagine that someone has joined a newsgroup involved in
stamp collecting, as new message about this hobby are sent by other subscribing to his group the message become
available to the newcomers. This person review not only what someone has sent to the newsgroup but also what
others have written in response.

File Sharing and Topic Searching

One of the original Internet goal was global information sharing. File could be transfer between internet users
located at different part of the globe within minutes. Search sites or search engines (e.g. yahoo, msn, ask, googles,
etc.) can be used to locate resources on the internet. The user simply supplies a word or a phrase, the site then
replies with a list of internet locations where the information can be found. Generally, the search is free and only
takes a few seconds.

Browsers
A browser is a computer application that "understands" the languages (called protocols) of the internet used to
view web pages. Examples include Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mosaic, e.t.c. Browsers that only show
textual information are called Text Based Browsers e.g. Lynx, Alynx, edbrowse (Line-mode browser), ELinks,
Emacs/W3, Net-Tamer, w3m, and WebbIE. They make it easy to pick and follow links by selecting
appropriate highlighted text. Graphical web browsers allow the user to just point and click to access information.
They have the capability to support hypermedia i.e. sounds, movies, formatted text, and graphics. The most
popular of graphical browsers are Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer, and Mosaic.
A browser is a window object made of five main sections: Title Bar, Menu bar, Toolbar, Address bar, and the
viewing area.

This is a table of personal computer web browsers by year of release of major version, in chronological order.

Year Web Browsers

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Pre-browser: HyperCard, Gopher

1991 Worldwide Web

1992 ViolaWWW, Erwise, MidasWWW, MacWWW

1993 Mosaic, Cello, Lynx 2.0, Arena, AMosaic 1.0

1994 IBM Web Explorer, Netscape Navigator, SlipKnot 1.0, MacWeb, IBrowse, Argo, Minuet

1995 Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator 2.0, OmniWeb, WebRouser, Internet Explorer 2, Grail

1996 Arachne 1.0, Internet Explorer 3.0, Netscape Navigator 3.0, Opera 2.0, PowerBrowser 1.5, Cyberdog,
Amaya 0.9, AWeb, Voyager

1997 Internet Explorer 4.0, Netscape Navigator 4.0, Netscape Communicator 4.0, Opera 3.0

1998 Internet Explorer 5.0 Beta 1, iCab, Mozilla, Opera 4

1999 Amaya 2.0, Mozilla M3, Internet Explorer 5.0

2000 Konqueror, Netscape 6, Opera 4, Opera 5, K-Meleon 0.2

2001 Internet Explorer 6, Galeon 1.0, Opera 6

2002 Netscape 7, Mozilla 1.0, Phoenix 0.1, Links 2.0

2003 Opera 7, Safari 1.0, Epiphany 1.0

2004 Firefox 1.0, Netscape Browser, OmniWeb 5.0

2005 Safari 2.0, Netscape Browser 8.0, Opera 8, Epiphany1.8, Amaya 9.0, AOL Explorer1.0, Maxthon
1.0, Shiira 1.0

2006 SeaMonkey 1.0, K-Meleon 1.0, Galeon 2.0, Camino 1.0, Firefox 2.0, Avant 11, iCab 3, Opera 9,
Internet Explorer 7, Sputnik

2007 Maxthon 2.0, Netscape Navigator 9, NetSurf 1.0, Flock 1.0, Safari 3.0, Conkeror
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2008 Konqueror 4, Safari 3.1, Opera 9.5, Firefox 3, Amaya 10, Flock 2, Google Chrome 1

RC Internet Explorer 8

Beta Safari 4, Camino 2

Alpha Opera 10, SeaMonkey 2, Google Chrome 2

Web Site/Web Page
A web page is an area of text and other fancy visual effects that you see when you get on the internet (actually it is
a file but we haven't learned yet what a file is). A web site is a group of web pages that belong to one section of the
internet, such as one person, one company, one school, or one government agency, etc (a web site is similar to a
folder or directory but we haven't learned what a folder or directory are).

When you get on the internet, you actually access one or different web pages from one or different web sites. To
access a web page, you must first get to the web site to which the web page belongs and you must know the name
of the web page. The combination of a web page and the web site it belongs to is called its address. To get the
address of a web page, you have four main options:

• If you know the web site that published the web page, you must first go to that web site. To do this, after
opening the browser, in the address box, you can type the (complete) address of the page
• If you have already been to that web page before, you may have book marked it. In this case, you can
"recall" the web page using the main menu of the browser or a button on the browser
• If somebody sent you the address, on the document (such as an email) that was sent to you, you may just
click the address that was sent to you (called a link) and the browser would automatically open the web
page
• If you are already on the internet and perform a search, the page that allowed you to do the search will
present you with the address (called a link) of the page. You can just click it and you would be taken to
that web page

A Link
A link is a word or a sentence that, when clicked, would lead you to a web page or produces an internet-related
action. Because a link is meant for the internet, it is usually displayed in a different color although this depends on
the person who created the link. There are two main ways you get a link:

• Somebody may send it to you as a reference or an indication

• If you are already on the internet, you may see some words or sentences that coincidentally all display in
the same color
The color of the link is not really what makes it a link. It is the result of what it produces that makes it a link. To
distinguish a link from the other text on a document or a web page, when you position your mouse on it, the mouse
pointer usually changes into a closed hand with a pointing finger. A link can also be created on a picture. To indicate
that a picture holds a link, when you position your mouse on it, the pointing finger cursor appears.

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Search Engines
Although the internet is highly rich with information, that information is not always organized the way you
particularly expect. When "browsing", you may find it hard to get the particular information you want. To provide
an alternative, there are some specialized sites that can perform the search for you, with more or less accuracy.
These sites are referred to as search engines. Some of the most popular of them are Google.com, Yahoo.com,
Alexa.com, MSN.com, Netscape.com, Altavista.com, and Search.com.
To do a search, first access a search engine site. Each one of them provides you with a convenient box in which
you can type the word or sentence to search and press Enter. After a few seconds, the results would be displayed in
a list. You can then click each link and check it. Most of the search engine sites provide more services than searching
the web. For example, both Yahoo and MSN provide free email addresses and the ability to check your email
messages. Some of them also allow you to look for a job, a relationship. Most of them allow you to shop. Many of
them also provide news, etc.

Even though the internet simplifies accessing information, its vastness makes it a little difficult to find relevant
information quickly. To make searching easier, search engines were developed. They are software on the web that
help internet users to look for specific information. Search engines usually refer to websites that are used to search
for data on the web. They search for information on the web on the basis of certain keywords specified by the user.
The result of the search is a list of documents that contain the keywords. However, the list of found documents
could be long, to narrow down the search; there are several options that can be applied. E.g. putting the phrase in
quote, the plus and the minus sign.

Use the plus sign when you want to find articles that contain all of the words you enter. Example, to find article on
rock and roll music, just type rock + roll + music. Use the minus sign to limit your results to articles with only the
words you want. Example, if you want articles about pets, but you are not interested in dogs, just type pets-dogs.
Do not leave any space between the signs (+, -) and the word you want to leave out.

Phrase it: Search for ideas and concepts instead of just word, using more than one word in your search. To find
complete phrase, just put quotes around the words that you want to find together. For example, to find information
on the small scale Business, type Small Scale Business (in quotes). Using quotes tells the search engines to look
for that exact phrase.
Downloading
Downloading is the ability to get something from the internet and put it in your computer. By default, downloading
means that you decide when to get that thing. Unfortunately, some things get into your computer while using the
internet. Some of these things don't bother your computer; some others do. This is why you should be restrictive
with the sites you visit.
By default, sites of big corporations, government agencies, and schools are less harmful, almost not harmful because
they are more accountable or more responsible. In fact, most responsible or accountable businesses run sites that
are not harmful at all (you are extremely unlikely to get a disease, I mean a virus, from the web site of a big
corporation or a government agency).
Like everything else in life, the internet was abused and is now the source of some bad behaviors. There is no strict
list of things you should do or sites you should not visit. So, welcome to this world of the Internet.

Because of bad behaviors some people and corporations have witnessed on the internet, if you work for some
corporations or government agencies, or if you are accessing the internet using a public or school's computer, you
may not be able to just download anything you want, and these decisions are right (if you want to download harmful
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things, do it at home or using your own computer; create your own bad experience, be your own victim, learn from
your own mistakes; don't do it on someone else's computer. This means that, if a school, an agency, a business, or
a corporation prevents you from using the Internet any way you want, it is a valid decision they make and you
should live with it).
Many big corporations offer free and safe things you can download (big corporations are more responsible and
accountable; they can't take the risk of having their name dragged to the mud). For example, if you plan to get into
programming, you can check offerings from http://www.sun.com/, http://www.borland.com/, or DevC++. I
didn't cite Microsoft, not because I hate the company (I don't) but because most of its free offerings I can remember
may be installed in your computer already, such as Internet Explorer, Microsoft Works (which is not really free, it
is just that if you buy your computer in a store, it may have Microsoft Works already but if you don't have Microsoft
Works and you nee it, you would have to purchase it) or the .NET Framework (the .NET Framework is not really
free and it is not a program by itself anyway, it is a library whose job is to complete the operating system;
fortunately, while doing that, it comes with free programs for programmers, not for casual users).

Chat or Internet Teleconference

Chat allows group of people to send messages to one another immediately in real time, once connected with a large
number of other users form all around the world. Chat rooms are created in such that feature a particular theme,
such as romance, politics, fictions, science, movies, sport etc. All the messages typed within a chat room appear
almost simultaneously on the computer screens of all participants for that chat room.

A chat room is much like a party of people mingling and talking at the same general time, except that are typing
short messages instead.
Telnet

This is a program that is designed to allow user to log into another computer on the internet as a user on that system.
With this, a user can log into a server to access information stored on it. However, the only those users that have
been allowed access by the organization can login to the server. Organizations make use of the telnet to make a part
of their system available to outsiders.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTER

The importance of computer cannot be overemphasized but there are lots to it than neglecting its demerits.
Although, this aspect may be viewed based on where you are located in the world. In fact, the most efficient
technology that has ever evolved is this information age that is based wholly on computer. Some of the negative
points people raise about computer include computer fraud, security and privacy, and unemployment.

TYPING/KEYBOARDING
Now that you know how to use the mouse, the keyboard, and the Internet, you should learn keyboarding.
Keyboarding is the ability to type professionally. Although it may appear as a waste of time, it absolutely is not. In
fact, you should invest in learning it.

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If you are taking a class at an institution, the school may (should) provide equipment to you to learn keyboarding.
If you are on your own, you can go to a computer store and purchase software that would guide you with
keyboarding. There are many sites that provide good lessons on keyboarding. On a search engine web site, do a
search on "keyboarding". Check different sites to see what they offer. Besides, sites change all the time. The features
to look for are that: the early lessons should show you how to position your fingers, the early lessons should start
on the middle characters, for QWERTY keyboard, these should be asdf;lkjg and h. Other than that, the whole thing
is about practicing and, unfortunately, no one else can do it for you.

USING HELP AND SUPPORT KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS

If your mouse is unavailable or if you prefer using your keyboard, you can use the following keyboard
commands to navigate within Help and Support Center.

Table 5: Help and Support keyboard shortcuts

Press To
ALT+F4 Close Help and Support Center.
ALT+LEFT ARROW Move back to the previously viewed topic.
ALT+RIGHT
Move forward to the next (previously viewed) topic.
ARROW
ALT+SPACEBAR Display the System window menu.
ALT+TAB Switch between the open windows.
CTRL+A Select all text in a pane.
CTRL+END Move to the end of a topic.
CTRL+HOME Move to the beginning of a topic.
CTRL+P Print a topic.
CTRL+SHIFT+TAB Switch to the previous pane.
CTRL+TAB Switch to the next pane.

Move down one item in the Index, search results, or list of Help topics.
DOWN ARROW

F6 Switch focus between the different panes in Help and Support Center.

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Move down one page in the Index, search results, or list of Help topics.
PAGE DOWN

PAGE UP Move up one page in the Index, search results, or list of Help topics.

SHIFT+F10 Display the Help and Support shortcut menu.

UP ARROW Move up one item in the Index, search results, or list of Help topics.

UP ARROW or
DOWN ARROW Scroll through a topic.
Table 6: Index keyboard shortcuts
Press To
ALT+D or ENTER Display the associated topic.
TAB Place the cursor in the list of keywords.
TAB to Index, and then press ENTER Display the Index.
UP ARROW or DOWN ARROW Select a keyword in the list.
Table 7: Search keyboard shortcuts
Press To
ALT+S Start a search.
ENTER Display the selected search result.
TAB or SHIFT+TAB Select a search result in the list.
Table 8: General keyboard shortcuts
Press To
ALT+ Enter Displays the properties of the selected object.
ALT+ Underlined letter in a menu name
Display the corresponding menu.
ALT+ENTER View properties for the selected item.
ALT+ESC Cycle through items in the order they were opened.
ALT+F4 Close the active item, or quit the active program.
ALT+PRINT SCREEN To make a copy of the active window
ALT+SPACEBAR Opens the shortcut menu for the active window.
ALT+SPACEBAR Display the System menu for the active window.
ALT+TAB Switch between open items.
View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows
BACKSPACE
Explorer.
CTRL while dragging an item Copy selected item.
CTRL+A Select all.
CTRL+C Copy.
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next
CTRL+DOWN ARROW
paragraph.
CTRL+ESC Display the Start menu.
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Close the active document in programs that allow you to have

CTRL+F4
multiple documents open simultaneously.
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous
CTRL+LEFT ARROW
word.
CTRL+RIGHT ARROW Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word.
CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item Create shortcut to selected item.
CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow
keys Highlight a block of text.
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous
CTRL+UP ARROW paragraph.
CTRL+V Paste.
CTRL+X Cut.
CTRL+Z Undo.
DELETE Delete.
ESC Cancel the current task.
F10 Activate the menu bar in the active program.
F2 Rename selected item.
F3 Search for a file or folder.
Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows
F4 Explorer.
F5 Refresh the active window.
Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop.
F6

LEFT ARROW Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu.
PRINT SCREEN To copy the entire screen as it appears on your monitor
RIGHT ARROW Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu.
SHIFT when you insert a CD into the
CD-ROM drive Prevent the CD from automatically playing.
Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or
SHIFT with any of the arrow keys select text within a document.
Delete selected item permanently without placing the item in
SHIFT+DELETE the Recycle Bin.
SHIFT+F10 Display the shortcut menu for the selected item.
Underlined letter in a command name on
an open menu Carry out the corresponding command.

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ALT + CTRL + DOWN [OR UP, Changes the orientation of the wall paper to the selected
LEFT OR RIGHT] ARROW direction
Table 9: Dialog box keyboard shortcuts
Press To
ALT+ Underlined letter Carry out the corresponding command or select the corresponding option.
Arrow keys Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons.
Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open
BACKSPACE
dialog box.
CTRL+SHIFT+TAB Move backward through tabs.
CTRL+TAB Move forward through tabs.
ENTER Carry out the command for the active option or button.
F1 Display Help.
F4 Display the items in the active list.
SHIFT+TAB Move backward through options.
SPACEBAR Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box.
TAB Move forward through options.
You can use the following keyboard shortcuts with a Microsoft Natural Keyboard or any other compatible
keyboard that includes the Windows logo key (WIN) and the Application key (APL).

Table 10: Natural keyboard shortcuts

Press To
APL Display the shortcut menu for the selected item.

CTRL+ WIN+F Search for computers.

WIN Display or hide the Start menu.

WIN + Shift + M Restores minimized windows.

WIN + Tab Key Circles through the taskbar buttons

Lock your computer if you are connected to a network domain, or switch users if
WIN+ L
you are not connected to a network domain.
WIN+BREAK Display the System Properties dialog box.
WIN+D Show the desktop.
WIN+E Open My Computer.
WIN+F Search for a file or folder.
WIN+F1 Display Windows Help.
WIN+M Minimize all windows.
WIN+R Open the Run dialog box.
WIN+U Open Utility Manager.
Table 11: Accessibility keyboard shortcuts
Press To
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Left ALT +left SHIFT +NUM LOCK Switch MouseKeys on and off.
Left ALT +left SHIFT +PRINT SCREEN Switch High Contrast on and off.
NUM LOCK for five seconds Switch Toggle Keys on and off.
Right SHIFT for eight seconds Switch Filter Keys on and off.
SHIFT five times Switch Sticky Keys on and off.
Table 12: Windows Explorer keyboard shortcuts
Press To
END Display the bottom of the active window.
HOME Display the top of the active window.
Collapse current selection if it s expanded, or select
LEFT ARROW
parent folder.
NUM LOCK+ASTERISK on numeric keypad (*) Display all subfolders under the selected folder.
NUM LOCK+MINUS SIGN on numeric keypad
(-) Collapse the selected folder.
NUM LOCK+PLUS SIGN on numeric keypad (+) Display the contents of the selected folder.
Display current selection if it s collapsed, or select
RIGHT ARROW
first subfolder.
If you choose not to apply Windows key combinations to your Remote Desktop sessions, you can use these
Terminal Server shortcut keys to perform many of the same functions.

Table 13: Terminal Server Keyboard shortcut

Shortcut key Description
ALT+DELETE Displays the Windows menu.
ALT+HOME Displays the Start menu.
Cycles through the programs in the order they were
ALT+INSERT
started.
ALT+PAGE DOWN Switches between programs from right to left.
ALT+PAGE UP Switches between programs from left to right.
CTRL+ALT + END Brings up the Windows Security dialog box.
Places a snapshot of the active window, within the client,
CTRL+ALT+ Minus (-)on the Terminal server clipboard (provides the same
symbol on the numeric keypad functionality as pressing Print-Screen on a local computer.)

Places a snapshot of the entire client window area on the

CTRL+ALT+ Plus (+) symbol Terminal server clipboard (provides the same functionality
on the numeric keypad as pressing ALT+ Print-Screen on a local computer.)

CTRL+ALT+BREAK Switches the client between a window and full screen.

FILE PROCESSING
We have learnt some few things about computing to include the basic knowledge and typing. At this point, any
work done need to be preserved for future reference. Hence, either when we closed the application or shut down
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the computer, all our valuable work will be gone. Most of the time, after creating something using an application,
you may want to keep it for later reference. You may even want to give or send it to someone else. File processing
consists of creating something on a computer and keeping it. The thing you keep is called information or datum.
The plural of datum is data. In some cases, the word data can be used in both singular and plural forms. There are
various issues related and different techniques used to keep data.
A medium is an object used to hold information in a computer. The plural of medium is media. There are various
kinds of them.

1. Internal Hard Drives

The primary object used to hold information in a computer is called the hard drive:

Figure 10: A Typical Hard Drive

Everything (data) in your computer is stored in the hard drive. The hard drive is a rectangular box that contains
some discs and other parts. The information stored in a hard drive is written on its discs. The information can be
written to, erased from, copied or moved among discs. Although you will perform these operations, the operating
system is in charge of deciding how the operations are carried out inside. You will not need to know what is going
on inside.
The hard drive is inside of the computer, connected to another wide flat object called the motherboard, using cables.
This type of hard drive is referred to as internal and this the most classic type.
When you purchase a computer, it already has a hard drive. Later on, you can either add a second one to your
computer or replace the hard drive in your computer.

2. External Hard Drives

Until recently, the hard drive was traditionally thought of as a piece of hardware inside the computer. For this
reason, it couldn't be carried away easily: you had to open the computer, disconnect the cables, and then remove
the hard drive. Even then, some other issues were related (such as the type of cable, etc) so much that people were
not in the habit of carrying a hard drive from one computer to another. Fortunately, another technology was
developed to use another type of hard drive that stays outside the computer and it is referred to as external.
An external hard drive is usually connected to the computer using a cable to a port (USB) outside the computer.
What makes it valuable is that, by simply disconnecting its cable, an external hard drive can easily be carried from
one computer to another. And because the external hard drive doesn't have the same particularities of cables (IDE
vs SATA), it can easily be connected to almost any common computer (PC). The external hard drive is fairly easy
to install. You primarily connect a (USB) cable from the back of the hard drive to a (USB) port on the computer.
In most cases, it should be ready to install (Plug n' Play) or it may quickly install the software (driver) it needs to
function. In some cases, after inserting the cable and turning the device on, a window may come up asking you to
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install something (a driver), which you would also have received from the manufacturer. Install it and continue to
use the drive.

3. Internal CD Drives

One of the problems with external hard drives is that, sometimes they can be heavy (not too heavy but still). Another
problem is that, to use them on another computer, you must have the right cable and you must physically connect
them. The remedy to this is to use an object that holds its information but can be ready by a recognizable drive. A
CD drive is an object that can be used to store information on a disk called a compact disc (CD). It is also connected
similar to that of the internal hard drives.

4. External CD Drives

We also have another type of CD drive that stays outside the computer called an external CD drive. This type is
usually connected to the computer through an external port (USB). Here is an example:

Figure 11: An External CD Drive

Like the internal hard drive, the CD drive uses a round disc to store its data. While the hard drive holds its own
many discs inside, the CD drive doesn't actually have a disc. You insert the disc when you think it necessary, and
you can insert only one disc. The CD drive can read regular data but it can also play CD music.

In early days, the CD drive was used only to read the data on a disc. Most CD drives nowadays are also used to
write to a disc. They are called CD writers or CD burners. As such, the CD writer can be used to both read from,
and write to, a disc.

5. Internal DVD Drives

As you can expect, the CD has some limitations. For example, it can hold only a specify amount of information and
it can play only music. To overcome some of its limitations, there is the DVD (Digital Video Disc) drive. This drive
looks like the CD drive and they have the same dimensions.

6. External DVD Drives

There is also an external DVD drive. Like the hard and the CD drives, the external DVD drive connects to the
computer using a (USB) cable connected to a port on the computer. 7. Flash Drives

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A flash drive is a small drive that can be used to hold data.

To use it, you insert its metallic side in a USB port on the computer. Once
you do, it turns itself on and a window may come up asking you what you
want to do. In some cases, the drive would need to install something (a
driver) for it to work.

Figure 12: The Flash Drive

8. Memory Cards and Card Readers

The function of a memory card is similar to that of a flash drive except that the card needs a reader for it to be
useful. You would buy them separately and insert the memory card into the card reader which is invariably
connected to the computer via the USB port.
SIMPLE DISK MANAGEMENT
When a drive has been installed in the computer or inserted on a port, the operating system must recognize it.
Once it does, for a computer that runs Microsoft Windows, it assigns a letter to it. In Windows Explorer or My
Computer, a drive is represented by a letter. Here are examples:

Figure 13: Window Explorer showing the drives on a Computer

Each letter, in this case A, C, D and E represents a drive. In some cases, a letter may not represent a real drive
physical drive (it may represent a partition among many partitions on the same hard drive). To distinguish a letter
of a drive from letters of normal words, the letter of a drive is always followed by a colon ":". In Windows
Explorer or My Computer, the letter of a drive is also included in parentheses.

In most cases, you should accept the letters, In some cases, you may need to change them. For example, if you
insert a flash drive, you hear a sound that the computer has recognized it, but the content of the drive doesn't
show, or the drive letter is not (automatically) assigned (by the operating system). The problem could be that the
letter the operating system attempted to assign to the drive is already taken but the operating system didn't attempt
to assign another letter.

To manage the letters of the drives, you can open the Computer Management MMC. To do this, you can right-
click My Computer  click Manage  in the left frame, click Disk Management. One of the actions you can
perform here consists of changing a drive letter. To do this, you can right-click a drive letter in the top-right frame
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or a section in the lower-right frame  click Change Drive Letter And Paths... This would open a dialog box
that you can use to change the letter.

DOCUMENTS
When you open an application, such as a text editor, it displays an empty area with a blinking caret. In the same
way, if you open a graphics application or a spreadsheet, it also displays an empty area, waiting for your work. You
can then start performing the type of assignment that the application is expecting. For a graphics application, you
can start drawing or loading pictures. For a spreadsheet, you can start entering numbers and performing calculations.
When you start entering text in a text editor or a word processor, you are said to create, or work on, a document. If
you start drawing shapes or manipulating pictures in a graphics application, you are said to work on a document. If
you start entering numbers and performing calculations in a spreadsheet, you are said to work on a document.
Saving a Document

After creating a document, you may want to preserve it for later use. Preserving a document is referred to as saving
it. You have many options and this may depend on the application you are using. In most cases, if an application
was created using the standards described and recommended by Microsoft, to save the document, on the main menu,
click File  Save:

• If the document was never saved before, a dialog box would come to assist you
• If the document was saved previously, it would be saved behind the scenes and the new version would include
the new changes
A document can also be saved when you attempt to close an application:

• If you create a document or modify one, if you close the application (or the window), you will be asked
whether you want to save it. If you want to save it, you should click Yes. If the document was not saved
previously, a dialog box would come up.
• If you have modified a previously saved document and if you attempt to close the application (or the
window), the computer would ask you whether you want to save the document. If you want to save it, you
should click Yes. In this case, the new version of the document would keep the changes you made. If you
click No, the document would revert back to what it was before it was opened or the previous time it was
saved
When saving a document for the first time, you must give it a name and a location.

To make it possible to easily recognize its information in a computer that runs Microsoft Windows, a drive, such
as those we have reviewed above, uses some units. The primary unit is called a directory. In Windows Explorer or
My Computer, a directory is represented by a letter. When (the disc of) a drive is created, it doesn't contain
directories. This is because the manufacturer doesn't decide how and on what type of computer the drive will be
used. When a drive is installed on a computer, the operating system decides about the drive, creates it as a directory
and assign a letter to it. You can store a document on a drive but this is not recommended.

Creating a Folder

To better organize the information that it contains, one or more units can be created on a drive. Each unit is called
a folder. When (the disc of) a drive is created, it doesn't contain folders. When the operating system is installed, it
creates a few folders. You also can create a folder and you have many alternatives.

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When it comes to folders, a drive is called the root folder or simply, the root. To create a folder in the root, in
Windows Explorer or My Computer:

• In the left frame, click the drive. On the main menu, click File  New  Folder and give it a name
• In the left frame, click the drive. In the right frame, right-click a white empty area  position the mouse on
New  click Folder. Then give it a name
You can also create a folder inside of another. The folder that will contain the new one is referred to as the parent
folder. The other will be referred to as a child folder. To create a folder in another folder, in Windows Explorer or
My Computer:

• In the left frame, expand the drive by clicking its + button. Under the drive, click the folder name. If the new
folder will be created inside of another folder that itself has a parent, expand it also and click the parent folder.
On the main menu, click File  New  Folder and give it a name
• In the left frame, click the drive and click the parent folder. In the right frame, right-click the parent folder,
position the mouse on New and click Folder, then give it a name
You can also create a folder when saving a file. To do this, in the dialog box that comes up, click the Create New
Folder button and give it a name.

Naming a Folder

There are some suggestions you should follow and various rules you must observe when naming a folder:

• The name of a folder can be a single letter or a digit

• The name of a folder can also be a single special character except the following: | > / : \ < ? * and "
• The name of a folder can be a combination of letters, digits, and some special characters
As a suggestion, you should use a name that indicates what is stored in the folder. This makes it easy to find
information.

Archive

Archives are files that contain other files. Typically the files in an archive are compressed. Archives usually have
file names ending with ZIP, LZH, ARJ, or ARC, depending on how they were created. Archives make it easy to
group files and make transporting and copying these files faster.

Typical Uses of Archives

• Most files available on the Internet and on electronic services like America Online are distributed as archives.
Two benefits of using archives for electronic file distribution are that only one file transfer operation
("download") is required to obtain all related files, and file transfer time is minimized because the files in an
archive are compressed.
• It is often useful to send a group of related files to an associate. Rather than distributing individual files it is
often easier to distribute the files as an archive to benefit from the file grouping and compression.
• Some files are important but not used often. To save disk space simply compress these files into an archive
when they are not used, and decompress them only when needed.
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Self-Extracting Zip File

A self-extracting Zip file is an executable program file (.EXE file) that includes both a Zip file and software to
extract or "unzip" the contents of the Zip file. Users can extract the contents of a self-extracting Zip file by simply
running it. This is convenient, because the end user does not need an unzip program (like WinZipfi) to extract
files from these self-extracting archives.

WinZip Self-Extractor Personal Edition, included with WinZip, creates Windows self-extracting Zip files.

Archive formats:

• Zip files are the most common archive format. Zip files can span multiple disks, and provide both
compression and file grouping. WinZip does not use external programs to work with Zip files.
• TAR, Z, GZ, TAZ, and TGZ files are often found on Unix-based Internet sites. TAR stands for "Tape
ARchive". The TAR format does not provide compression; it is used only to group files. GZ and Z files are
gzip files. GZ and Z files cannot contain multiple files. TAZ and TGZ files are TAR files compressed in the
gzip format. Since almost all new archives are created in Zip format, WinZip does not provide facilities to add
to or create files in these formats (however, all other WinZip functions are supported). WinZip does not use
external programs when working with files in these formats.
• File formats such as UUencoded, XXencoded, BinHex, and MIME are used primarily to transfer binary files
by Internet e-mail. If you encounter one of these files, you can open it and extract its contents with WinZip.
You can UUencode an archive using the UUencode entry in the WinZip Actions pull-down menu. WinZip
does not use external programs when working with files in these formats.
• WinZip also handles most files in the old Microsoft Compress format (also known as LZEXPAND format).
However, there are several variations on this format, and Microsoft has not released documentation on these
variations. WinZip issues an appropriate message if you attempt to decompress a file not supported by your
version of Windows. Microsoft Compress files usually end with a trailing underscore, for example,
"commdlg.dl_". Like Z and GZ files, Microsoft Compress format files contain only one file. This format is
used for many files on the Windows 3.1 distribution disks and many older Microsoft products. Note that not
all files ending with an underscore are Microsoft Compress format files. WinZip does not use external
programs when working with files in these formats.
• The Microsoft CAB (short for Cabinet) format is used by most Microsoft setup programs, including those
used to install Windows. CAB files provide both file compression and file grouping. You can use WinZip to
open and extract the contents of CAB files. WinZip will handle most self-extracting CAB files. WinZip does
not use external programs when working with CAB files.
• ARC, ARJ, and LZH are older formats that provide both grouping and compression, like Zip files. Unlike
other supported file formats, WinZip's optional support for these formats requires external programs that are
not included as part of the WinZip distribution.

Files

In our introductions, we defined a document as what you create in an application. In a word processor, the characters
you type constitute a document. For a graphics application, the drawings you perform or the picture you manipulate
is called a document. In order to keep such a document for later use, you must store it somewhere. A file is an object
used to hold a document. Put it another way, in order to have a file, you must save a document. We have mentioned

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how to save a document. Like a folder, you must name a file when saving a document. The name of a file follows
the same rules we defined for a folder.

FILE MANAGEMENT

Bits and Bytes

To hold information, a medium such as a hard disk uses a system that resembles a combination of small boxes. Let's
illustrate it as follows:

This box can hold only a small piece of information. It can only be either 0 or 1. When the box is empty, it holds a
value of 0. When it is full, it holds a value of 1:

0
1
You can represent a piece of information with one of two states. This box used to represent a value is called a binary
digit; in its abbreviated form, it is called a bit (for binary digit).

0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100

0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001

1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110

1111
This produces the following binary combinations: 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001,
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 = 16 combinations. When using the decimal system, these combinations can
be represented as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15.

This combination is also a system that the computer uses to count bits internally. This technique is valuable and
allows you to always identify a number as a divider of 4.

When all bits of a group of 4 are 0, the combination has the lowest value, which is 0000. Any of the other
combinations has at least one 0 bit, except for the last one. When all bits are 1, this provides the highest value
possible for a group of 4 bits. The lowest value, also considered the minimum value, can be represented as 0. The
highest value, also considered the maximum, can be expressed in decimal value as 2 4 (2 represents the fact that
there are two possible states: 0 and 1; 4 represents the fact that there are four possible combinations), which is 16.
This produces 16 because 24 = 16.

A combination of 8 consecutive bits is called a byte. The bits are counted from right to left starting at 0:
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You can represent a byte using a combination of 0s and 1s. If you have the patience to create combinations of bits
using the boxes as we did for the group of 4, you would find out that there are 256 possible combinations. Another
way to find it out is by using the base 2 technique:

27 + 26 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20 = 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 255
Therefore, the maximum decimal value you can store in a byte is 255. Remember that the byte with all bits having
a value of 0 has its value set to 0. Since this byte also holds a valid value, the number of combinations = 255 + 1 =
256.
The only type of information you can store in a byte is a character or symbol, such as a readable letter from the
alphabet: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O,
P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z. Besides these readable characters, a byte can also hold one digit: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9. A byte can also hold a readable or non-readable symbols such as ` ~ ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) - _ =
+[{]}\|;:'<?./,>"
This means that a combination of 8 bits, called a byte, is enough to represent one symbol recognized in the English
language. In this globalization word, a computer also needs to be able to store characters from other Latin-based
languages such as letters from Franais or Espaæol. To make this possible, instead of 8 bits, the operating system
must use 16 bits. A combination of 16 consecutive bits is also called a word.

A group of 1000 bytes is supposed to be called a kilobyte but, based on the way the computer calculates the bits, a
group of 1024 bytes is called a kilobyte or KB. A group of 1,000,000 bytes is called a megabyte but actually it is a
group of 1,024,000 bytes that is called a megabyte or MB. A group of 1,000,000,000 bytes or actually a group of
1,073,741,824 bytes is called a gigabyte or GB.

The Size of a Drive

Because a drive cannot have unlimited space, it is recognized for its size. The size of a drive can be measured by,
or specified in, MB or GB. For example, a typical CD can hold 700MB of data. A regular DVD can hold information
up to 4.7GB in size. The sizes of hard drives are very varied. To find the size of a hard drive in your computer, from
either Windows Explorer or My Computer, you can right-click the drive letter and click Properties.

The Size of a File

In order to keep track of the various files in a computer, each file has a size. The size of a file can be measured in
bytes, kilobytes, or megabytes. To know the size of a file, in either Windows Explorer or My Computer, you can
right-click it and click Properties.

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