BASIC ELECTRICITY

INTRODUCTION
As you know, electricity runs a great deal of all modern devices. Like any other means of transportation, aircraft
rely on electricity for a number of functions, including, but not limited to, lighting, communication, navigation,
and environmental control. In fact, some newer aircraft designs eliminate control cables and rely entirely on elec-
trically actuated flight controls. As an aircraft maintenance technician, you will encounter electricity every day,
and a solid grasp of this subject is essential.
 THEORY AND PRINCIPLES

many textbooks in use today that speak of current as

being from positive to negative.

ELECTRON THEORY
When a light bulb is connected to a source of elec-
trical energy by solid conductors, or wires, there
Although electricity and electronics encompass a appears to be no movement within the conductor.
considerable body of knowledge, the basic ele- However, if you could see inside the wires, you
ments are neither difficult nor exceedingly com- would find that they are not really solid. In fact, you
plex. Electricity is simply the flow of electrons would see that the wire contains far more empty
through a conductor. It is produced by a variety of space than expected. This space allows for electron
chemical and physical means, but all use the flow between atoms.
manipulation of subatomic positively and nega-
tively charged particles. This section discusses the
theory needed to understand the production and THE ATOM
control of the flow of electrons. As discussed in Chapter 2, all of the material in the
universe is composed of atoms, which are the small-
est particles that can exist, either alone or in combi-
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY nation with other atoms. You should also recall that
One of the first recorded mentions of electricity was each atom consists of a nucleus containing posi-
by the Greek philosopher Thales in about 500 B.C. Figure 3-1. The nucleus of a copper atom consists of 29
He reported that when substances such as amber
and jet were rubbed with a piece of cloth, they
attracted light objects such as feathers and bits of
straw. Later in the eighteenth century, it was dis-
covered that there were two kinds of forces, or
charges, caused by rubbing certain materials
together. Charges of the same kind repelled each
other while opposite charges attracted.

In about the middle eighteenth century, the practi

cal mind of Benjamin Franklin found a way to prove
that lightning was a form of electricity. In his
famous kite experiment, he flew a kite into a thun
derstorm and found that sparks jumped to the
ground from a metal key attached to the wet string.
Franklin made a logical assumption that whatever it
was that came down the string was flowing from a
high level of energy to a lower level. He assigned the
term "positive" to the high energy, and "negative" to
positively charged protons and 36 electrically neutral neu-
the lower level. It was not known what actually trons. Spinning around the nucleus are 29 negatively
came down the string, but Franklin used a term charged electrons. Since the positive charges equal the
associated with the flow of water, and said that it number of negative charges, the atom is said to be elec-
was "current" that flowed down the string, from trically balanced.
positive to negative. I

The assumption that electricity flowed from posi-

tive to negative was accepted until the discovery of
the electron in 1897. At that time, it was discovered
that electrons, or negatively charged particles, actu-
ally move through a circuit. However, there are still
Basic Electricity 3-3

tively charged protons and neutrally charged CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus and traveling at Some materials have an atomic structure that easily
high speeds are electrons, each of which is nega- permits the movement of electrons. These materials
tively charged and weighs about 1/1845 as much as are referred to as conductors. Materials are typically
a proton. good conductors if they have fewer than five elec-
trons in their outer shells. Four excellent conduc-
All electrons are alike, as are all protons and all tors are silver, copper, gold, and aluminum.
neutrons. However, the number and arrangement of Materials which oppose the movement of electrons
these elementary building blocks determine the are called insulators. Insulators typically have
material that atoms make up. For example, copper between five and eight valence electrons and there-
has a nucleus consisting of 29 protons and 36 neu- fore do not easily accept additional electrons. To
trons. Surrounding the nucleus and spinning in four prevent the inadvertent flow of electricity, insula-
rings, or "shells," are 29 electrons. This combina- tors are often placed around conductors. Some com-
tion yields what is called an electrically balanced mon insulating materials are plastic, rubber, glass,
atom. In other words, there are exactly the same ceramics, air (or vacuum), and oil.
number of positive charges as there are negative
charges. The neutrons have no electrical charge and
do not affect the flow of electricity. [Figure 3-1] ELECTRON FLOW
Consider what happens when a conductor made of
copper is connected across a source of electrons.
All matter contains energy, and energy in an atom The positive terminal of the source attracts an elec-
causes the electrons to spin around the nucleus. As tron from an atom in the conductor and the atom
the electrons spin, centrifugal force tends to pull leaves the conductor. The atom which lost the elec-
them away from the nucleus. However, the electro- tron now becomes a positive ion and pulls an elec-
static attraction between protons and electrons pro- tron away from the next atom. This exchange con-
duces a force which opposes this centrifugal force tinues until the electron that left the conductor ini-
and holds the electrons in a specific orbit. tially is replaced by one from the source's negative
terminal. [Figure 3-2]
The electrons spin around the nucleus in shells at a
constant radius. Some atoms have up to seven Electron movement takes place within the conduc-
shells. Each shell holds a certain number of elec- tor at about the speed of light, which is approxi-
trons. For example, the first shell holds 2 electrons, mately 186,000 miles per second. However, this
the second shell holds 8, the third shell holds 18, does not mean that a single electron moves from one
and so on. The outermost shell containing at least end of a conductor to the other at this
one electron is called the valence shell. Likewise,
the electrons in the valence shell are called valence
electrons.

IONS
Positive electrical forces outside an atom tend to
attract or rob electrons from an atom's outer ring.
This results in an unbalanced electrostatic condi-
tion and leaves the atom with an electrical charge.
Charged atoms are called ions. If an atom possesses
an excess of electrons, it is said to be negatively
charged, and is called a negative ion. On the other
hand, an atom with excess protons is called a posi-
tive ion. For example, copper has one electron in its
outer ring. When a positive force is applied to the
atom, the valence electron is drawn from the atom
and leaves it with more protons than electrons. The
atom is now a positive ion and tries to attract an speed.
electron from a nearby balanced atom. Electrons Figure 3-2. When a positive source attracts an electron from
constantly move within a material from one atom to a conductor, it leaves a positive ion. This ion attracts an
another in a random fashion. electron from an adjoining atom. This exchange continues
through the conductor until an electron is furnished by the
negative terminal to replace the one taken by the source.
3-4 Basic Electricity

Instead, an electron entering one end of the conduc- interchangeably. In chapters dealing with semicon-
tor almost immediately forces another electron out ductor devices and their symbols, the flow of con-
the other end. [Figure 3-3] ventional current is used. This is because the arrows
used in semiconductor symbols point in the direc-
tion of conventional current flow. [Figure 3-4]
Figure 3-4. Electron flow refers to the flow of electrons from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal. On the other

Figure 3-3. When one electron enters a conductor, it imme-

diately forces another electron out of the opposite end.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRON FLOW

Although you cannot see the movement of electrons
within a conductor, you can see and use the effects hand, conventional current is said to travel from positive to
of this movement. For example, as electrons flow negative. It is easier to think in terms of conventional cur-
through a conductor they produce a magnetic field rent when working with semiconductor symbols.
around the conductor. The greater the flow, the
stronger the field. Furthermore, as electrons flow,
the opposition to their flow produces heat within
the conductor.
UNITS OF ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENT
DIRECTION OF FLOW
The electron is such a small particle that an enor-
Since the flow of electricity could not be observed, mous number of them are required to obtain a mea-
it was only natural to assume that it flowed from a surable unit. The coulomb is the basic unit of elec-
high level of energy to a lower level or, in electrical trical quantity and is equivalent to 6.28 billion bil-
terms, from "positive" to "negative." This theory lion electrons. This is typically written as 6.28 x
worked well for years. In fact, many textbooks were 1018. The symbol for quantity is Q.
written calling the flow of electrons "current flow,"
and assumed a flow from the positive terminal of
the source to the negative terminal. When one coulomb of electrons flows past a point
in one second, there is a flow of one ampere, or one
amp. It makes no difference whether you think in
As scientists gained knowledge of the atom, it electron flow or conventional flow, it is all generally
became apparent that the negatively charged called current. The symbol used to represent cur-
electron actually moved through a circuit. rent is I.
Therefore, most textbooks have been revised to
explain electron flow as being from the negative
terminal, through the load, and back into the The ohm is the standard unit of resistance, or oppo-
positive terminal. sition to current flow, and is represented by an   2.
One ohm is the resistance through which a force of
one volt results in a flow of one ampere.
Because electricity was thought to flow from posi-
tive to negative for so long, the theory is still dis-
cussed and is referred to as conventional flow. The force that causes electrons to flow is called the
Although the conventional flow of electricity is electromotive force or EMF. An electromotive force
technically incorrect, it does follow the arrow is measured in volts. One volt represents the
sym-bology used on semiconductors. The proper amount of force required to cause one amp of flow
flow of electricity is termed electron flow. You through one ohm of resistance. A number of terms
may use either method for tracing flow, as long are used to express electrical force. They are: volt-
as you remain consistent. This chapter follows age, voltage drop, potential, potential difference,
electron flow and uses the terms electron flow EMF, and IR drop. These terms have slightly differ-
and current
Basic Electricity 3-5

ent meanings, but are often used interchangeably. POWERS OF TEN

The symbol used to represent the volt is E.
Another method used to express very small and
Typically, electricity is used to generate power. The very large numbers is through scientific notation. In
standard unit of measure for electrical power is the this method of handling numbers, the primary num-
watt. One watt is the amount of power dissipated ber is converted into a value between one and ten by
when one amp of current flows under a force of one moving the decimal the appropriate number of
volt. The symbol for power is P. [ Figure 3-5] places. For example, 0.000,000,002 is converted
into 2.0 by moving the decimal to the right nine
places. Since the original value is smaller than one,
the number two must be multiplied by a negative
power of ten. When 0.000,000,002 is converted to
scientific notation, it becomes 2 x 10~~9.

Numbers larger than one are converted in exactly

the same way, except they are multiplied by a posi-
tive power of ten. For example, one coulomb con-
Figure 3-5. This table illustrates a summary of electrical tains 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. This
characteristics and their corresponding units. number is easier to work with when the decimal is
moved to the left 18 places. The resulting value in
scientific notation becomes 6.28 x 1018.

If you recall from Chapter 1, numbers that have been

Many terms used in the study of electricity deal converted to scientific notation are multiplied or
with numbers that are either extremely large or divided by performing the required mathematical
extremely small. Because of this, metric prefixes are operation to the numbers, and then adding or sub-
used extensively. For example, the basic unit of tracting the exponents.
capacitance is the farad, and one farad is much too
large for practical use in aircraft electronics. Example:
Therefore, a typical capacitor has a capacity of
0.0025 X 5,000 = (2.5 x 10"3) X (5 X 103) = 12.5
0.000,000,000,002 farad. A number such as this is
awkward to work with, and its use encourages x 10  = 12.5
errors. A more convenient way to express this unit
is to use the prefix pico, which represents 5,000,000 -r 250,000 = (5 x 106) + (2.5 X 105)
0.000,000,000,001. By doing this the capacitance is = 2 X 101 = 20
represented as two picofarads, or 2pf. [Figure 3-6]
STATIC ELECTRICITY
There are two basic types of electricity; they are
current and static. In current electricity, electrons
move through a circuit and perform work through
the magnetic field created by their movement, or by
the heat generated when forced through a resis-
tance. Static electricity, on the other hand, serves
little useful purpose. In fact, static electricity is
more often a nuisance rather than a useful form of
electrical energy.
Static electricity is of real concern during the fuel-
ing operation of an aircraft. For example, as an air-
craft flies, friction between the air and the aircraft
surface builds up a static charge. Once an aircraft
lands, the static charge cannot readily dissipate,

Figure 3-6. The metric prefixes, pico, micro, milli, and kilo
are used extensively in the study of electricity.
3-6 Basic Electricity

since the tires insulate the aircraft from the ground.

If the first thing to contact a statically charged air-
craft is a fuel nozzle in the filler neck, a spark can
ignite the explosive fumes and cause a serious fire.
To prevent this, you must always ground an aircraft
prior to fueling. This is usually accomplished by
connecting the aircraft to the fuel truck, which is in
turn grounded to the earth. [Figure 3-7]

Figure 3-8. (A)   An uncharged pith ball is attracted to a rod

that has either a positive or a negative charge. (B)   Once
the charged rod contacts the ball, the ball assumes the
same charge as the rod and is repelled.

bled, the force of attraction is reduced to one-fourth

its original value. If the distance between the two
Figure 3-7. Airplanes and fuel trucks should be grounded objects is tripled, the force becomes one-ninth its
together to neutralize any charge of static electricity before original value. On the other hand, if the distance
the fueling nozzle is put into the tank.
between two electrically charged objects is cut in
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES half, the force between them increases by a factor of
four. [Figure 3-9]
As you know, you cannot see static electricity.
However, you can observe its effects through the use ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
of a glass rod and a pair of pith balls suspended by
a string. For example, if you rub a glass rod with a If you could see the lines of electrostatic force
piece of wool or fur, the rod picks up additional between two opposite charges, you would see that
electrons, and therefore becomes negatively the lines leave one charged object and enter the
charged. When the rod is held close to a suspended other. If the charges are close together all of the lines
pith ball with a neutral charge, the rod attracts the link and the two charges form a neutral, or an
ball. However, once the ball touches the rod, the uncharged, group. However, the lines of electrosta-
excess electrons on the rod flow to the ball and give tic force from like charges repel each other and tend
the ball a negative charge. Whenever the rod and
ball have like charges, they repel each other.
In a second example, if you rub a glass rod with a
piece of silk, the rod gives up electrons and becomes
positively charged. If you then hold the rod near a
neutrally charged pith ball, the rod attracts the ball.
However, once the ball touches the rod, the ball
loses some electrons to the rod and assumes a posi-
tive charge and is repelled. [Figure 3-8]
The strength of repelling and attracting forces vary
as the inverse of the square of the distance between
the two charges. For example, if the distance Figure 3-9. The force of repulsion or attraction varies as the
between two objects with dissimilar charges is dou- inverse of the square of the distance between the charges.
Basic Electricity 3-7

to push the charges apart. Electrostatic fields are

also known as dielectric fields. [Figure 3-10]

DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGES

When a body having a smooth or uniform surface is
electrically charged, the charge distributes evenly
over the entire surface. If the surface is rough or
irregular in shape, the charge concentrates at points
or areas having the sharpest curvature. This
explains the action of static dischargers used on
many aircraft control surfaces. As discussed earlier,
when an airplane flies through the air, friction
causes a static charge to build on the aircraft's sur-
face. To help prevent an excessive charge from Figure 3-11. Static dischargers provide points from which
building, many aircraft utilize static wicks, or null static charges are dissipated into the air before a high
potential builds on the control surface.
field dischargers. These devices are attached to the
aircraft's control surfaces and provide points where An aircraft's control surfaces are connected to the
electricity can concentrate and then discharge into airframe structure by hinges which do not provide a
the air. [Figure 3-11] good conductive path for static electricity to move
to static dischargers. Because of this, several aircraft
utilize bonding straps which provide a conductive
path between the two structures. The maximum
permissible resistance of a bonding strap is .003
ohms. [Figure 3-12]

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
As you know, energy cannot be created or
destroyed. However, energy can be converted from
one form to another. The conversion of chemical,
thermal, pressure, light, and magnetic energy into
electricity, and the exchange of electricity back into
these forms, is commonplace today.

CHEMICAL
Some materials exist as positive ions having a posi-
tive charge, while others exist as negative ions and

Figure 3-10. (A)   Lines of electrostatic force leave a

charged body at right angles to its surface, and then spread
apart. They enter an oppositely charged body at right angles
to its surface. (B)   Charged bodies reject lines of electro- Figure 3-12. Bonding straps provide a low-resistance path
static force from other bodies having the same charge. between a control surface and the aircraft structure.
3-8 Basic Electricity

carry a negative charge. If materials with opposite

charges are connected and immersed in an elec-
trolyte, it is possible to create an electron flow. For
example, an alkaline battery consists of a carbon rod
and paste-like electrolyte enclosed in a zinc con-
tainer. The electrolyte reacts chemically with the
zinc and changes the zinc to zinc chloride. As this
reaction takes place, the zinc releases electrons.
When you run a wire from the zinc can, through a
light bulb, and back to the carbon rod, the electrons
flow through the light and into the carbon rod. Figure 3-14. Electrons flow in a thermocouple made of dis-
[Figure 3-13] similar metals when there is a temperature difference
between the two junctions.

THERMAL (HEAT)
PRESSURE
A thermocouple is a loop of two wires made of dis-
similar metals that are joined at two places. When a When a crystalline material such as quartz is bent or
temperature difference exists between the two junc- deformed by a mechanical force, an excess of elec-
tions, electrical current flows. This property makes trons accumulates on one surface. This is known as
thermocouples valuable as temperature sensors in the piezoelectric effect and is commonly used in
aircraft. Iron/constantan and chromel/alumel are crystal microphones and phonograph pickups. A
the metal pairs most commonly used in thermocou- piece of crystal vibrates at one natural frequency
ples. A cylinder head temperature measuring sys- and when a crystal is excited by pulses of electrical
tem has one junction held tightly against a hot energy, it vibrates at this frequency. As it vibrates, it
engine cylinder head by a spark plug, while the produces alternating voltage that has a very specific
other junction is mounted in an area where the tem- frequency. [Figure 3-15]
perature remains relatively constant. [Figure 3-14]
LIGHT
When light strikes certain photoemissive materials
such as selenium, light energy is absorbed. When
this occurs, electrons are discharged. These elec-
trons can be channelled through a conductor to an
electrical circuit. Solar powered calculators take
advantage of electrical current produced by light.
[Figure 3-16]

Figure 3-13. Electrons flow between two dissimilar materi- Figure 3-15. An electrical potential difference builds across
als when they are connected by a conductor and immersed the faces of certain crystalline materials when they are bent
in an electrolyte. or otherwise subjected to mechanical pressure.
Basic Electricity 3-9

MAGNETISM The number of lines of flux that loop through a mag-

net is an indication of a magnet's strength. One line
One of the most effective devices used to produce of flux is called one maxwell. On the other hand,
electricity is the magnet. By definition, a magnet is flux density is measured in gauss which represents
a body that has the ability to attract ferrous sub- the number of lines of flux per given area. One gauss
stances and produce an external magnetic field. It is represents a density of one maxwell per square cen-
these magnetic fields that are of interest in the study timeter.
of electricity.

The ends of the magnet are called the poles, and are
referred to as the north- and south-seeking poles.
The north-seeking end of a magnet is labeled "N,"
and the opposite south-seeking end is labeled "S."
These labels refer to the direction sought by the pole
of the magnet.

Magnetism follows the same rules as charges of sta-

tic electricity. Like poles repel each other, and the
force of repulsion follows the inverse square law.
This means that if the distance between the poles is
doubled, the force of repulsion is reduced to
one-fourth. On the other hand, the force of
attraction is squared as the distance decreases. In
other words, when you decrease the separation by Figure 3-17. Lines of magnetic flux form complete loops,
half, the force of attraction increases four times. leaving the magnet at its north pole and returning at its
south pole.
As stated earlier, a magnet produces an external
magnetic field. A magnetic field consists of invisi- The inside of a piece of unmagnetized iron contains
ble lines called lines of magnetic flux. Lines of flux an almost infinite number of magnetic fields ori-
are always complete loops that leave the north-seek- ented in a random fashion. However, if a piece of
ing pole of the magnet at right angles to its surface iron is placed in a strong magnetic field, all of the
and re-enter the south pole in the same fashion. fields, or domains, align themselves with the
Since lines of flux are polarized in the same direc- induced magnetic field. Once this occurs, the iron
tion, they repel each other and spread out between becomes a magnet having a north and south pole,
the poles. [Figure 3-17] and lines of magnetic flux. [Figure 3-18]

Figure 3-18.(A)   In an unmagnetized material, all of the

individual magnetic fields, or domains, are arranged in a
random fashion and cancel each other. (B)   When the
Figure 3-16. A photoemissive material emits material is magnetized, all of the domains are aligned, and
electrons when struck by light. the material has a north and south pole.
3-10 Basic Electricity

The domain theory of magnetism is supported by

the fact that each magnet has both a north and
south pole, regardless of the size of the magnet.
For example, if you break a bar magnet in two,
each half demonstrates the characteristics of the
original magnet. If you break each of these halves
in two, all of the pieces still retain magnetic prop-
erties. [Figure 3-19]

Figure 3-20. (A)   Lines of magnetic flux leave the north

pole of a magnet at right angles to its surface and travel to
the south pole, where they enter at right angles to its sur-
face. (B)   The flux lines always seek the path of least resis-
Figure 3-19. Regardless of how many pieces a magnet is tance, even if it means traveling longer distances.
broken into, each piece retains a north and a south pole.

Lines of flux have the ability to pass through any

Soft iron has a very low retentivity, meaning that as material. However, if it is important that a device be
soon as a magnetizing force is removed, the protected from magnetic fields, it can be sur-
domains lose their alignment and the iron loses its rounded by a soft iron shield. Since flux lines travel
magnetism. On the other hand, materials such as the path of least resistance, any lines of flux flow
hard steel and some iron alloys have very high through the iron leaving an area inside the shield
retentivities and retain their magnetic properties with no magnetic field. [Figure 3-21]
long after they are magnetized. Materials with high
retentivity are used as permanent magnets in air- The characteristic of flux lines to pass through a
craft magnetos, instruments, and radio speakers. permeable material also explains the attraction of
ferrous metals to a magnet. For example, since flux
lines seek the path of least resistance, lines of flux
As lines of flux travel from the north pole to the want to link the poles with the shortest possible
south, they always follow the path of least resis- loops. Flux lines exert a strong pull on permeable
tance. The measure of ease with which lines of flux metals to center them between the poles. As a piece
travel through a material is referred to as a material's of metal is pulled in closer, more lines of flux pass
permeability. Air is used as a reference and is given
the permeability of one. Since flux travels through
iron much easier than through air, its permeability
is around 7,000. Other materials such as copper and
aluminum have permeabilities considerably lower
than iron, and some of the extremely efficient per-
manent magnet alloys have permeability values as
high as 1,000,000.

Although lines of flux are invisible, if you place a

magnet under a piece of paper and sprinkle iron fil-
ings over it, the filings form a definite pattern show-
ing the lines of flux. On a horseshoe magnet, the
flux lines pass directly between the poles of the
Figure 3-21. One way to shield an object from lines of mag-
magnet. However, if you place a piece of soft iron netic flux is to enclose it in a shield made of a highly per-
above the poles, the lines flow through the iron to meable material. The lines of flux flow through the shield
the south pole. [Figure 3-20] and bypass its center.
Basic Electricity 3-11

through it and the pull becomes stronger. When the

piece of metal centers, it resists any force that tries
to lengthen the lines of flux. [Figure 3-22]

Figure 3-23. The amount of electricity generated by electro-

magnetic induction is determined by the rate at which the
conductor cuts through lines of magnetic flux.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Although the effects of magnetism were observed
for centuries, it was not until 1819 that the relation-
ship between electricity and magnetism was discov-
ered. The Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted
discovered that the needle of a small compass
Figure 3-22. (A)   Lines of flux pass through a material hav- deflected when it was held near a wire carrying
ing a high permeability. In their effort to keep all of the force electric current. This deflection was caused by the
loops as short as possible, a force is exerted on the soft iron
invisible magnetic field surrounding the wire.
to pull it into the center of the magnetic field. (B)   When
the soft iron is centered between the poles, it resists any
attempt to lengthen the lines of flux. You can see the magnetic field produced by a con-
ductor by sprinkling iron filings on a plate that sur-
rounds a current-carrying conductor. When this is
done, the filings arrange themselves in a series of
Almost all magnets, regardless of their retentivity, concentric circles around the conductor. The reason
lose some of their magnetic strength when their for this is when electrons travel through a conduc-
lines of flux pass through the air. Because of this, a tor, they produce lines of flux. The greater the
magnet whose strength is critical is stored with amount of flow, the stronger the magnetic field.
keepers. A keeper is a piece of soft iron that is used [Figure 3-24]
to link the poles and provide a highly permeable
path for the flux.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

If a conductor is moved through the lines of mag-
netic flux that pass between the poles of a magnet, a
flow of electrons is induced in the conductor. This
is called electromagnetic induction and is the most
common form of electric power generation in use
today. Most aircraft use generators or alternators to
produce electricity by this method. In fact, atomic,
hydro-electric, and fossil fuel powerplants produce
power by the same procedure.

The amount of electricity induced depends on the

rate at which the lines of flux are cut, This rate can
be increased by increasing the number of flux lines,
Figure 3-24. Lines of magnetic flux encircle a current-carry-
by making the magnet stronger, or by moving the ing conductor. These lines are relatively weak, and have no
conductor through the lines faster. [Figure 3-23] polarity.
3-12 Basic Electricity

One way to determine the direction the lines of flux

travel is with the left-hand rule. For example, if you
grasp the conductor in your left hand with your
thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow,
your fingers encircle the conductor in the direction
of the lines of flux travel. [Figure 3-25]

Figure 3-26. Electrons flow into the coil from the right. As the
conductor passes over the top of the coil, the electrons flow
away from you, as indicated by the cross representing the tail
of the arrow. Below the coil, the electrons flow toward you, as
indicated by the dot representing the head of the arrow. When
Figure 3-25. When a current-carrying conductor is grasped the electron flow is away from you, the lines encircle the con-
with the left hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction ductor in a counterclockwise direction. When they come
of electron flow, your fingers encircle the conductor in the toward you, the field circles the conductor clockwise.
same direction the flux lines travel.

Because the magnetic field around a conductor does represents a density of one maxwell per square cen-
not have any poles and is relatively weak, it does timeter. To increase the density of the lines of flux,
not serve a practical purpose. However, if the con- a highly permeable material, such as soft iron, is
ductor is wound into the form of a coil, the lines of used for the core.
flux become concentrated and the coil attains the
characteristics of a magnet. [Figure 3-26] The law for magnetic circuits states that one gilbert
is the amount of magnetomotive force produced by
In an electromagnet, the lines of flux surrounding one maxwell flowing through a magnetic circuit
each turn of wire reinforce the flux around every having one unit of reluctance. Reluctance is the
other turn of wire. This results in a magnetic field opposition in a circuit to the flow of magnetic flux
that leaves the north end of the coil and enters the and is inversely proportional to
south end. To determine which end of an electro- permeability.
magnet is north and which is south, you can use the
left-hand rule for coils. This rule states that if you
grasp a coil with your left hand so your fingers wrap
around the coil in the direction of electron flow, your
thumb points to the coil's north pole. [Figure 3-27]

The strength of an electromagnet is determined by

the number of turns in the coil, the amount of current
flowing through it, and the type of material used for
a core. A coil's strength or its magnetomotive force,
is similar to the electromotive force in an electrical
circuit. However, magnetomotive force is measured
in gilberts. One gilbert is equal to .7968 ampere-turns
and is symbolized by the letters "Gb.??
Figure 3-27. If a coil is grasped with the left hand in such a
The field intensity of an electromagnet is measured
way that your fingers encircle it in the same direction as the
in gauss just like a conventional magnet. One gauss electron flow (from negative to positive), your thumb points
to the north pole of the electromagnet formed by the coil.
Basic Electricity 3-13

Simply stated, an electromagnet having one

ampere-turn produces a magnetomotive force of
1.256 gilberts.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY AND

OHM'S LAW
As discussed earlier, a quantity of electrons pro-
duces an electromotive force that causes electrons
to flow through a circuit. However, as electrons flow
through a conductor, they are met by an opposition
or resistance. By assigning values to the force, flow,
and opposition within a circuit, the relationship
that exists between these items becomes apparent.

It was the German scientist George Simon Ohm who

Figure 3-29. The relationship between power, current, and
documented the relationship between force, flow, voltage.
and opposition. Ohm's law is a basic statement
which says the current that flows in a circuit is
directly proportional to the voltage (force) that
causes it, and inversely proportional to the resis- Power in an electrical circuit is measured in watts.
tance (opposition) in the circuit. One watt is the amount of power used to move one
amp of current under a force of one volt. Therefore,
To ease the handling of these terms in formulas, power is calculated using the formula:
voltage is represented by the letter E, current, or
amperes, by the letter I, and resistance by the letter Power = Amps x Volts, or P = IE.
R. A statement of Ohm's law in the form of a for-
mula is: Volts = Amps x Resistance, or E = IR. In The relationship between voltage, current, resis-
other words, voltage equals amps times resistance. tance, and power is such that if any two values are
Through algebra, this same relationship is used to known, then the other two can be determined. For
determine current and resistance. For example, to example, given a light which provides 20 ohms of
find current, use the formula I = E/R, and resistance resistance in a circuit carrying 3 amperes, how
is found by the formula R = E/L [Figure 3-28] much power will the light dissipate? Given the
resistance and current, calculate the circuit volt-
age using the formula E = IR. Once the voltage is
known, calculate the power dissipated with the
formula P = IE. [Figure 3-29]
Example:
Resistance = 20 ohms
Current = 3 amperes
Calculate the voltage.
E = IR
E = 3 x 20
E = 60 volts Now calculate the
power dissipated.
Figure 3-28. The relationship between volts, amps, and
resistance is often illustrated in this way. To determine an P = IE
unknown quantity, cover the unknown quantity with your
thumb. The location of the uncovered letters indicates the P = 3 x 60
mathematical operation to be performed. For example, to
find "R," you must divide volts by amps. P = 180 watts
3-14 Basic Electricity

One easy way to find the correct formula is to use a

series of divided circles representing the symbols in
the formula. [Figure 3-30]

IVIECHAWICAl POWER IIM CIRCUITS

Power, as you remember from physics, is the
time-rate of doing work. The practical unit of
measure for power is the horsepower, which is the
amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds
of work in one minute, or 550 foot-pounds of work
in one second. In electrical terms, 1 horsepower is
equal to 746 watts. Using this relationship,
determine the amount of current required to raise a
1,000-pound load six feet in 30 seconds.

Example:

Given:
Hoist = 24 volts Force
= 1,000 pounds Figure 3-30. Summary of basic equations using the volt,
Distance = 6 feet ampere, ohm, and watt.

Step 1: Calculate the horsepower required. required to produce a given horsepower, multiply
the horsepower by 746 watts and divide by the
motor's efficiency. For example, how many watts
will a 90 percent efficient motor require to generate
2 horsepower?

Watts required = (2 horsepower x 746 watts) -r .90

= 1,492 - .90 = 1,657.8 watts

Horsepower = .364
A 90 percent efficient motor requires 1,657.8 watts
to produce 2 horsepower.
Step 2: Convert the horsepower to watts. 1

horsepower = 746 watts .364 hp X

746 = 271.5 watts HEAT IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

In circuits where mechanical work is not actually
Step 3: Calculate the amperes required. done, power is still an important consideration.
For example, if you install a resistor in a light cir-
cuit to drop the voltage from 12 volts to 3 volts for
a light bulb that requires 150 milliamps, you must
find the resistance and power the resistor must
dissipate. To solve this problem, first find the volt-
age to be dropped.

I = 11.31 amps Example:

No electric motor is 100 percent efficient. Therefore, E = 12 - 3 = 9 volts

motors require more than 746 watts to produce 1
horsepower. To determine the number
of watts
Basic Electricity 3-15

Find the resistance required to drop the voltage: CONDUCTORS

R = E/I = 9/0.15 = 60 ohms Find The purpose of a conductor is to provide a path for
electrons to flow from a source, through the load,
the power dissipated in the resistor: and back to the source with minimum resistance.
However, other factors such as load carrying ability
P = I x E = .15x9 = 1.35 watts and durability must also be considered. Therefore,
the choice of a conductor is often a compromise.
The resistor must dissipate 1.35 watts, but for prac- Most aircraft electrical systems are of the
tical purposes, you would use a two-watt resistor. single-wire type, meaning the aircraft structure
[Figure 3-31] provides the path through which the current
returns to the source. Although this type of system
saves a great deal of weight, it is extremely
important that a good connection exist between the
aircraft structure and the battery, generator, and all
devices using current.

The resistance of a conductor is affected by three

things, its physical characteristics, its dimensions,
and temperature.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 3-31. Determining the characteristics of a resistor
needed to drop voltage in a circuit. As mentioned earlier, you want a conductor to carry
an electrical load and provide minimum resistance.
Resistivity is the resistance of a standard length and
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS cross-sectional area of a conductor. Most practical
All complete electrical circuits consist of at least aircraft circuits use either copper or aluminum con-
three elements. They are a source of electrical ductors. Copper wire has about two-thirds the resis-
energy, a load device to use the electrical energy tance of an equivalent gauge of aluminum wire, and,
produced by the source, and conductors to connect therefore, is most generally used. However, for
the source to the load. However, these circuit ele- applications requiring a great deal of current, alu-
ments do not comprise a practical electrical circuit. minum wire is often used. Although the resistivity
For example, in order to control the flow of elec- of aluminum is higher than copper and a larger con-
trons, a control device, such as a switch, is placed in ductor is needed to carry the same current, alu-
most circuits. Fuses or circuit breakers also are pro- minum weighs much less than copper. Therefore, a
vided to protect the circuit wiring in the event of an great deal of weight is saved by its use. [Figure 3-34]
overload or malfunction. [Figure 3-32]

DIMENSIONS
For most conductors, the amount of resistance
varies directly with the conductor's length. That is,
as length increases for a given conductor, its resis-
tance increases.

On the other hand, the resistance of a conductor

varies inversely with its cross-sectional area. In
other words, as a conductor's cross-sectional area
increases, resistance decreases. Aircraft wire is mea-
sured by the American Wire Gage (AWG) system,
Figure 3-32. All complete circuits must have a source of
with the larger numbers representing the smaller
electrical energy, a load to use the energy, and conductors wires. The smallest size wire normally used in air-
to join the source and the load. craft is 22-gauge wire, which has a diameter of about
3-W Basic Electricity

0.025 inch. However, conductors carrying large SWITCHES

amounts of current are typically of the 0000, or four
aught size, and have a diameter of about 0.52 inch. As mentioned earlier, most practical electrical cir-
cuits utilize some sort of switch to safely control the
flow of electrons. The following information looks
A circular mil is the standard measurement of a at some of the common switches used in the avia-
round conductor's cross-sectional area. One mil is tion industry.
equivalent to .001 inches. Thus, a wire that has a
diameter of .125 is expressed as 125 mils. To find
the cross-sectional area of a conductor in circular TOGGLE OR ROCKER SWITCHES
mils, square the conductor's diameter. For example,
if a round wire has a diameter of 3/8 inch, or 375 The two most common switches used to control the
mils, its circular area is 140,625 circular mils (375 x flow of electrons in aircraft are the enclosed toggle
375 = 140,625). switch and rocker switch. These switches are actu-
ated by either moving the bat-shaped toggle or by
The square mil is the unit of measure for square or pressing on one side of a rocker.
rectangular conductors such as bus bars. To deter-
mine the cross-sectional area of a conductor in If a switch controls only one circuit and has two
square mils, multiply the conductor's length by its connections and two positions, open and closed,
width. For example, the cross-sectional area of a the switch is called a single-pole, single-throw, or
strip of copper that is 400 mils thick and 500 mils SPST switch. This type of switch is generally used
wide is 200,000 square mils. to turn something on or off. Some switches are used
to control more than one circuit and, therefore, are
It should be noted that one circular mil is .7854 of referred to as double-pole switches. A double-pole
one square mil. Therefore, to convert a circular mil switch can have either a single- or double-throw.
area to a square mil area, multiply the area in circu- The double-pole, single-throw, DPST switch is gen-
lar mils by .7854 mil. Conversely, to convert a erally used to control both the battery and generator
square mil area to a circular mil area, divide the area circuit so they both turn ON and OFF at the same
in square mils by .7854. [Figure 3-33] time. On the other hand, a double-pole,
double-throw, DPDT switch controls two circuits
and has either two or three positions. Some
toggle and rocker switches have one or both of
their positions spring-loaded so they return to a
desired position when your finger is removed.
[Figure 3-35]

WAFER SWITCHES
When a switch is used to select one of a number of
conditions, a wafer switch is often used. These
Figure 3-33. Relationship between circular mils and square
mils.

TEMPERATURE
Metals have what is known as a positive tempera-
ture coefficient of resistance. This means that the
resistance of the material increases as its tempera-
ture increases. This characteristic is used in some
temperature measuring instruments where the resis-
tance change in a piece of wire is used to measure
temperature. For practical purposes, however, both
copper and aluminum exhibit small changes in
resistance with the temperatures encountered in
flight, and therefore it is normally not considered. Figure 3-35. Most switches found in modern aircraft are
either the toggle or the rocker type.
switches have several wafers stacked on a common
Basic Electricity 3-17

Figure 3-34. Characteristics of aircraft copper and aluminum wire.

shaft, and each wafer can have as many as twenty

positions. Wafer switches are seldom used for car-
rying large amounts of current and are most gener-
ally open with wires soldered to the terminals on
the wafers. [Figure 3-36]

PRECISION SWITCHES
Some electrical circuits require a switch to be actu-
ated by the movement of some mechanism. In these
applications it is usually important that the switch
Figure 3-36. Wafer switches are used when it is necessary
actuate when the mechanism reaches a very definite
to select any of a large number of circuit conditions.
3-18 Basic Electricity

Figure 3-37 Precision switches snap open and close with

an extremely small amount of movement of the operat-
ing control.
Figure 3-39. With a fixed-core electromagnetic switch, once
sufficient current flows through the coil, the resulting mag-
and specific location. Snap-acting switches have a netic field opens the contacts.
wide use in these applications. These types of
switches typically have a plunger that requires an
extremely small movement to trip and drive the There are two general types of relays used in the
contacts together. When the plunger is released, a aviation industry; those having fixed cores, and
spring snaps the contacts apart. [Figure 3-37] those with movable cores. Both use a coil of wire,
or solenoid, that surrounds a soft iron core. In a
fixed-core electromagnet the core remains station-
RELAYS
ary at all times. However, once current flows
It is often necessary to open or close a circuit carry- through the coil, the magnetic force produced
ing a large amount of current from a remote loca- opens or closes a set of contacts to complete
tion. An example is the starter circuit for an aircraft another circuit. [Figure 3-39]
engine. A starter motor requires a great deal of cur-
rent and, therefore, a large conductor is required. To On relays that utilize a movable-core electromagnet
prevent having to run a large conductor to the the core of the electromagnet is typically held out
instrument panel where the battery switch is from the center of the coil by a spring. However, once
located and back down to the starter, a relay is used. current flows through the coil, a strong magnetic
A relay is simply an electrical switch that is oper- field is produced that overcomes the spring and pulls
ated from a remote location. With a relay, a small the core into the center of the coil. When this occurs,
amount of current energizes an electromagnet a set of contacts attached to the core are pulled down
which, in turn, closes a set of contacts to complete to complete another circuit. [Figure 3-40]
a second circuit. [Figure 3-38]

Figure 3-40. With a movable-core electromagnetic switch,

Figure 3-38. Starter solenoid switches control large amounts
once sufficient current flows through the solenoid, the
of current, but they are operated by a very small current.
resulting magnetic field closes the contacts.
Basic Electricity 3-19

PROTECTIVE DEVICES cuit exists, the breaker trips again. If a breaker trips
shortly after it is reset, it should be left open until
Protective devices are installed in electrical circuits the problem is isolated.
to prevent damage caused by overloading a circuit
or a short in a circuit. Overloading a circuit results
from connecting loads that are too large for the Aircraft circuit breakers are of the trip-free type
wiring. A short, on the other hand, occurs when part which means that once the breaker opens, the cir-
of a circuit in which full system voltage is present cuit remains open until the circuit cools regardless
comes in direct contact with the return side of the of the position of the operating control. With this
circuit. When a short occurs, a path for current flow type of breaker, it is impossible to hold the circuit
with little or no resistance is established. This closed if an actual fault exists.
results in large amounts of current flow and con-
ductor heating. Circuit breakers operate on either thermal or mag-
netic principles. Thermal breakers open a circuit
FUSES when excess current heats an element in the breaker
causing the contacts to open. On the other hand,
One of the simplest devices used to protect a circuit magnetic breakers utilize the magnetic field caused
is the fuse. A fuse is made of a low-melting-point by the current in the circuit to open the contacts. In
alloy enclosed in a glass tube. The fuse is installed addition to the classification by operating principle
in a circuit and, when current flow becomes exces- just described, three basic types of circuit breakers
sive, the metal alloy melts and opens the circuit. are used in aircraft. They are the push/pull,
Some fuses are designed to withstand a momentary push-to-reset, and toggle types. [Figure 3-42]
surge of current, but create an open if the current is
sustained. These slow-blow fuses have a small
spring attached to a link so when the sustained cur- Another type of circuit breaker is the automatic
rent softens the link, the spring pulls the link apart reset circuit breaker. Like other circuit breakers, the
and opens the circuit. [Figure 3-41] automatic reset type opens when excess current
flows through the breaker. However, once the circuit
cools, the breaker automatically closes.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS Figure 3-42. Most circuit protection for modern aircraft is
Because it is often inconvenient to replace a fuse in
flight, most aircraft circuits are protected by circuit
breakers. Like fuses, circuit breakers automatically
open a circuit if current flow becomes excessive.
However, once the circuit cools, the breaker is eas-
ily reset by moving the operating control. If a
breaker trips because of a surge of voltage or some
isolated and nonrecurring problem, the circuit
breaker remains in and the circuit operates nor-
mally. However, if an actual fault such as a short cir-

provided by circuit breakers that can be reset in flight. The

push/pull type is shown in the upper panel with the
Figure 3-41. In fuses, the heat caused by excess current push-to-reset type Ins the Sower paneB.
melts a fusible link and opens a circuit.
3-20 Basic Electricity

RESISTORS Some resistors have a fourth color band that is used

as a multiplier for tolerance. For example, a fourth
Resistors are used in electrical circuits to control the band that is gold indicates a tolerance of plus or
amount of current flow. They do this by converting minus 5 percent, whereas silver indicates plus or
some of the electrical energy that flows through the minus 10 percent. If there is no fourth band, the tol-
circuit into heat. The resistors used in aircraft are erance is plus or minus 20 percent.
generally classified as fixed or variable.
Composition resistors with an ohmic value less
FIXED RESISTORS than 10 have silver or gold as the third band. If the
third band is silver, multiply the first two signifi-
The three most common fixed resistors used in avi-
cant figures by 0.01, and if the third band is gold,
ation include the composition resistor, the film
multiply them by 0.1. For example, a resistor with
resistor, and the wire-wound resistor. The
a yellow (4) first band, a violet (7) second band,
composition resistors used to control small
and a gold (.1) third band has a resistance of 4.7
amounts of current are made of a mixture of carbon
ohms. If the third band were silver, the resistance
and an insulating material. The relative percentage
would be 0.47 ohms.
of the two materials in the mix determines the
amount of resistance a resistor has. Composition
resistors are normally available in sizes from 1/8 Some composition resistors have leads coming off
watt up to 2 watts. The larger the physical size of their body radially instead of parallel to the resistor
the resistor, the more power it can dissipate. Most axis. These radial-lead resistors are color-coded
modern resistors have axial-leads, which means with the same colors. However, the color of the body
one lead comes out of each end of the resistor. is the first significant figure of the resistance, the
Resistance is measured in ohms and the resistance color of the end is the second significant figure, and
provided by a specific resistor is indicated by a set a dot or band of paint around the middle of the
of three or four colored bands on the resistor. Each resistor indicates the number of zeros to be added.
color represents a value from one to nine. The band For example, a radial-lead resistor with a red (2)
nearest the end of the resistor is the first significant body, green (5) end, and yellow (4) dot has a resis-
figure of the resistance, the second band represents tance of 250,000 ohms. [Figure 3-44]
the second figure, and the third band tells the num-
ber of zeros to add to the two numbers. For example, Some radial-lead resistors have a paint mark oppo-
if the first band is green (5), the second is brown (1), site the colored end which indicates tolerance. Like
and the third yellow (0000), the resistor has a resis- composition resistors, silver indicates a tolerance of
tance of 510,000 ohms. [Figure 3-43] plus or minus 10 percent, gold is plus or minus 5
percent, and no mark is plus or minus 20 percent of
the indicated resistance.

Carbon resistors have been replaced in some mod-

ern electronics equipment by film resistors. Film
resistors consist of a thin layer, or film, of resistive
material wrapped around a nonconductive ceramic
core material. The resistor leads, usually of the axial
type, are inserted into a cap and placed onto the
ends of the ceramic core. Film resistors are gener-

Figure 3-43. Color code marking for axial-lead resistors and

resistor color-code values.
Basic Electricity 3-21

Figure 3-45. The core of a film resistor is typically con-

structed out of a nonconductive ceramic material that is
wrapped by a resistor film.
Figure 3-47. Variable resistors allow the amount of resis-
ally available in the same range of resistance values tance in a circuit to be changed by rotating the shaft.
as carbon resistors. [Figure 3-45]

When a great deal of power needs to be dissipated, and the other at a sliding contact. Most rheostats are
special resistors made of highly resistive wire wire wound and, therefore, can dissipate a great
wound over hollow ceramic tubes are used. Some deal of power. Rheostats vary the amount of current
wire-wound resistors are tapped along their length flow in circuits and are commonly used in aircraft
to provide different values of resistance. Others to control cockpit lighting. [Figure 3-48]
have a portion of the wire left bare, so a metal band
can be slid over the resistor. This allows the resistor
to be set to any desired value. [Figure 3-46]

VARIABLE RESISTORS
When it is necessary to change the amount of resis-
tance in a circuit, variable resistors are used.
Variable resistors are either the composition or the
wire-wound type. In a variable composition resistor,
the mixture of carbon and insulating material is
bonded to an insulating disk, and a wiper, or sliding
contact, is rotated by the shaft to vary the amount of Figure 3-48. Rheostats are used to vary the amount of resis-
material between the two terminals. The farther the tance in a circuit.
sliding contact is from the fixed contact, the greater
is the resistance. [Figure 3-47]
If a resistor has three terminals, one on each end of
Rheostats are variable resistors that have only two the resistance material, and one on the slider, it is
terminals, one at the end of the resistance material called a potentiometer. Potentiometers change the
amount of voltage in a circuit, and are often used as
voltage dividers. [Figure 3-49]

Figure 3-49. Potentiometers are used as voltage dividers in a

circuit.
3-22 Basic Electricity

COMPONENT SYMBOLOGY CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

All components used in electrical circuits are repre- For a circuit to be complete, there must be at least
sented by symbols in drawings, blueprints, and one continuous path from one of the source termi-
illustrations in schematic form. Because of this, you nals, through the load and back to the other termi-
must become familiar with the components com- nal. If there is any interruption or break in the path,
monly used in basic circuits, together with their the circuit is said to open, and there is no flow of
schematic symbols. [Figure 3-50] electrons. If, on the other hand, there is a path from
one source terminal to the other without passing

Figure 3-50. Electrical symbols.

Basic Electricity 3-23

through the load the circuit is shorted. Not only is meter to an operating circuit or to a power sup-
there no work being done, but the absence of resis- ply. Attempting to measure voltage with the
tance in the circuit allows excessive current to flow. meter's probes reversed drives the indicator in
In this case, unless a fuse or circuit breaker opens the wrong direction and damages the meter.
the circuit, the wiring and the source can be dam-
aged. [Figure 3-51]

METER USAGE IN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters are used to
analyze values in electrical circuits. Some basic
rules should be followed in their use to prevent
injury to the technician or damage to the meters and
circuit components.

1. Voltage is always measured across a compo

nent. In other words, the probes of the volt
meter go across, or parallel to, the component
being measured.
2. Amperage is measured by placing the meter in
series with a component. The technician must
be sure the ammeter is able to handle the cur
rent in the circuit being measured.
3. Resistance is measured with power off the cir
Figure 3-51. (A)   An open circuit allows no current flow
cuit. Individual components must be isolated and the circuit cannot function. (B)   A short circuit causes
from the circuit if their resistances are to be excessive current flow, and can damage the circuit compo-
checked. nents or wiring unless a protective device such as a fuse
4. Observe proper polarities when connecting a opens the circuit.
 DIRECT CURRENT

SERIES DC CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a circuit that has only one path for
electrons to flow. Consider a typical circuit in
which a battery is the source of power and a lamp is
the load which is in series with a rheostat, a switch,
and a fuse. Since there is only one path for electron
Direct current (DC) electricity is nonvarying in flow, if either the switch is open or the fuse is
nature, such as that obtained from a battery or fil- blown, the lamp cannot illuminate. By the same
tered power supply. In other words, the amplitude token, if two lamps are connected in series and one
of voltage and current remain steady. This is often burns out, the circuit opens and the second lamp
referred to as "pure DC," meaning that no alternat- cannot illuminate. [Figure 3-54]
ing current or noise is present.
When a rheostat is in a series circuit, it acts as an
DC TERMS AND VALUES electron control device. When it is set for minimum
resistance, the maximum amount of current flows
DC electricity in which either the current or voltage through the lamp, and the lamp burns with full bril-
vary from a zero reference level to a maximum or liance. However, when the rheostat's resistance is
peak value is termed pulsating DC. This type of increased, part of the power from the battery is dis-
direct current is generally produced by rectifiers in sipated in the resistor in the form of heat. This
a power supply and is typically filtered to remove leaves less power available for the lamp, and there-
the pulses and produce pure DC. [Figure 3-52] fore, the lamp burns with less than full brilliance.
The average value of DC is the average of the cur-
rent or voltage excursion made by a pulsating DC VOLTS
waveform as it moves from zero to its maximum The German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
value. The average value is computed by multiply- helped explain the behavior of voltage and current
ing the maximum value of the pulsating waveform in electrical circuits. Kirchhoff's voltage law states
by 0.637. For example, assume the maximum value that "the algebraic sum of the applied voltage and
for a DC waveform is 20 volts. By multiplying 20 the voltage drop around any closed circuit is equal
volts by 0.637, the average value is calculated to be to zero." In other words, the voltage across each
12.74 volts. [Figure 3-53] load must be exactly the same as the voltage sup-
plied by the source. For example, a six-volt battery
The polarity of DC is expressed as being either pos- is connected in series with a switch, three lamps,
itive or negative. It is determined by establishing a and a milliammeter. Each lamp is rated at two volts
reference point (usually ground) and measuring a
voltage from that point. For example, battery voltage
is measured from the battery's negative terminal,
which is connected to ground, to the battery's posi-
tive terminal. A typical battery has a voltage of 12
volts and positive polarity with respect to ground.

Figure 3-53. To determine the average value of pulsating

DC, multiply the peak volts or amperes by .637.

Figure 3-52. As seen on an oscilloscope, pulsating DC

begins at a zero reference level and then peaks at a maxi-
mum value before it returns to the initial reference level.
Pulsating DC never drops below the zero reference level.
Basic Electricity 3-25

a circuit is zero." This means that the amount of

current flowing away from a point in a circuit is
equal to the amount flowing to that point. Since
there is only one path in a series circuit, the current
remains constant throughout the circuit regardless
of the number of components. While it is true that
an increase in the number of circuit components
increases the resistance to current flow, the amount
of current flow remains the same value at all points
in the circuit.
Figure 3-54. In a series circuit there is only one path for the
electrons to flow. In this circuit, the flow of electrons begins
at the battery's negative terminal and continues through
RESISTANCE
the lamp to the rheostat, switch, fuse, and back to the bat- In order to determine the current flow in a circuit,
tery. If the switch is open or the fuse is blown, electrons
cannot flow.
you must know how much resistance a circuit con-
tains. Total resistance in a series circuit equals the
and requires 300 milliamps of current to burn at full sum of the individual resistances in the circuit. This
brilliance. An analysis of this circuit with a volt- is illustrated in the formula:
meter proves Kirchhoff s voltage law. When a volt-
meter is placed across the switch, the full source
voltage of six volts is measured when the switch is
open. However, when the switch is closed, all of the Therefore, a circuit with three resistances of 10
source voltage flows in the circuit and the meter ohms, 20 ohms, and 30 ohms respectively has a total
reads zero volts. Furthermore, with the switch resistance of 60 ohms (10 + 20 + 30 = 60).
closed and the lamps burning, the measured voltage
drop across each lamp is two volts. This indicates Once you know any two of the values for volts,
that the resistance of each lamp dissipates enough amperes, or resistance, you can use Ohm's law to
power to drop two volts. To verify this, the total
calculate the third. For example, if a circuit has a
voltage drop across all three lamps is measured and
voltage of 24 volts and a resistance of 12 ohms, cur-
determined to be six volts. [Figure 3-55]
rent can be determined.

Example:
AMPERES
Given:
Kirchhoff's current law states that "The algebraic E = 24 volts
sum of the currents at any junction of conductors in R = 12 ohms

E = IR
I = E/R
I = 24 volts/12 ohms
1 = 2 amps

The current flow is 2 amps and is constant through-

out the circuit. However, if the resistance is doubled
and the voltage remains constant, the value for
amps decreases.

Example:
Given:
E = 24 volts
R = 24 ohms
Figure 3-55. In a series circuit, the voltage drop across all
resistances equals the system voltage. In the above illus- I = E/R
tration, the voltage drop across each lamp is two volts, I = 24 volts/24 ohms
whereas the voltage drop across all the lamps is six volts. 1 = 1 amp
3-26 Basic Electricity

Therefore, whenever total circuit resistance is dou- POWER

bled, current reduces to half its value. On the other
hand, if resistance is reduced to half its former Once volts and current are known, the amount of
value, the current doubles. power available in the circuit is calculated using the
formula:

By the same token, if a circuit's resistance is held

constant and voltage is doubled, the current flow P = IE
also doubles. For example, if 48 volts are applied to
the earlier example, the current increases to 4 amps.
For example, in a series circuit having a power sup-
ply of 12 volts and current flow of .17 amps, the
Example: power available is 2.04 watts. This same formula is
used to calculate the power dissipated by each resis-
Given: tor. However, the power dissipated is calculated by
E = 48 volts multiplying the total current by the voltage drop
R = 12 ohms across each resistor. For example, in our series cir-
cuit with three resistors of 10 ohms, 20 ohms, and
I = E/R 40 ohms, the power dissipated is .29 watts, .58
I = 48 volts/12 ohms watts, and 1.16 watts respectively.
1 = 4 amps
Example:
Thus, if resistance remains constant, and voltage
increases, current must also increase. On the other Given:
hand, if voltage decreases, current decreases. E = 12 volts
I = .17 amps
Ohm's law also allows you to determine the voltage
drop across each resistor in a series circuit. This is P = IE = 12 volts x .17 amps = 2.04 watts
done by applying Ohm's law to each of the resis- PRI = IERI = .17 amps x 1.70 volts = .29 watts
tances. [Figure 3-56] PR2 = IER2 = .17 amps x 3.40 volts = .58 watts
PR3 = IER3 = .17 amps x 6.80 volts = 1.16 watts

To briefly summarize the characteristics of a series

circuit:

1. There is only one path for the electrons to fol

low from the source, through the load back to
the source.
2. The current is the same wherever it is measured
in a series circuit.
3. The sum of all the voltage drops equals the
source voltage.
4. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of
the individual load resistances.
5. The total power dissipated in the circuit is the
sum of the power dissipated in each of the indi
vidual load resistances.

PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS
The most widely used circuit arrangement is the
parallel circuit. All of the load components in a par-
allel circuit are directly across the source, and if one
component fails, it has no effect on the others.
Figure 3-56. Once total resistance is calculated, current flow
can be determined. To determine the voltage drop across
Therefore, in a parallel circuit, if a lamp burns out,
each resistor, apply Ohm's law to each resistor. it has no effect on the others.
Basic Electricity 3-27

VOLTS resistance is found by dividing the value of a single

resistor by the number of resistors. The formula is:
In a parallel circuit, there are separate paths in
which electrons can flow from the source through a
RT = r/n
load and back to the source. Each path must obey
Kirchhoffs voltage law. That is, since each path has
Where:
only one load device, the voltage must equal the
r = resistance of one resistor
source voltage. Thus, in a circuit powered by a
n = number of resistances
two-volt source, each load has the full two volts
across it. Therefore, in a parallel circuit the voltage
If there are two unlike resistors in a parallel circuit,
is the same throughout the circuit. [Figure 3-57]
find the total resistance by dividing the product of
the individual resistances by their sum:

AMPERES
The behavior of amperes in a parallel circuit is
explained in part by Kirchhoff's current law. For
example, in figure 3-57, all of the current flows For example, if a 100-ohm resistor is connected in
through the fuse and the switch. It then splits up, parallel with a 200-ohm resistor, their total resis-
with some passing through each of the lamps. The tance is 66.7 ohms. [Figure 3-58]
amount that passes through each lamp is deter-
mined by the lamp's resistance. Since all of the To find the total resistance of two or more unlike
lamps have the same resistance in this example, the resistors in parallel, take the reciprocal of the sum of
current flow through each is identical. However, in the reciprocals of the individual resistances. This
a parallel circuit with different resistances, the requires the use of the formula:
branch containing the small resistance will have a
greater current flow than a branch containing a high
resistance.

RESISTANCE
Unlike a series circuit, the more resistance added to
a parallel circuit, the lower the total resistance. If
the resistances are equal in a parallel circuit, total

Figure 3-57. In this parallel circuit, there are three separate

paths the electrons can follow. If you measure the voltage
between A and H, B and C, D and E, and F and G, all read
two volts. This demonstrates that in a parallel circuit, the Figure 3-58. Finding the equivalent resistance of two unlike
voltage across each path is the same as the source voltage. resistors in parallel.
3-28 Basic Electricity

Assume a 10-ohm, 20-ohm, and 25-ohm resistor are This same formula is also used to calculate the
in parallel. Using these values in the formula given, power dissipated by each resistor. However, the cur-
the total resistance is 5.26 ohms. [Figure 3-59] rent flow in each branch is used instead of the total
current. For example, in our series circuit with three
An analysis of these equations shows that total resis- resistors of 10 ohms, 20 ohms, and 50 ohms, the
tance is always less than the smallest resistance in a power dissipated is 57.6 watts, 28.8 watts, and
parallel circuit. Furthermore, if a resistor is added to 11.52 watts respectively.
a parallel circuit, total resistance decreases. If a resis-
tor is removed, total resistance increases. Example:
Like a series circuit, once you know two of the three PRI = IRIE = 2-4 amps x 24 volts = 57.6 watts
values of volts, amperes, or resistance, the third
value can be determined using Ohm's law. PR2 = WE = 1.2 amps x 24 volts = 28.8 watts
Furthermore, Ohm's law is used to determine the P
R3 = IR3E = .48 amps x 24 volts = 11.52 watts
current flowing through each branch of a parallel
circuit. For example, given a parallel circuit with a
24 volt power supply and three resistors of 10 ohms, To summarize the characteristics of a parallel cir-
20 ohms, and 50 ohms, determine the total current cuit:
and the current flowing through each branch.
[Figure 3-60]
1. There is more than one path for the electrons to
As a check on the accuracy of your work, add the follow from the source, through part of the load,
currents flowing through each branch. The sum of back to the source.
the branch currents should equal the total circuit 2. The voltage is the same across any of the paths.
current. 3. The current through each path is inversely pro
portional to the resistance of the path.
POWER 4. The total current is the sum of the current flow
Like series circuits, once volts and current are ing through each of the individual paths.
known, the amount of power generated by the cir-
cuit is calculated using the formula:

P = IE

Figure 3-60. Once total resistance is calculated, total current

Figure 3-59. The total resistance of two or more unlike is determined. To determine the amount of current flowing
resistors is found by taking the reciprocal of the sum of the through each branch, apply Ohm's law to each individual
reciprocals of the resistances. resistor.
Basic Electricity 3-29

5. The total resistance of the circuit is less than the

resistance of any of the paths.
6. The total power dissipated in the circuit is the
sum of the power dissipated in each of the indi
vidual load resistances.

COMPLEX DC CIRCUITS
As you will see when you begin working on aircraft,
most electrical circuits are not strictly series and
parallel. Instead, they are usually complex circuits
consisting of both series and parallel circuits. In
other words, a complex circuit consists of parallel
resistors connected in series with other resistors.
[Figure 3-61]
Now, find the equivalent resistance of the parallel
branch containing R2 and R3 with resistances of 60
While complex circuits may appear confusing, the ohms and 30 ohms respectively.
same rules used to determine volts, amps, and resis-
tance for series and parallel circuits are applicable.
For example, to calculate total resistance in a com-
plex circuit, you can break the circuit down into
equivalent series and parallel circuits. Once this is
done, you can find the equivalent resistance of each
parallel circuit. When doing this, it is typically eas-
iest to start at the parallel branch farthest from the
power source.

For example, R5, R6, and R7 comprise a parallel To make the problem easy to follow, re-draw the cir-
branch with resistances of 40 ohms, 20 ohms, and cuit using the two equivalent resistances instead of
40 ohms. Therefore the combined resistance is 10 the original combinations. Once this is done, you
ohms. will see that R5_6.7 and R4 are in series with each
other and should be combined. This results in an
equivalent resistance of 20 ohms. [Figure 3-62]

Figure 3-61. This is an example of a typical complex circuit.

Notice that resistors R-, and R4 are connected in series while Figure 3-62. When you redraw the circuit using the equiva-
resistors R2, R3, R5, RQ, and R7 are connected in parallel. lent resistances, you can combine the resistors in series.
3-30 Basic Electricity

You now have a parallel combination of R4_5_6_7 To determine the voltage drop and current across
which is 20 ohms and R2.3of 20 ohms. The equiva- each resistor, you must apply Kirchhoffs voltage
lent resistance of these two combinations is 10 and current law to each of the series and parallel
ohms. circuits. For example, since R a is connected in
series, all of the current flows through it. However,
if you remember, the voltage across a resistor in a
series circuit varies. Since R a has a resistance of 2
ohms, the voltage drop across it is 4 volts.

ERl = IRi
= 2 amps X 2 ohms =

4 volts

Since Ra dissipates 4 volts, only 20 volts are applied

to both the combinations R2.3 and R4_5_6_7. Since Rx is in
series, the current flowing out of R a remains at 2
amps. However, R2_3 and R4_5_6_7 are parallel and,
therefore, a portion of the current flows through
each branch. Since both branches have the same
Now, redraw the circuit a final time with the equiv- resistance, the current through each is 1 amp.
alent resistances. All that remains is to find the
equivalent resistance of the series combination of E = 20 volts 1 = 2
Ra, which is 2 ohms, and R2_3-4_5-6-7, which is 10 amps R2_3 = 20
ohms. The total circuit resistance is 12 ohms. ohms R4_5-6-7 = 20
[Figure 3-63] ohms

You now know the voltage and total resistance of

the circuit; therefore, Ohm's law can be used to
determine the circuit's total current of 2 amps.

E = 24 volts

R= 12 ohms
Since R4 is in series with R5 .6 _7, the entire 1 amp
T E 24 volts flows through R4 . However, the resistor is connected
in series and, therefore, voltage must drop across it.
The voltage drop is determined by multiplying the
current entering the resistor (1 amp) by the resistor's
resistance.

ER4 = I5.6.7 R4 =

1 X 1 0 = 10

volts

This same 1 amp flows through the combination R5_

6 _ 7 , and since its equivalent resistance is 10 ohms,
10 volts are dropped across it.

E5-6-7 = I 5-6=7 x R5-6-7

I
=   =-----:----- = 2 amps
R 12 ohms v = 1 amp x 10 ohms
Figure 3-63. With the circuit redrawn, you can see that R<]
and R2-3-4-5-6-7 are ■" series and have a combined
= 10 volts
resistance of 12 ohms. This is the equivalent resistance of
the entire circuit.
Basic Electricity 3-31

You can now find the current through resistors R 5 _ 6 -7. 5. The current through Ra is equal to the sum
of the current through R2, R3, R5, R6, and R7.
E. 6 . 7 10
2 amps = 2 amps
Figure 3-65. Circuit relationships in a complex circuit.

The total current through these three resistors is the

same 1 amp that flowed through R4. To find the cur-
rent through R2 and R3, use the formulas:

IR2 = E/R2 = 20/60 = 0.33 amp IR3

= E/R3 = 20/30 = 0.67 amp

POWER
To find the power dissipated in each resistor, simply
multiply the current through each of the resistors by
the voltage dropped across it. [Figure 3-64] VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
It is often necessary to have a series of different volt-
You can check your analysis of a complex circuit by ages in a given circuit. This is accomplished with a
determining that the following statements are true: series of resistors across the power source called a
1. The total power is equal to the sum of the power voltage divider. If a voltage divider consists of three
dissipated in each of the resistors. 1,000-ohm resistors across a 24-volt battery, a cur-
rent of .008 amps flows through the divider. This
48 watts = 48 watts current produces an eight-volt drop across each of
the resistors. [Figure 3-66]
2. The voltage drops across R1? R4, and either R5,
R6, or R7 must equal the source voltage.
24 volts = 24 volts
3. The voltage drops across Ra, and either R2 or R3
must equal the source voltage.
24 volts = 24 volts
4. The current through R4 must be the same as the
sum of the current through R2, R3 or R5, R6 and R7
1 amp = 1 amp.

Figure 3-66. An unloaded voltage divider with a 24-volt

source and three 1,000 ohm resistors has a current flow
Figure 3-64. The power dissipated in each resistor is calcu- of .008 amps and produces a voltage drop of 8 volts
lated by multiplying the voltage applied to the resistor across each resistor.
times the resistor's resistance.
3-32 Basic Electricity

When a load is placed across any terminal of the

divider, it acts in parallel with that portion of the resis-
tance and lowers the total resistance. This increases
the current through the circuit. If, in figure 3-67, a load
made up of a 1,000-ohm resistor is placed between the
ground terminal and terminal A, the resistance
between A and G drops to 500 ohms and the current
increases from eight milliamps to 9.6 ma. The voltage
across R3 with the load is 4.8 volts instead of the eight
volts that was between these same terminals without
the load. [Figure 3-67]
It is sometimes necessary in electronic circuits to have
voltages that operate on either side of a reference
value. For example, if you want voltages of -8 to +16
volts without a load, you can use a voltage divider
made up of three 1,000-ohm resistors across the
24-volt source. Rather than using the negative
terminal of the battery as ground, you can use the
junction between R2 and R3.
The lower end of R3 is eight volts negative with Figure 3-68. A voltage divider that provides voltages on
respect to the ground. The junction between R2 and Ra either side of ground, or the reference voltage.
is eight volts positive with respect to ground, and the
top of K^ is 16 volts positive with respect to ground.
These values change when a load is applied, but the
polarity with respect to ground remains constant.
[Figure 3-68]

CHANGING DC TO AC
It is often necessary to change direct current into
alternating current. For example, many aircraft
require alternating current to power equipment
such as flight instruments and navigation receivers.
During an emergency, when normal aircraft power
is not available, power is taken from the battery to
operate all electrical loads. Since batteries are capa-
ble of storing only direct current, a means must be
provided to change DC to AC.
The device used to change DC to AC is called an
inverter. There are two types of inverters: the rotary
inverter and the static inverter. Rotary inverters are
essentially DC motors with an AC generator built in.
They are powered by a DC source, and have AC as an
output.
Static inverters are electronic devices containing a
specialized circuit known as an oscillator. An
oscillator is capable of changing DC to AC through
electronics, which is discussed in greater detail in a
later section of this manual. Oscillators are used in
conjunction with amplifiers to produce the correct
value of AC from the DC input provided to it. The sta-
tic inverter has replaced the rotary inverter in most
applications, as it is much quieter and more efficient.
BATTERIES

A battery is a device composed of two or more cells

that convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
The chemical nature of battery components provides
an excess of electrons at one terminal and a deficiency
at the other. Therefore, when the two terminals are
joined by a conductor, electrons flow. However, as the
electrons flow, the chemical composition of the active ride, manganese dioxide, and granulated carbon.
material changes and, over time, the active elements When a conductor joins the zinc case and the carbon
become exhausted. In a primary cell, the active mater- rod, electrons leave the zinc and flow to the carbon.
ial cannot be restored. However, in a secondary cell, This leaves the zinc with positive ions which attract
electricity from an external source can restore the negative chlorine ions from the ammonium chloride
active material to its original, or charged, condition. electrolyte. The zinc and chlorine combine to form
zinc chloride, which is a form of corrosion that eats
PRIMARY CELLS away the zinc container. Once the chlorine ions leave
The most common battery in use today is the primary the electrolyte, positive ammonium ions remain. These
cell or dry cell. Its compact size and low weight make positive ions move toward the carbon rod where they
it ideal for use in several electrical devices that require accept the arriving electrons. As the ammonium ions
a low power output to operate. are neutralized, they break down into ammonia and
hydrogen gases and are absorbed into the moist man-
ganese dioxide.
CARBON-ZINC CELLS
The carbon-zinc dry cell is the most commonly used Carbon-zinc cells produce one and a half volts
primary cell. A carbon rod is supported in a zinc con- regardless of their size. However, the size of the cell
tainer by a moist paste containing ammonium chlo- does determine the amount of current it supplies.
[Figure 3-69]

At one time, leakage was a problem with

carbon-zinc batteries. However, this problem has
been minimized through the use of effective seals
and by enclosing the zinc container inside a steel
jacket.

Figure 3-69. In a carbon-zinc cell, as electrons leave the zinc can, negative chlorine ions (Cl) break away from the ammonium chlo-
ride and attach to the zinc. The positive ammonium ions (NH3) then attach to the carbon rod to accept the electrons that flow to
the positive terminal. Once the ammonium ions are neutralized, they break down into ammonia and hydrogen gases.
3-34 Basic Electricity

ALKALINE CELLS let. A roll of extremely thin corrugated zinc is

placed over the insulator and is saturated with an
Alkaline cells provide longer life than the less electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide. An
expensive carbon-zinc cell. The modern alkaline insulated steel cap encloses the cell and contacts
cell uses a zinc rod as the center electrode sup- the zinc, to serve as the negative terminal. For appli-
ported in a manganese dioxide container and cations that require a positive cap, polarity is
immersed in a potassium hydroxide electrolyte reversed in the same manner as in potassium
solution. The assembly is housed inside a steel case hydroxide cells. [Figure 3-71]
with an insulating disc isolating the center elec-
trode from the case. [Figure 3-70]
SECONDARY CELLS
Potassium hydroxide has a lower resistance than
ammonium chloride. As a result, alkaline cells pro- Primary cells consume cell materials as they pro-
duce more load current than carbon-zinc cells. This duce electricity. The material cannot be restored
makes them excellent for use in tape recorders and nor the cell recharged. However, in secondary
other motor-driven devices. cells, the chemical action that releases electron
flow is reversible. It is important to note that sec-
ondary cells do not produce electrical energy, but
Since alkaline cells use zinc as a center electrode merely store it in chemical form. This is why bat-
and manganese dioxide-lined steel as a container, teries consisting of secondary cells are called
their polarity is reversed from that of a carbon-zinc storage batteries.
cell. As a result, alkaline cells must be built differ-
ently to be interchangeable with carbon-zinc cells.
This is done by mounting the cell in an insulated LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
steel outer case. The negative center terminal of the
cell bears against the outer case through a spring, The most commonly used storage battery in air-
and the case of the cell contacts only the center con- craft is the lead-acid battery. A typical lead-acid
ductor of the outer shell. As a result, both types of battery consists of 6 or 12 cells, each of which
cells have negative outer cases and positive center produces approximately 2.1 volts. Each cell con-
terminals. sists of a series of positive and negative plates.
The positive plates are made up of a grid of lead
and antimony filled with lead peroxide. The neg-
MERCURY CELLS ative plate uses a similar grid, but its open spaces
are filled with spongy lead. An expander material
Another type of alkaline cell is the mercury cell. keeps the spongy lead from compacting and los-
Mercury cells are used in hearing aids, cameras, and ing surface area.
other applications where the need for high capacity
and small size outweighs their higher cost. A pellet
of mercuric oxide is placed inside a steel container
which serves as the positive terminal. A porous
insulator, or separator, is then placed over the pel-

Figure 3-70. An alkaline cell consists of a manganese diox-

ide container, a zinc center electrode, and a potassium
hydroxide electrolyte.
Basic Electricity 3-35

The positive plates are joined together and inter- CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING DISCHARGE
laced between a stack of negative plates. Porous
separators keep the plates apart and hold a supply When a conductor connects the positive and nega-
of electrolyte consisting of sulfuric acid and water tive terminals of the battery, electrons flow from the
in contact with the active material. This negative lead plates to the lead peroxide in the pos-
construction permits electrolyte to circulate freely itive plates. As the electrons leave the negative
and provide a path for sediment to settle to the plates, positive ions form and attract negative sul-
bottom of the cell, thereby preventing the sediment fate ions from the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.
from shorting the cells. The combination of these two elements forms lead
Formerly made of hard rubber, battery cases are now sulfate on the negative plates. The electrons arriving
constructed of a high-impact plastic with individual at the positive plate drive the negative oxygen radi-
compartments for the cells. Connector straps join cals from the lead peroxide into the electrolyte. This
the cells and provide the battery's external termi- oxygen combines with hydrogen that has lost its
nals. A cover seals the cells in the case, and holes in sulfate radical and becomes water (H2O). The posi-
the cover provide access to the cells for servicing tive lead ions that are left on the positive plates also
and inspection. The cell openings on aircraft batter- attract and combine with sulfate radicals from the
ies are closed with vented screw-in type caps. To electrolyte and become lead sulfate. Once lead sul-
prevent electrolyte spillage in unusual flight atti- fate collects on both the positive and negative
tudes, the caps have lead weights inside them that plates, and the electrolyte becomes diluted by the
close the vent when the battery is tipped. The com- water that has formed in it, the battery is considered
plete battery assembly is enclosed in a metal battery discharged. When this happens, the water-diluted
box which provides electrical shielding and electrolyte becomes more susceptible to freezing.
mechanical protection. [Figure 3-72]

Figure 3-72. When electrons leave the negative lead (Pb) plate, positive ions form and attract sulfate ions (S04). These combine to
form lead sulfate (PbSO4). As the electrons flow to the positive plate, negative oxygen radicals are forced into the electrolyte
where they combine with hydrogen (H) to form water. The positive lead ions left on the positive plate attract sulfate radicals and
form lead sulfate.
3-36 Basic Electricity

CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING CHARGE concentration of sulfuric acid and, therefore, freezes
at a much lower temperature. During the charging
A discharged battery is recharged using a direct cur-
rent of the proper voltage. When the positive plates process, hydrogen gas is released from the elec-
of the battery are connected to the positive terminal trolyte and bubbles to the surface. As a battery nears
a full charge, the amount of hydrogen released
of the source, electrons are drawn from the positive
plates and forced onto the negative plates. Electrons increases, resulting in more bubbling. [Figure 3-73]
arriving at the negative plates drive the negative sul-
fate ions out of the lead sulfate back into the elec-
trolyte. The sulfate ions then join with hydrogen to
DETERMINING THE CONDITION OF CHARGE
form sulfuric acid, H2SO4.
The open-circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery
When the electrons flow from the positive plates, remains relatively constant at about 2.1 volts per
they leave behind positively charged lead atoms. cell and, consequently, does not reflect a battery's
These atoms attract oxygen from the water in the state of charge. However, since the concentration of
electrolyte and combine to form lead peroxide, acid in the electrolyte changes as the battery is used,
PbO2. When the battery is fully charged, the positive the electrolyte's specific gravity gives a good indica-
plate again becomes lead peroxide and the negative tion of the state of charge. If you remember from
plate becomes lead. The electrolyte becomes a high Chapter 2, specific gravity is the ratio of the weight

Figure 3-73. When a lead-acid battery is charged, electrons are drawn from the positive plate leaving positively charged lead (Pb)
atoms which attract oxygen (O) from the water (H2O) in the electrolyte. When joined, the lead and oxygen become lead peroxide
(PbO2). As the electrons are forced into the negative plate, they drive the negative sulfate radicals (SO4) out of the lead sulfate
(PbSO4) back into the electrolyte.
Basic Electricity 3-37

of a given volume of a material to the same volume

of pure water. In a fully charged, new battery, the
electrolyte is approximately 30 percent acid and 70
percent water (by volume). This results in a specific
gravity of between 1.275 and 1.300 with an elec-
trolyte temperature of 80 degrees Fahrenheit. As a
battery is used, the electrolyte becomes diluted by
water and the specific gravity reading decreases.
When an electrolyte's specific gravity drops below
1.150, the battery is considered to be discharged. At
this level, there is not enough chemical strength in
the electrolyte to convert the active materials into
lead sulfate.

Battery Testing
Specific gravity is checked with a hydrometer
which measures the depth a calibrated float sinks in
a sample of electrolyte. For example, once a sample
of electrolyte is drawn from a cell into a hydrome-
ter, the float and electrolyte are visible in the
hydrometer. The graduation on the float's stem that
is even with the liquid shows the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. The more dense the liquid, the
higher the specific gravity reading. In other words,
the more bouyant the hydrometer bulb, the more
dense the liquid. [Figure 3-74] Figure 3-74. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is mea-
sured with a hydrometer.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the temperature of the
electrolyte affects its specific gravity. Therefore, a
standard of 80  Fahrenheit is used as the reference.
If an electrolyte's temperature is something other
than 80  F, a correction must be applied to the
hydrometer reading. The electrolyte is less dense at
higher temperatures and more dense at lower tem-
peratures. [Figure 3-75]

BATTERY RATINGS
The open-circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery is
2.10 volts per cell when the electrolyte has a spe-
cific gravity of 1.265. The physical size of the cell or
the number of plates has no effect on this voltage.

As discussed earlier, when a load is placed on a bat-

tery, the active material begins to convert into lead
sulfate. As the lead sulfate forms, it increases the
battery's internal resistance and causes the
closed-circuit terminal voltage to drop. You can
calculate a battery's internal resistance using Ohm's Figure 3-75. This is an example of a correction chart used
law. For Gxample, a lgad-acid battery with 12 cells when determining an electrolyte's specific gravity. For
has a no-load voltage of 2.1 volts per cell. If the example, suppose the specific gravity read 1240 at a tem-
battery delivers 5 amps to a load having a resistance perature of 60蚌. According to the chart, a correction of -8
of 3 ohms, what is the internal resistance? points should be made. The corrected specific gravity is
1232 which is equivalent to 1.232.
3-38 Basic Electricity

From the information given, the total no-load volt- tery may be able to provide power for 5 hours.
age is determined to be 25.2 volts (12 cells x 2.1 However, at 0蚌, the same battery may only supply
volts/cell). By applying Ohm's law (E=IR), the volt- power for 1 hour. The reason for this is that as the
age under load is the product of amps times resis- temperature drops, the chemical reactions within a
tance. Therefore, the load voltage is 15 volts (5 amps battery slow.
x 3 ohms = 15 volts). The internal resistance in the
battery thus causes a voltage drop of 10.2 volts (25.2
Five-Hour Discharge
volts - 15 volts = 10.2 volts). To determine the bat-
tery's internal resistance, apply Ohm's law to the The standard rating used to specify the capacity of a
voltage drop (10.2 volts) and the amperes the battery battery is the five-hour discharge rating. This rating
delivers (5 amps). The internal resistance is 2.04 represents the number of ampere-hours of capacity
ohms. when there is sufficient current flow to drop the
voltage of a fully charged battery to a completely
Example: discharged condition over the course of five hours.
For example, a battery that supplies 5 amps for 5
E = IR hours has a capacity of 25 ampere-hours.

10.2 volts = 5 amps x R R A battery's capacity decreases when it is dis-

charged at a higher rate. For example, if the same
= 2.04 ohms 25 ampere-hour battery supplies 48 amps for 20
minutes, its capacity drops to 16 ampere-hours. If
the battery is discharged in 5 minutes, the capac-
CAPACITY ity drops to 11.7 ampere-hours. This is due to
The capacity of a battery is its ability to produce a heat, sulfation of the plates, and a tendency of the
given amount of current for a specified time. electrolyte to become diluted immediately around
Capacity is measured in ampere-hours with one the plates. [Figure 3-76]
ampere-hour equaling the amount of electricity that
is put into or taken from a battery when a current of CELL TEST
one ampere flows for one hour. Any combination of
flow and time that moves this same amount of elec- If a battery's construction is such that the voltage of
tricity is referred to as one ampere-hour. For exam- an individual cell can be measured, you can get a
ple, a flow of one-half amp for two hours or two good indication of the cell behavior under load. To
amps for one-half hour is one ampere-hour. In the- do this, first verify the electrolyte is at the proper
ory, a 100 ampere-hour battery can produce 100 level. Then, apply a heavy load to the battery for
amps for one hour, 50 amps for two hours, or 20 about three seconds by cranking the engine with the
amps for five hours. ignition switch off, or the mixture in the idle cutoff
position. Now, turn on the landing lights and taxi
The capacity of a battery is affected by four things, lights to draw about ten amps. While the load cur-
the amount of active material, the plate area, the rent is flowing, measure the voltage of each cell. A
quantity of electrolyte, and the temperature. An fully charged cell in good condition should have a
increase in the amount of active material, the plate voltage of 1.95 volts and all cells should be within
area, or the quantity of electrolyte results in an 0.05 volt of each other. If some of the cells are below
increase in capacity. On the other hand, using a bat- 1.95 volts, but all are within 0.05 volt of each other,
tery in cold temperatures effectively decreases its the cells are in good condition but the battery is
capacity. For example, at 50蚌, a fully charged bat- somewhat discharged. If any of the cells read higher

Figure 3-76. Relationship between ampere-hour capacity and discharge rate.

Basic Electricity 3-39

than 1,95 volts and there is more than a 0.05-volt Most new batteries are received in a dry-charged
difference between any of them, there is a defective state with the cells sealed. When putting a new bat-
cell in the battery. tery into service, remove the cell seals and pour in
the electrolyte that is shipped with the battery. In
order to ensure a fully charged battery, the battery
SERVICING AND CHARGING must be given a slow freshening, or boost, charge.
One of the most important aspects of battery servic- Once this is done, allow the battery to sit for an hour
ing is keeping the battery clean and all of the termi- or so and then adjust the electrolyte level.
nals tight and free of corrosion. If any corrosion
exists on the battery terminals or within the battery It is normally not necessary to mix electrolyte.
box it should be removed. To do this, scrub the bat- However, if it should ever become necessary to
tery box and the top of the battery with a soft bristle dilute acid, it is extremely important that the acid
brush and a solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking be added to the water, and never the other way
soda) and water. When washing the top of the bat- around. If water is added to the acid, the water,
tery, avoid getting any baking soda in the cells since being less dense, floats on top of the acid, and a
it neutralizes the electrolyte. After the battery and chemical action takes place along the surface where
box are clean, rinse them with clean water and dry they meet. This action can generate enough heat to
thoroughly. Coat the battery terminals with petro- boil the water and splash acid out of the container
leum jelly or general purpose grease, and touch up causing serious injury if it gets on your skin or in
any paint damage to the battery box or adjacent area your eyes. If acid should get into your eyes, flush
with an acid-resistant paint. them with generous amounts of clean water and get
medical attention as soon as possible.
The electrolyte in each cell should just cover the
plates. Most batteries have an indicator to show the When acid is added to water, the acid mixes with
correct level. If the electrolyte level is low, add dis- the water and distributes the heat generated by the
tilled or demineralized water. Never add acid to the chemical action throughout the battery. This action
battery unless it has been spilled, and then, follow still causes the water temperature to rise, but not
the recommendations of the battery manufacturer in enough to cause boiling or a violent reaction.
detail. The normal loss of liquid in a battery is the
result of water decomposing during charging. Automotive and aircraft electrolytes are different
[Figure 3-77] and should not be mixed. Automotive electrolyte
has a lower specific gravity when charged and,
therefore, an aircraft battery may never obtain a full
charge with automotive electrolyte.

BATTERY CHARGERS
A storage battery is charged by passing direct cur-
rent through the battery in a direction opposite to
that of the discharge current. Because of the bat-
tery's internal resistance, the voltage of the external
charging source must be greater than the open-cir-
cuit voltage. For example, the open-circuit voltage
of a fully charged 12-cell, lead-acid battery is
approximately 25.2 volts (12 x 2.1 volts). However,
the battery's internal resistance causes a voltage
drop of 2.8 volts. Therefore, approximately 28 volts
are required to charge the battery. Batteries are
charged by either the constant-voltage or
constant-current method.

Constant-Current Charging

Figure 3-77. The electrolyte level The most effective way to charge a battery is by
indicator inside the cell. inducing current back into it at a constant rate. The
3-40 Basic Electricity

amount of current induced is typically specified by Like constant-current chargers, you can also charge
the manufacturer. However, in the absence of manu- several batteries simultaneously with a
facturer information, you should use a current value of constant-voltage charger. However, since the
no more than seven percent of the battery's voltage supplied to each battery must remain
ampere-hour rating. For example, if you are charging constant, the batteries must have the same voltage
a 40-ampere-hour battery and do not have specific rating and be connected in parallel.
information from the battery manufacturer, you
should charge it at a rate not exceeding 2.8 amperes CHARGING PRECAUTIONS
(40 ampere-hour x .07 = 2.8 amps). Whenever you are working around lead-acid batter-
ies, there are several precautions that must be
As a battery begins to charge, the no-load voltage
observed, especially when charging. As mentioned
increases. Therefore, the voltage on a constant current
earlier, when a battery is charging, gaseous hydro-
charger must be varied in order to maintain a constant
gen and oxygen are released by the battery cells.
current throughout the charge. Because of this, a con-
Since these gases are explosive, it is essential that
stant current charger usually requires more time to
you always charge a battery in a well-ventilated
complete and additional attention.
place isolated from sparks and open flames. To pre-
When charging more than one battery with a vent sparking from the battery, always turn off the
constant-current charger, connect the batteries in battery charger before you connect or disconnect the
series. One way to remember this is to recall that charging leads. Furthermore, when removing a bat-
current remains constant in a series circuit and, tery from an aircraft, always disconnect the negative
therefore, a constant current charge requires multiple lead first. When installing a battery, connect the
batteries to be connected in series. The batteries being negative lead last.
charged can be of different voltages, but they should
Since lead-acid battery electrolyte is extremely cor-
all require the same charging rate. When charging
rosive and will burn skin, you should always wear
multiple batteries, begin the charge cycle with the
eye and hand protection whenever working with
maximum recommended current for the battery with
batteries. If electrolyte is spilled from a battery, it
the lowest capacity. Then, when the cells begin
should be neutralized with sodium bicarbonate
gassing freely, decrease the current and continue the
(baking soda) and rinsed with water.
charge until the proper number of ampere hours of
charge is reached.
BATTERY INSTALLATION
Constant-Voltage Charging Before installing any battery in an aircraft, be sure the
The generating system in an aircraft charges a bat- battery is correct for the aircraft. The voltage and
tery by the constant voltage method. This method ampere-hour ratings must meet the manufacturer's
utilizes a fixed voltage that is slightly higher than specifications. Some aircraft use two batteries con-
the battery voltage. The amount of current that nected in parallel to provide a reserve of current for
flows into a battery being charged is determined by starting and for extra-heavy electrical loads. When
a battery's state-of-charge. For example, the low installing batteries in this type of system, be sure they
voltage of a discharged battery allows a large are the type specified in the aircraft service manual.
amount of current to flow when the charge first
begins. Then, as the charge continues and the bat- Most aircraft use a single-wire electrical system with
tery voltage rises, the current decreases. The voltage the negative terminal of the battery connected to the
produced by a typical aircraft generating system is aircraft structure. As mentioned earlier, when
usually high enough to produce about one ampere installing a battery, always connect the positive lead
of current flow even when a battery is fully charged. first. This way, if you make contact between the bat-
tery and the aircraft with a wrench, you will not cause
Constant-voltage chargers are often used as shop a spark. When removing a battery, always disconnect
chargers. However, care must be exercised when the negative lead first.
using them since the high charging rate produced
when the charger is first connected to a discharged Be sure that the battery box is properly vented and that
battery can overheat a battery. Another thing to keep the battery box drain extends through the aircraft skin.
in mind is that the boost charge provided by a con- Some batteries are of the manifold type which do not
stant-voltage charger does not fully charge a battery. require a separate battery box. With this type of bat-
Instead, it usually supplies enough charge to start tery, a cover is placed over the cells, and the area
the engine and allow the aircraft generating system above the cells is vented outside the aircraft structure.
to complete the charge.
Basic Electricity 3-41

The fumes emitted from storage batteries are highly made of powdered nickel (plaque) fused, or sin-
corrosive and toxic. Therefore, they typically must be tered, to a porous nickel mesh. This porous mesh is
neutralized before they are released into the atmos- impregnated with nickel hydroxide. The negative
phere. To do this, many battery installations vent the plates are made of the same type of porous plaque as
fumes inside the battery box through sump jars con- on the positive plates, but are impregnated with
taining absorbent pads moistened with a solution of cadmium hydroxide. Separators of nylon and cello-
sodium bicarbonate and water. phane keep the plates from touching each other. The
cluster of plates and separators is assembled into a
After installing a battery, make certain that it supplies polystyrene or nylon cell case and the case is sealed.
enough current to crank the engine. Also, be sure that
the aircraft generating system keeps the battery A thirty-percent-by-weight solution of potassium
charged. If an aircraft ammeter shows a full charge hydroxide and distilled water serves as the elec-
rate, but the battery discharges rapidly, it is most likely trolyte. The specific gravity of this liquid is between
that the battery is shorted internally. 1.24 and 1.30 at room temperature. Since the elec-
trolyte acts only as a conductor during charging and
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES discharging, its specific gravity is no indication of a
battery's state of charge.
Turbine engines require extremely high current for
starting. However, high-rate discharges cause the An individual cell produces an open circuit voltage
plates of lead-acid batteries to build up sulfate of between 1.55 and 1.80 volts, depending on the
deposits, thereby increasing internal resistance and manufacturer. Batteries used in 12-volt aircraft sys-
causing a subsequent voltage drop. This drawback tems use either 9 or 10 cells, while batteries used in
spurred the development of an alkaline battery for air- 24-volt aircraft systems are made up of 19 or 20
craft use. The nickel-cadmium or ni-cad battery has a individual cells. [Figure 3-78]
very distinct advantage in that its internal resistance is
very low, so its voltage remains constant until it is
almost totally discharged. This low resistance is also
an advantage in recharging, as it allows high charging
rates without damage.
While high discharge and charging rates are favorable,
there are dangers involved. These dangers begin with
the high temperatures associated with nickel-cad-
mium batteries. For example, the discharge or charg-
ing cycle of a nickel-cadmium battery produces high
temperatures that break down the cellophane-like
material that separates the plates within the cell. The
breakdown of the cell separator creates a short circuit
allowing current flow to increase. The increased cur-
rent flow creates more heat, causing further break-
down of the separator material. This condition is
aggravated by the fact that the internal resistance of a
ni-cad battery drops as the temperature rises. These
factors all contribute to the process known as
vicious-cycling, or thermal runaway. Some
nickel-cadmium battery installations are required to
have temperature monitoring equipment that enables
the flight crew to recognize an overheat condition
that can lead to thermal runaway. New cell
separator materials and advanced on-board charging
equipment have reduced the likelihood of thermal
runaway.

CONSTRUCTION
Figure 3-78. Nickel-cadmium batteries are made up of indi-
Most nickel-cadmium batteries are made up of indi- vidual cells in transparent cases.
vidual removable cells. The positive
plates are
3-42 Basic Electricity

CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING DISCHARGE example, in a pulse charging system, battery voltage
As a nickel-cadmium battery discharges, metallic is monitored and charging current regulated accord-
cadmium on the negative plates combines with ingly.
hydroxide ions in the electrolyte. This releases elec-
trons which flow to the negative terminal. During Another way to reduce the chance of cell imbalance
this process, the cadmium is converted to cadmium is to terminate a constant-voltage charge prior to the
hydroxide. At the same time, hydroxide ions leave battery obtaining a full charge. Then, complete the
the positive plates and go into the electrolyte solu- charge at a constant current rate equivalent to
tion. This allows the electrolyte solution to remain approximately ten percent of the battery's
about the same. Therefore, specific gravity readings ampere-hour capacity. This technique drives the
of electrolyte in nickel-cadmium batteries do not negative plates into a controlled overcharge and
indicate the battery's state of charge. However, as a allows the positive plates to be brought to full
nickel-cadmium battery discharges, the plates charge without generating excessive gas and
absorb some of the electrolyte, therefore the elec- damaging the battery.
trolyte level is lowest when a nickel-cadmium bat-
tery is completely discharged, SERVICING NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
The electrolytes used by nickel-cadmium and
CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING CHARGE lead-acid batteries are chemically opposite, and
When charging current flows into a nickel-cadmium either type of battery can be contaminated by fumes
battery, oxygen is driven from the cadmium oxide on from the other. For this reason, it is extremely
the negative plate leaving metallic cadmium. The important that separate facilities be used for
nickel hydroxide on the positive plate accepts some servicing nickel-cadmium batteries and lead-acid
of the released oxygen and becomes more highly oxi- batteries.
dized. This process continues until all of the oxygen
is removed from the negative plate. If charging is The alkaline electrolyte used in nickel-cadmium
continued, gassing occurs in the cell as the water in batteries is corrosive. It can burn your skin or cause
the electrolyte is decomposed by electrolysis. severe injury if it gets into your eyes. Be careful
when handling this liquid. If any electrolyte is
During the charging cycle, electrolyte is driven from spilled, neutralize it with vinegar or boric acid, and
the positive and negative plates. Therefore, the elec- flush the area with clean water.
trolyte is at its highest level immediately after a
charging cycle. Because of this, the electrolyte level Nickel-cadmium battery manufacturers supply
is checked and water added only when a nickel-cad- detailed service information for each of their prod-
mium battery is fully charged. ucts, and these directions must be followed closely.
Every nickel-cadmium battery should have a service
record that follows the battery to the service facility
CELL IMBALANCE
each time it is removed for service or testing. It is
One characteristic of a nickel-cadmium cell being very important to perform service in accordance
charged is that the negative plate controls the cell's with the manufacturer's instructions, and to record
voltage characteristics. This, coupled with a slightly all work on the battery service record.
lower charge efficiency in the positive plates, results
in an imbalance between the negative and positive It is normal for most nickel-cadmium batteries to
plates in each cell. Constant-voltage charging is develop an accumulation of potassium carbonate on
unable to recognize this condition. Voltages appear top of the cells. This white powder forms when
normal and the battery appears to be fully charged. electrolyte spewed from the battery combines with
carbon dioxide. The amount of this deposit is
As long as the battery stays on a constant-voltage increased by charging a battery too fast, or by the
charge, the imbalance condition becomes worse electrolyte level being too high. If there is an exces-
each time the battery is cycled. Eventually the sive amount of potassium carbonate, check the volt-
imbalance reduces the battery's available capacity age regulator and the level of electrolyte in the cells.
to the point where there is not enough power to Scrub all of the deposits off the top of the cells with
crank the engines or supply emergency power. a nylon or other type of nonmetallic bristle brush.
Dry the battery thoroughly with a soft flow of com-
Cell imbalance problems have been greatly reduced pressed air.
by more sophisticated charging techniques.
For Internal short circuits can occur between the cells of
a ni-cad battery and are indicated when the battery
Basic Electricity 3-43

won't hold a charge. Check for electrical leakage that an imbalance exists. In this situation, the cells
between the cells and the steel case by using a must be equalized through a process known as
mil-liammeter between the positive terminal of the deep-cycling. To deep-cycle a battery, continue to
battery and the case. If there is more than about 100 discharge it at a rate somewhat lower than that used
milliamps of leakage, the battery should be disas- for the capacity test. When the cell voltage
sembled and thoroughly cleaned. [Figure 3-79] decreases to approximately 0.2 volts per cell, short
across each cell with shorting straps. Leave the
Check the condition of all the cell connector hard- straps across the cells for three to eight hours to
ware and verify there is no trace of corrosion. Dirty completely discharge them. This process is known
contacts or improperly torqued nuts can cause over- as equalization. [Figure 3-80]
heating and burned hardware. Heat or burn marks
on nuts and contacts indicates the hardware was
After equalization, the battery is ready to charge.
torqued improperly.
Nickel-cadmium batteries may be charged using
either the constant-voltage or constant-current
The only way to determine the actual condition of a
methods. The constant-voltage method results in a
nickel-cadmium battery is to fully charge it, and
then discharge it at a specified rate to measure its faster charge; however, the constant-current is most
ampere-hour capacity. When charging, use the widely used. For either system, the battery manu-
five-hour rate and charge the battery until the cell facturer's service instructions must be followed.
voltage is that specified by the manufacturer. When
the battery is fully charged, and immediately after it Monitor the battery during charge, and measure
is taken off the charger, measure the level of the individual cell voltages. The manufacturer specifies
electrolyte. Ni-cad cell plates absorb electrolyte as a a maximum differential between cells during the
battery discharges or when it sits for long periods. charging process. If a cell exceeds the specification,
However, the plates release electrolyte as the cells it must be replaced. Battery manufacturers specify
charge. If the level is not checked immediately after the maximum number of cells that can be replaced
the charge is completed, the level drops and the cor- before the battery must be retired. Cell replacement
rect level is difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain. should be entered in the battery service record.
Spewing of water and electrolyte during charge is a
good sign that water was added while the battery
was partially discharged. When water is added, the As a battery nears the completion of a charge, the
amount and cell location must be recorded on the cells release gases. This is normal, and must occur
battery service record. before the cell is fully charged. It is normal to over-
charge a nickel-cadmium battery to 140 percent of
When the battery is fully charged and the electrolyte its amp-hour capacity. If the battery has been prop-
adjusted, it must be discharged at a specified rate
and its ampere-hour capacity measured. If the
capacity is less than it should be, it is an indication

Figure 3-79. Cell-to-case leakage should be measured with Figure 3-80. When the cell voltage falls to approximately 0.2
a milliammeter. If there is more than 100 milliamps of leak- volts per cell, shorting straps are used to short the cells and
age, the battery should be disassembled and cleaned. ensure that they are equally discharged.
3-44 Basic Electricity

erly serviced and is in good condition, each cell

should have a voltage of between 1.55 and 1.80 at a
temperature between 70 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
However, the actual voltage of a charged cell does
vary with temperature and the method used for
charging. [Figure 3-81]

When working with nickel-cadmium batteries, it is

sometimes helpful to have a troubleshooting chart.
These charts allow you to associate a probable cause
and corrective action to an observed condition. Figure 3-81. Complete the deep-cycle operation by charging
[Figure 3-82] the battery to 140 percent of its ampere-hour capacity.

Figure 3-82. Nickel-cadmium troubleshooting chart.

ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current is current flow which continu-

ally changes its value and periodically reverses
direction. It has many advantages over direct cur-
rent. For example, AC is much easier to generate in
the large quantities needed for homes and indus-
tries, and for large transport aircraft. More impor-
tant though, is the ease with which AC current and electricity. Any time electrons flow in a conductor,
voltage can be changed to get the most effective use a magnetic field surrounds the conductor. The
of electrical energy. For example, since the current amount of electron flow determines the strength of
flowing in a conductor determines the amount of the magnetic field. You also learned that when a
heat generated, current dictates the size of conduc- magnetic field is moved across a conductor, elec-
tor needed to transport it. Delivering the same trons are forced to flow within the conductor. The
amount of power with less current would allow the rate at which the lines of magnetic flux are cut by
use of smaller conductors, saving money and the conductor determines the amount of flow.
weight. Power companies use this principle for Therefore, electron flow is increased by increasing
cross-country transmission of electrical power. The the strength of the magnetic field, or by increasing
voltage of the electricity carried in transmission the speed of movement of the conductor through the
lines is boosted up to several thousand volts. At lines of flux.
15,000 volts, 0.067 amp delivers one kilowatt of
electrical power. Before the electricity is brought Try this simple experiment to illustrate alternating
into homes or shops, it is transformed down to a current. Wind a conductor into a coil and attach it
safer and more convenient 115 volts. Voltage and to a voltmeter. When a magnet is moved back and
current change many times between the generation forth through the coil, the meter deflects from side
of alternating current and its final use. The trans- to side. This shows that electrons flow in one direc-
formers that accomplish this are quite efficient and tion when the magnet is moved into the coil, then
lose very little energy. [Figure 3-83] reverse and flow in the opposite direction when the
magnet is withdrawn. [Figure 3-84]
GENERATION OF AC ELECTRICITY
Common household electricity is produced by a
If you recall from your study of electrical theory, rotary generator in which a coiled conductor rotates
there is a close relationship between magnetism and inside a magnetic field. The changing values of volt-
age produced as the coil rotates can be observed on
an oscilloscope. The values start at zero, rise to a

Figure 3-83. Transformers are used to change the values of Figure 3-84. Current flows in a conductor when lines of
alternating current and voltage. inniag-netic fJux from a permanent magnet cut across it.
3-46 Basic Electricity

peak, and then drop back off to zero. As the coil con-
tinues to rotate, the voltage builds up in the opposite
direction to a peak and then back to zero. One com-
plete cycle of voltage change is produced with each
complete revolution of the coil. [Figure 3-85]

The AC wave form produced by a rotary generator is

called a sine wave. From the wave illustrated in figure
3-85, you can see that one cycle begins at 0 degrees
and ends at 360 degrees. The values of alternating cur- Figure 3-85. As seen on an oscilloscope, alternating current
rent follow the sine wave. This can be seen through begins at a zero reference line, peaks at a positive value, and
returns to zero. It then builds to a negative value exactly
the use of a generator consisting of a single loop of opposite the positive value and returns to the reference line.
wire that is rotated in a magnetic field. When the loop
is parallel with the lines of flux within a magnetic
field, it does not pass through any lines of flux, and no FREQUENCY
voltage is generated. This is the starting point, or the
zero-degree angle. As the loop rotates to 45 degrees, it The frequency of AC is the number of cycles com-
cuts across some of the lines of flux. The voltage gen- pleted in one second. Frequency is expressed in
erated at this point is 0.707 times the peak amount. As hertz (Hz) with one hertz equal to one cycle per sec-
the loop continues to rotate to the 90 degree point, it ond. The frequency of alternating current produced
cuts across the maximum number of flux lines for by a generator is determined by the number of pairs
each degree it rotates. It is here that the peak voltage is of magnetic poles in the generator and the number
produced. Further rotation decreases the number of of revolutions completed per minute by the rotating
flux lines cut for each degree of rotation. Once the coils. Frequency is found by the formula:
loop reaches 180 degrees, it cuts no flux lines and the ^ rTT v Poles rpm
output is again zero. Rotation beyond this point brings Frequency (HzJ = -------- x—
the opposite side of the loop down through the flux H J
2 60
lines near the south pole of the magnet. The voltage
builds in the opposite direction and changes in a con- The frequency of commercial alternating current in
tinuous and smooth manner. [Figure 3-86] the United States is 60 hertz, while in some foreign
countries it is 50 hertz. The frequency of AC power
A sine wave's instantaneous value is found by mul- used in most aircraft is 400 hertz.
tiplying its peak value by the sine of the angle
through which the loop rotates beyond its zero-volt- SINE WAVE VALUES
age position. For example, if the peak value of a sine
wave is 115 volts, the value at 45 degrees equals the As discussed, the peak value of a sine wave is the
sine of 45 degrees times the peak value. [Figure 3-87] maximum value of voltage or current in either the
positive or the negative direction. The difference
between the positive and the negative peak values is
CYCLE
called the peak-to-peak value and is equivalent to
As mentioned earlier, a cycle is one complete twice the peak value.
sequence of voltage or current change from zero,
through a positive peak, back to zero, through a neg- If all of the instantaneous values of current or voltage
ative peak, and back to zero again. The sequence in one alternation of a sine wave are averaged together,
then repeats. they have a value of 0.637 times the peak value. This
is referred to as an average value and has very little
practical use for making computations.
ALTERNATION
An alternation is one-half of an AC cycle in which The effective value of AC is the value that produces
the voltage or current rises or falls from zero to a the same amount of heat as a corresponding amount
peak and back to zero. [Figure 3-88] of DC. To determine the effective value, square all of
the instantaneous values in one alternation, find the
PERIOD
average of these squared values, and calculate the
square root of this average. The effective value is
The time required for one cycle of events to occur is sometimes referred to as the root mean square or
called the period of the alternating current or voltage. RMS value and is 0.707 of the peak value. Therefore,
an effective value is always less than the peak value.
Basic Electricity 3-47

Figure 3-86. At zero degrees, a single loop of wire within a magnetic field cuts no flux and, therefore, no voltage is produced.
However, as the loop rotates, it begins cutting lines of flux. At 45 degrees, .707 of the peak voltage is obtained. At 90 degrees,
the loop cuts the maximum number of flux lines and produces the maximum voltage. As the loop continues to rotate, fewer lines
of flux are cut and the output decreases. At 180 degrees, the output is again zero. Once past the 180 degree point, the loop begins
cutting flux lines again and voltage is produced.

Furthermore, unless otherwise specified, all values meter measuring the same voltage indicates the
given for current or voltage are assumed to be effec- effective, or RMS, voltage. Therefore, a peak-to-peak
tive values. Based on this definition, an AC sine value of 200 volts on an oscilloscope is equivalent
wave having a peak value of 100 volts produces the
same amount of heat as 70.7 volts of DC.

When an oscilloscope is used to measure voltage, it

displays peak-to-peak voltage. However, an AC volt-

Figure 3-87. The sine of the angle through which a loop

rotates is the ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle Figure 3-88. One complete cycle of AC begins at zero, rises
to the length of the hypotenuse. The peak value of the sine to a positive peak and returns to zero, then passes through
wave is 115 volts and the sine of 45 degrees is .707. a negative peak as it approaches zero to complete the cycle.
Therefore, the instantaneous value at 45 degrees is 81.3 volts. An alternation is equivalent to one-half a cycle.
3-48 Basic Electricity

to a peak value of 100 volts, which, as you just saw, for both voltage and current are given in effective
is the same as 70.7 volts on a voltmeter. [Figure 3-89] values. The product of these effective values is
called the apparent power and is expressed in
volt-amps rather than in watts.
PHASE
An oscilloscope traces sine wave patterns of AC In a circuit that contains only resistance, the current
voltage and current on its screen. When the sine is in phase with voltage and the power developed at
waves cross the zero line at the same time, the volt- any instant is the product of the voltage and the cur-
age and current are said to be in phase. In other rent. As long as the voltage and the current are in
words, both voltage and current follow the identical phase, the power is positive. [Figure 3-91]
sine wave.
True power is the actual AC power in current when
In alternating current where the values are constantly phase is taken into account. For example, if the cur-
changing, certain circuit components cause a phase rent and the voltage are not in phase, that is, if the
shift between the voltage and the current. The current either leads or lags the voltage, there is at
amount of shift is referred to as the phase angle. For least part of a cycle in which the voltage or current
example, some electrical components cause the cur- is positive and the other is negative. Since the prod-
rent to reach its maximum value 90 degrees before uct of unlike signed numbers is always negative, the
the voltage. In this situation, there is a 90 degree power produced during this portion of a cycle is
phase angle between the current and voltage and the negative power. This means that the load forces
current leads the voltage. Other components cause power back into the source. True power is expressed
the voltage to change before the current, and the cur- in watts and is the product of voltage and that por-
rent is said to lag the voltage. [Figure 3-90] tion of the current that is in phase with the voltage.
In a reactive or inductive circuit, true power is
always less than apparent power.
POWER
In the study of direct current, electrical power is the The ratio of true power to apparent power is called
product of voltage and current and is measured in the power factor and, when multiplied by the cur-
watts. However, with alternating current, the values rent, indicates the amount of current that is in phase

AVERAGE = 0.637 PEAK

RMS (EFFECTIVE) = 0.707 PEAK
PEAK TO PEAK = 2 PEAK

Figure 3-89. Values of an alternating current sine wave.

Basic Electricity 3-49

between voltage and current is 30 degrees, then the

power factor is equivalent to the cosine of 30
degrees. [Figures 3-92]

Figure 3-90. There can be a phase difference between volt-

age and current, two alternating currents, or two voltages.

with the voltage. For example, if the power factor is

0.5, only 50 percent of the current is in phase with
the voltage. If all of the current is in phase with the
voltage, as it is in a circuit having no opposition
other than resistance, the power factor is 1.0.

With this in mind, it can be reasoned that the true

power in a circuit is calculated by multiplying the
product of the voltage and current by the power factor.

True power = E x I x power factor

If neither the true power nor the apparent power of

a circuit is known, but the amount of phase shift
between the voltage and the current is known, the
power factor can be determined by taking the cosine
of the phase angle. For example, if the phase angle

Figure 3-91. In a purely resistive circuit, the current and the

voltage are in phase (the phase angle is zero). The apparent Figure 3-92. Using this trigonometric function table, you can
power is the product of the effective current and the effec- determine that the cosine of 30 degrees is .866. This is the
tive voltage. power factor in an AC circuit with a 30 degree phase shift.
3-50 Basic Electricity

As mentioned earlier, when the current and voltage

are in phase, the phase angle is zero and the power
factor is 1.0. Under these circumstances, the true
power is equal to the apparent power. However,
with a 45 degree phase angle, the true power is only
0.707 of the apparent power. [Figure 3-93]

Figure 3-94. The negative power equals the positive power

when the current and the voltage are 90 degrees out of phase.

determined by the amount of current flow. To deter-

Figure 3-93. When the voltage and current are 45 degrees out mine the direction the lines of flux encircle the
of phase, the true power is 0.707 times the apparent power.
conductor, use the left-hand rule. This rule states
The cosine of 90 degrees is zero. Therefore, when the that if you hold a conductor in your left hand so
current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase, the your thumb points in the direction of electron flow
power factor is also zero. In this situation, there is no (toward the positive terminal), your fingers encircle
real power produced in a circuit, even though voltage the conductor in the direction of the lines of flux.
is present and current is flowing. [Figure 3-94] [Figure 3-96]

When the current flow through a conductor changes,

RESISTANCE the magnetic field expands or contracts as appropriate.
Circuit components such as light bulbs, heaters, and As it does, the lines of flux cut across the conductor
composition resistors provide resistance to an AC and induce a voltage into it. According to Lenz's law,
circuit. Circuits containing only these types of the voltage induced into the conductor is of such a
devices are called resistive circuits. In a resistive polarity that it opposes the change that caused it. For
circuit, the current and voltage are in phase. In other
words, they both pass through zero in the sine wave
at the same time and go in the same direction. The
power factor in a purely resistive circuit is one, so
the apparent power and true power are the same. To
calculate the power in watts in a resistive circuit,
multiply the effective value of voltage by the effec-
tive value of current. [Figure 3-95]

INDUCTANCE
As discussed earlier, any time current flows in a
conductor, it produces a magnetic field that sur- Figure 3-95. In a purely resistive circuit, the current and volt-
rounds the conductor. The strength of this field is age are in phase, and the power factor equals one.
Basic Electricity 3-51

FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCTANCE

The symbol for inductance is L and is measured in
henrys. One henry of inductance generates one volt
of induced voltage when the current changes at the
rate of one ampere per second. All conductors have
the characteristic of inductance since they all gen-
erate a back voltage any time the current flow
changes. Anything that concentrates the lines of
flux or causes more flux lines to cut across the con-
ductor increases the amount of inductance. For
example, if a conductor is formed into a coil, the
lines of flux surrounding any one of the turns cut
not only across the conductor itself, but across each
of the turns as well. Therefore, a much greater
induced current is generated to oppose the source
current. If a soft iron core is inserted into a coil, it
further concentrates the lines of flux. This causes an
even higher induced current and allows even less
source current to flow.

Figure 3-96. When you hold a conductor in your left hand A coil's inductance is determined by the number of
with your thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, turns in the coil, the spacing between the turns, the
from negative to positive, your fingers encircle the conduc-
tor in the same direction as the lines of magnetic flux.
number of layers of winding, and the wire size. The
ratio of the diameter of the coil to its length and the
example, as the voltage begins to rise and the current type of material used in a coil's core also affect
increases, the expanding lines of flux cut across the inductance. Since all of these factors are variable,
conductor and induce a voltage that opposes, or slows there is no simple formula available for determining
down, the rising voltage. This induced voltage is a coil's inductance. [Figure 3-98]
sometimes referred to as a counter-electromotive force
since it opposes the applied voltage. When the current
flow in a conductor is steady, the lines of flux do not
cut across the conductor and induce a voltage.
However, when the current decreases, the lines of flux
cut across the conductor as they collapse and induce a
voltage that opposes the decrease. [Figure 3-97]

When a conductor carries alternating current, both

the amount and the direction of the current contin-
ually change. Therefore, an opposing voltage is con-
stantly induced into the conductor. This induced
voltage acts as an opposition to the flow of current,
and is discussed in detail under its proper name,
inductive reactance.

Figure 3-98. A conductor's inductance is increased by form-

Figure 3-97. The magnetic field induced by current encircles ing it into a coil. The inductance of the coil is determined by
a conductor in the direction opposite that of the magnetic the type of core, the number of turns, the shape of the coil,
field produced by the source current. and the wire size.
3-52 Basic Electricity

SERIES AND PARALLEL INDUCTORS

Inductors may be connected in a circuit in the same
manner as resistors. If inductors are connected in
series in such a way that the changing magnetic
field of one does not affect the others, the total
inductance is equal to the sum of the individual
inductances. [Figure 3-99]

Figure 3-99. Inductances in series.

When inductors are connected in parallel, the total

inductance is less than that of any of the individual
inductors. The formulas used for finding total
inductance in a parallel circuit are the same as those
used for finding total resistance in a parallel circuit.
For example, if the inductors are all the same, the
total inductance is found by dividing the induc-
tance of one inductor by the number of inductors:

Figure 3-100. The formulas used for determining total induc-

If there are only two inductors, the total inductance tance in a parallel circuit are the same as those used for find-
is found by dividing the product of the two induc- ing total resistance in a parallel circuit.
tors by their sum:
imum rate instantly. The time required for the cur-
rent to rise to 63.2 percent of its peak value is
known as the time constant of the circuit and is
When more than two inductors having different determined by the value of inductance and resis-
amounts of inductance are connected in parallel, tance in the circuit.
total inductance equals the reciprocal of the sum of
the reciprocal of the inductances. [Figure 3-100] L (henrys)
Time Constant = R (ohms)
For example, a circuit containing 2 henrys of induc-
tance and 50 ohms of resistance has a time constant
of 0.04 second, or 40 milliseconds.
TIME CONSTANT OF INDUCTORS
When a source of direct current is applied to an Time Constant = ----- 5IY_ _ 04 seconds
inductor, the current does not rise instantly. For 50 ohms
example, at the instant a switch is closed in a cir-
cuit, the current finds a minimum of opposition and Therefore, the current rises to 63.2 percent of its
starts to flow. However, the change in current flow peak value in a period of time equal to one time con-
rate from zero to maximum induces a maximum stant (0.04 second). In two time constants, or 0.08
back voltage that opposes the current flow. second, the current rises to 86.5 percent of its peak
Therefore, current does not begin to flow at its max- value. In three time constants (0.12 seconds) it rises
Basic Electricity 3-53

to 95 percent, and in four time constants (0.16 sec- direct current, there is no inductive reactance. This
onds) to 98 percent. It takes five time constants, or makes sense since there is no changing magnetic
0.2 seconds, for the current to approach the peak field in direct current. However, as the frequency
value of the source. increases above zero, the amount of change in the
magnetic field increases. This, in turn, causes the
By the same token, when a switch is opened in a cir- inductive reactance to increase. An infinite fre-
cuit, the changing current induces a voltage that quency would produce an infinite amount of induc-
opposes the change, and current drop is slowed. tive reactance. [Figure 3-102]
[Figure 3-101]

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
As mentioned earlier, inductive reactance is the
opposition to the flow of alternating current caused
by the generation of a back voltage. Inductive reac-
tance is represented by the symbol XL and is mea-
sured in ohms. The formula for determining induc-
tive reactance is:

Where:
TT = 3.1416
/= frequency in cycles per second
L = inductance in henrys
Figure 3-102. Inductive reactance is a function of the amount
As you can see, inductive reactance is proportional of inductance in a circuit and the frequency of the alternat-
to the inductance within a circuit and the frequency ing current. XL increases with an increase in both frequency
of the alternating current. Simple multiplication and inductance.
also tells you that if the frequency is zero, as it is in
Remember that the opposition produced by induction
is caused by the generation of a counter, or back, elec-
tromotive force. Unlike the opposition caused by resis-
tance, no heat is generated in a circuit with induc-
tance, and, therefore, no power is dissipated.
If a circuit is purely inductive   that is, there is no
resistance present   current does not begin to
flow until the voltage rises to its peak value. Then,
as the voltage begins to drop off, the current rises
until the voltage passes through zero. On a sine
wave, this condition is represented by a 90 degree
shift in phase. In other words, in a purely inductive
circuit, the change in current lags the change in
voltage by 90 degrees. [Figure 3-103]

Figure 3-101. These two graphs illustrate the number of

time constants required for current to reach its maximum
Figure 3-103. In an inductive circuit* the current lags behind
and minimum values once power is supplied or removed
the voltage by 90 degrees.
from a circuit containing both resistance and inductance.
 3-54 Basic Electricity

With a 90 degree phase angle the power factor is CHOKES

zero and there can be no true power. This is because Inductors that filter out certain frequencies are
the negative power produced cancels the positive called chokes. When alternating current with a fre-
power. In other words, the load returns as much quency of 50 or 60 hertz is converted to direct cur-
power as it receives. If an inductor of the proper size rent, the output is in the form of pulsating direct
is placed in series with a light bulb, the inductive current. However, if an inductor is placed in series
reactance causes most of the source voltage to be with the load, the pulsating current induces a back
dropped across the inductor. In this case, the bulb voltage that tends to smooth out the pulsations.
burns very dimly, if at all. Chokes of this type have laminated iron cores and
often have an inductance of more than one henry.
Most aircraft use 400-hertz alternating current. This
is because the inductive reactance at this frequency
is high enough to allow smaller transformers and TRANSFORMERS
motors to be used. However, if a transformer Transformers allow the values of AC voltage and
designed for 400-hertz AC is used in a 60-hertz cir- current to be changed through the use of mutual
cuit, the lower inductive reactance caused by the inductance. A typical transformer consists of two
lower frequency allows enough current flow to burn coils of wire wound around a common core, but not
out the transformer. But if a 60-hertz transformer is connected electrically. The coil in which alternating
used in a 400-hertz circuit, there is so much induc- current flows into a transformer is called the
tive reactance that the efficiency of the transformer primary coil, whereas the coil in which the alter-
becomes too low for practical use. nating current flows out is the secondary coil.
When an alternating current flows in the primary
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE coil, a voltage is induced into the secondary coil.
When alternating current flows in a conductor, the The amount of voltage generated in the secondary
changing lines of flux radiate out and cut across other coil is equal to the voltage in the primary times the
nearby conductors. Any time flux lines cut across a turns ratio between the two coils. For example, 100
conductor, they generate a voltage even though there turns in a primary coil and 1,000 turns in a sec-
is no electrical connection between the two. This ondary equates to a turns ratio of 1:10. Therefore, if
process is known as mutual inductance, and is the 115 volts flows across the primary, 1,150 volts are
basis for transformer operation. [Figure 3-104] induced across the secondary.
Since a transformer does not generate any power,
PRACTICAL INDUCTORS the product of the voltage and the current in the sec-
ondary coil must be the same as that in the primary
Inductors are often used to filter out unwanted coil. Therefore, whenever volts are increased in a
audio and radio frequency energy in AC circuits. transformer, amperes must decrease by the same
However, they are most commonly used to change ratio. In other words, if the voltage is increased by a
the values of alternating current and voltage. ratio of 1:10, the current must decrease by a ratio of
10:1. [Figure 3-105]
A transformer can have its primary coil connected
directly across an AC power line and, as long as
there is an open circuit in the secondary coil, the
back voltage produced in the primary coil blocks
the source voltage so almost no current flows
through the primary winding. However, when the
circuit is complete in the secondary coil, secondary
current flows, producing lines of flux that oppose
the back voltage and allow source current to flow in
the primary coil. [Figure 3-106]

Step-Up or Step-Down Transformers

Figure 3-104. Mutual induction causes a voltage to be In a step-up transformer there are more turns in the
induced into a conductor that is not electrically connected secondary coil than in the primary coil. This results
to the conductor through which the source current flows. in an increase in voltage and a decrease in current.
Basic Electricity 3-55

Figure 3-107. An autotransformer uses one winding for both

the primary and secondary.

Figure 3-105. Voltage increases and decreases directly with

Current Transformers
the turn ratio between the primary and secondary coils.
However, since a transformer cannot generate power, the Clip-on type ammeters use current transformers to
current must decrease or increase by the same ratio. measure the amount of AC current flowing in a line.
The probe consists of a coil that opens so it can be
However, in a step-down transformer, the secondary clamped over a wire carrying the current to be mea-
coil has fewer turns than the primary coil. In this sured. The flow of alternating current induces a
case the voltage decreases and current rises. small current into the coil that is proportional to the
Step-down transformers are often used to get the amount of load current flow. A calibrated meter dis-
high current necessary for operating some motors. plays the value of the load current. [Figure 3-108]

Autotransformers
An autotransformer is a form of variable transformer.
In an autotransformer there is only one coil that acts
as both a primary and secondary coil. One lead of the
coil is in common with both the primary and sec-
ondary, while the other secondary lead connects to a
movable brush that makes contact with a bare spot in
the primary coil. The position of this brush deter-
mines the amount of secondary voltage. The greater
the number of turns between the two leads, the
greater the secondary voltage. [Figure 3-107]

Figure 3-106. Primary current flows only when the sec-

ondary circuit is completed. When the switch in the sec-
ondary circuit is pressed, current flow is indicated on the AC Figure 3-108. A clip-on ammeter is a form of current trans-
ammeter in the primary circuit. former.
3-56 Basic Electricity

CAPACITANCE Once the voltages match, the current flow stops. If

the switch is then moved to position B, the capaci-
As you know, electrical energy can be stored in bat- tor immediately discharges through the light and
teries through an electrochemical process. However, causes it to flash. If the switch is placed in its neu-
this is not the only means of storing electricity. For tral position when the capacitor is charged, it
example, it can also be stored in electrostatic fields remains charged until the electrons eventually leak
caused by an accumulation of electrical charges. The off through the dielectric. [Figure 3-110]
strength of an electrostatic field is determined by the
amount of voltage contained by the static charges. A
capacitor, sometimes called a condenser, is a device
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE
that stores electrical energy in the electrostatic fields
that exist between two conductors that are separated A capacitor's ability to store an electrical charge is
by an insulator, or dielectric. measured in farads. One farad is the capacity
required to hold one coulomb of electricity (6.28 x
The principles of a capacitor are simple. Two flat 1018 electrons) under a force of one volt.
metal plates face each other and are separated by an
insulator. One of the plates is attached to the positive
terminal of the power source and the other to the neg-
ative terminal. In this configuration, electrons are Where:
drawn from the plate attached to the positive terminal C = capacity in farads Q =
and flow to the plate attached to the negative terminal. charge in coulombs E =
Although there is no flow across the insulator, the voltage in volts
plates become charged. In fact, if a voltmeter reading
were to be taken across the plates, it would be exactly The farad typically stores too many electrons for use
the same as one taken across the battery. Current flows in practical circuits. Therefore, most capacitors are
while the plates are being charged, but stops when measured in microfarads which are millionths of a
they become fully charged. [Figure 3-109] farad, or in picofarads which are millionths of mil-
lionths of a farad. Picofarads were formerly called
If a power source connects to a capacitor through a micro-micro farads and are still referred to in this
resistor, the resistor limits the amount of current way in some texts. The Greek letter mu {/JL) is used
that initially flows to the capacitor. However, the to represent the prefix micro.
resistor does not prevent the voltage across the
capacitor from rising to that of the source. 1 microfarad (jjp) = 1 x 10~6 farad 1

If a switch is then added to the same circuit, as illus- picofarad (pF or jnuf) = 1 x 10~12 farad
trated in figure 3-110, the capacitor voltage rises to
the source voltage with the switch in position A.

Figure 3-109. When two plates of a capacitor are initially

attached to a battery, electrons are drawn from the plate
attached to the positive terminal and flow to the plate
attached to the negative terminal. This process continues Figure 3-110. The resistor limits the rate at which the capac-
until the plates become fully charged. Once charged, the itor charges when the switch is in position A. When the
voltage across the capacitor will match the voltage across switch is in position B, the capacitor discharges through the
the source. neon bulb, causing it to flash.
Basic Electricity 3-57

Capacity is affected by three variables: the area of There is a limit to how close the plates in a capaci-
the storage plates, the separation between the tor can be. For example, if the plates get too close,
plates, and the composition of the dielectric. The the electrostatic field may become so strong that
larger the plates, the more electrons can be stored. electrons cross the insulator and actually flow to the
One very common type of capacitor has plates made positive plate. When this happens, the dielectric
of two long strips of metal foil separated by waxed typically becomes damaged and a conductive path
paper and rolled into a tight cylinder. This con- is set up that shorts the capacitor and makes it use-
struction provides the maximum plate area for its less. For this reason, all capacitors are rated with
small physical size. [Figure 3-111] regard to their working voltage, which must be at
least 50 percent above the highest voltage applied in
the circuit. The rating is a DC measurement that
indicates the strength of the dielectric.

The third factor affecting the capacity of a capacitor

is the composition of the dielectric. Capacitors store
energy in two ways. One way is through the elec-
trostatic attraction across the dielectric. The second
is through the distortion of the electron orbits of the
atoms within the dielectric material. For example,
Figure 3-111. The greater the area of the plates, the greater as a capacitor charges, the electrons within the
the capacity of the capacitor. dielectric are attracted to the positive plate and the
protons are attracted to the negative plate. This dis-
tortion, sometimes called dielectric stress, stores
The distance between the plates determines the electrostatic charges similar to the way the plates
strength of the electrostatic field between them do. [Figure 3-113]
which, in turn, affects capacity. For example, if the
plates are far apart, a weak electrostatic field is pro- The higher the dielectric stress, the greater the insu-
duced and fewer electrons are pulled onto the neg- lator's capacity. The numbers used to express
ative plate. If, on the other hand, the plates are close dielectric stress are referred to as "K" values. Air is
together, the attraction caused by the unlike charges used as the reference for measuring the dielectric
between the plates produces a strong electrostatic constant and is given a value of one. If glass, which
field in the dielectric. This allows more electrons to has a dielectric constant of eight, is substituted for
be held on the negative plate. The strength of the
electrostatic field increases inversely with the sepa-
ration between the plates. In other words, when the
space between the plates is cut in half, the strength
of the electrostatic field doubles. However, if the
space between the plates doubles, the electrostatic
field strength decreases to half its original value.
[Figure 3-112]

Figure 3-113. (A)   Uncharged plates do not affect the

orbital pattern of the material in the dielectric. (B)  
However, when a capacitor is charged, the orbits of the elec-
Figure 3-112. The closer the plates in a capacitor, the greater trons in the dielectric are distorted and energy is stored in
its capacity. the distorted field.
 3-58 Basic Electricity

air as an insulator, capacity increases eight times When there are more than two unlike capacitors,
due to its ability to store energy in the distortion of their total capacity is the reciprocal of the sum of
the electron orbits. [Figure 3-114] the reciprocals of the individual capacitors.
[Figure 3-115]
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
It is often necessary to connect multiple capacitors
into a circuit. When this is done, the effect is com-
parable to increasing the separation between the
capacitor plates. In other words, a circuit's total
capacity decreases when capacitors are connected
in series. Furthermore, the total capacity will be less
than that of any of the series capacitors. The formu-
las used for finding total capacitance in a series cir-
cuit are the same as those used for finding the total
resistance in a parallel circuit. For example, when
multiple capacitors of equal value are connected in
series, the total capacitance is found by dividing the
value of one capacitor by the number of capacitors
in series:

If there are two unlike capacitors, the total is found

by dividing the product of the two by their sum.

Figure 3-115. Capacitors connected in series.

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Connecting capacitors in parallel has the same
effect as adding the areas of their plates. Therefore,
the total capacity is equivalent to the sum of the
individual capacitors. [Figure 3-116]

Lif   CJ^ + C12 + ^3     •

Figure 3-116. When capacitors are connected in parallel,

Figure 3-114. Table of dielectric constants. total capacitance is calculated by adding the capacities.
Basic Electricity 3-59

TIME CONSTANT OF CAPACITORS The time constant in this circuit is 10 seconds

(100,000 ohms x .00001 farad = 10 seconds), there-
Recall from the study of inductors that when a volt- fore, in 10 seconds, the voltage rises to 63.2 volts. In
age source is placed across an inductor, the induc- 20 seconds, it rises to 86.5 volts; in 30 seconds, to 95
tance slows the rise of current in the circuit. As a volts; in 40 seconds to 98 volts; and in 50 seconds
result, changes in current lag behind changes in the voltage equals the source voltage and current
voltage. In a capacitive circuit the results are oppo- flow ceases. This same time constant applies when
site. In other words, changes in current lead changes discharging the capacitor. In other words, when the
in voltage. For example, when the power is added to discharge cycle begins, it takes 10 seconds to drain
a capacitive circuit, current immediately begins to the capacitor to 36.8 volts. At this point, the voltage
flow as electrons move from the positive plate to the drop starts to slow. In 20 seconds, the capacitor dis-
negative plate. However, the voltage across the plate charges down to 13.5 volts; in 30 seconds, to 5 volts;
does not immediately increase. Instead it rises as and in 40 seconds to 2 volts. At 50 seconds, or 5 time
the plates become charged. constants, all the current flows through the resistor
leaving zero volts in the capacitor. [Figure 3-118]
The time constant of a capacitive circuit is the time,
in seconds, required for the voltage across the
capacitor to reach 63.2 percent of the source voltage.
It is determined by multiplying a circuit's capaci- CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
tance by its resistance. [Figure 3-117] Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of
alternating current caused by the capacitance in a
TC = R x C circuit. The symbol for capacitive reactance is Xc
and it is measured in ohms.
Where:
A circuit's capacitive reactance is inversely propor-
TC = Time constant in seconds tional to its capacitance and frequency. The reason
R = Resistance in ohms C = for this is that as a circuit's capacitance increases,
Capacitance in farads more current must flow to charge the capacitor. At
the same time, if a circuit's frequency increases, a
Timing circuits are often made using a capacitor and capacitor charges and discharges more often, result-
a resistor in series. For example, when a ing in more current flow. The greater the current
100,000-ohm resistor is connected in series with a flow, the less the capacitive reactance. The formula
100-microfarad capacitor across a 100-volt for capacitive reactance shows this relationship:
power source, the current begins to flow when the
circuit is closed. However, the amount of current
flow is limited by the opposition caused by the
resistor.

of a capacitor during
Figure 3-118. Time constant of a capacitor being discharged.
3-60 Basic Electricity

PHASE SHIFT PRACTICAL CAPACITORS

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the Capacitors are divided into two types, fixed and
voltage by 90 degrees. In other words, the current variable. The fixed capacitors are further divided
must flow into the capacitor before the voltage across into electrolytic and nonelectrolytic types.
it can rise. When the capacitor is fully charged, the
voltage is at maximum and the current is at zero.
Then, as the capacitor begins to discharge, the cur- NONELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
rent begins to flow and the voltage starts to drop. The
current flow is greatest as the voltage passes through Nonelectrolytic capacitors are used when relatively
zero. As the voltage begins to build in the opposite low values of capacitance are needed. One of the
direction, the current flow starts to drop off until the most common types of nonelectrolytic capacitors is
capacitor is fully charged. [Figure 3-119] the paper capacitor. The plates in a paper capacitor
are made of two strips of very thin metal foil sepa-
rated by a strip of waxed paper. These three strips are
coiled into a tight roll, and wire leads are attached to
the plates. The assembly may be encapsulated in
plastic, or, as in the case of an aircraft magneto capac-
itor, sealed in a metal can. [Figure 3-121]

Figure 3-119. The current leads the voltage by 90 degrees in

a capacitive circuit.

Since the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees in a

purely capacitive circuit, the power factor is zero and
no real power is produced. This is because the nega-
tive power equals the positive power. [Figure 3-120]
Figure 3-121. A magneto capacitor is a paper capacitor
sealed in a metal container.

Capacitors requiring a smaller capacity but a higher

working voltage are made using stacks of thin metal
foil sandwiched between thin sheets of mica. This
stack is then encapsulated in plastic to form a rec-
tangular block-like capacitor. [Figure 3-122]

For high-voltage applications, paper capacitors are

enclosed in a metal container filled with an insulat-
ing oil. If a voltage surge breaks through the insula-

Figure 3-120. In a purely capacitive circuit, the negative

power equals the positive power, and no true power is pro-
duced. Figure 3-122. Block-type mica capacitor.
Basic Electricity 3-61

tor, the oil flows in and restores its insulating char- are properly connected into a circuit. Therefore,
acteristics. These are sometimes referred to as electrolytic capacitors can be used only in DC cir-
self-healing capacitors. [Figure 3-123] cuits. If an electrolytic capacitor is installed with
the wrong polarity, current flows through the
capacitor causing it to overheat and explode.
[Figure 3-125]

Figure 3-123. High voltage, oii-fiHed paper capacitor.

High-voltage, low-capacitance capacitors are made

of either a disc or a tube of ceramic material plated
with silver on each end to form the plates. The leads
are attached to the silver, and the entire unit is cov- Figure 3-125. Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and, there-
ered with a protective insulation. [Figure 3-124] fore, can only be used in DC circuits.

The reason electrolytic capacitors have such a high

capacity for their small physical size is their
Electrolytic capacitors are used when it is necessary extremely thin dielectric. The positive plate is made
to have a large amount of capacity with a relatively of aluminum foil with an extremely thin oxide film
low working voltage. These capacitors are polar- deposited on it to serve as the dielectric. A liquid or
ized, meaning they act as capacitors only when they paste electrolyte contacts both the positive plate and
Figure 3-124. Tubular ceramic capacitor. the negative container the capacitor is sealed in. This
allows the electrolyte to form the second plate of the
capacitor. This combination of metal plate, oxide
film, and conductive liquid, or paste, results in a
capacitor that has a great deal of capacity for its size.

VARIABLE CAPACITORS
As discussed earlier, a capacitor's capacity is deter-
mined by three things: the area of the plates, the dis-
tance between of the plates, and the type of dielec-
tric. If you are able to change any of these factors,
you can change the capacity.

Most radios utilize a tuner that varies capacitance

by changing the plate area. One set of plates, called
rotors, are made of thin sheets of aluminum that are
meshed together with another group of fixed plates
called stators. The rotors are mounted on a rotatable
shaft and the air between the plates serves as the
dielectric. When the plates are fully meshed, the
3-62 Basic Electricity

capacity is at its maximum. However, as the shaft is

rotated, the meshed plate area decreases and the
capacity drops. [Figure 3-126]

Figure 3-127. The capacitance-type fuel gauging system

uses capacitors as probes in the fuel tank. When the tank is
empty, the dielectric is air. When the tank is full, fuel is the
dielectric.

Fogyir  3-126, A variable-plate-area tuning capacitor, using other hand, circuits containing only two of the three
air as the dielectric. oppositions are referred to as resistive capacitive
(RC) and resistive inductive (RL) circuits.

While variable-area capacitors are typically used as In section A of this chapter you learned that,
the main tuning capacitor for a radio, small trimmer through Ohm's law, the current in a circuit is equal
and padder capacitors accomplish fine tuning. to the voltage divided by the resistance. However, in
These small capacitors are made up of a stack of foil an AC circuit you must also consider the effects of
plates separated by thin sheets of mica. A screw both capacitive and inductive reactance. The com-
adjustment allows the plates to be squeezed bined effect of resistance, capacitance reactance,
together to increase capacitance, or relaxed to and inductance reactance is called impedance and
decrease capacitance. is represented by the letter Z. Like resistance, the
unit of measure for impedance is the ohm.
The last way to change capacity is by changing the
dielectric constant. The most common fuel quantity At first it may appear that you can just add the sum of
measuring system uses a capacitor that allows just the individual oppositions. However, this is not true
that. The measuring units are capacitors in the form since inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
of probes in the fuel tanks. Each probe is made up of have opposite effects on a circuit. Because of this, you
two concentric tubes which fit across the tank from must determine the net effect of the two reactances.
top to bottom. Each tube acts as one plate of the For example, if you consider inductive reactance (XL)
capacitor, and both the area and the separation positive because it causes the voltage to lead the cur-
between the plates are fixed. When the tank is rent, and capacitive reactance (Xc) as negative
empty, the dielectric is air, which has a dielectric because it causes the current to lead the voltage, you
constant of one. When the tank is full, the dielectric can add the two quantities using the formula:
is the fuel, which has a dielectric constant of
approximately two. The fuel indicator in the cock- Total Reactance = XL + (-Xc)
pit measures the capacitance of the probes and con-
verts it into a number that reflects the amount of Since inductive and capacitive reactance cause 90
fuel in the tanks. [Figure 3-127] degree phase shifts, they cannot be algebraically
added to resistance to calculate impedance.
However, they can be considered as two forces act-
ing at right angles to each other. This is best illus-
IMPEDANCE trated through vectors. If you remember from
You now know that the flow of current in an AC cir- Chapter 2, a vector is a quantity that has both mag-
cuit is opposed by resistance (R), capacitance (C), nitude and direction and is usually represented as
and inductance (L). A circuit containing all three of an arrow. The length of the arrow reflects the
these is often referred to as an RCL circuit. On the strength or size of the quantity, and the direction of
Basic Electricity 3-63

the arrow represents the direction of the quantity. A To begin, you must find the inductive and capaci-
circuit's resistance is plotted on a horizontal line tive reactance. The inductive reactance is 50.25
extending to the right of the zero point. Since reac- ohms and the capacitive reactance is 79.62 ohms.
tance acts 90 degrees to resistance, it is plotted on a
vertical line extending up from the zero point. Example:
Using vector addition, you can now combine resis-
tance and reactance into a resultant force which rep- Inductive reactance
resents impedance. [Figure 3-128]
XL= 2rrfL

= 6.28 x400x .020

= 50.25 ohms

Figure 3-128. The total opposition, or the impedance of a circuit

is the vector sum of the total reactance and the resistance.

Capacitive reactance
Using the pythagorean theorem, A2 + B2 = C2, you
can determine the length of the resultant or imped- 1
ance vector. This is illustrated in the formula: " 2TT/C

R2 + (XL - Xc)2 = Z2
6.28 X 400 X .000005
Simplified, the formula for impedance in a series
circuit reads: = 79.62 ohms

Since the capacitive reactance is larger than the

inductive reactance, the circuit is said to be capaci-
tive and the amps lead the volts.

Now that you know the values for resistance, induc-

tive reactance, and capacitive reactance, you can
calculate impedance using the formula:
Z = VR2 + (XL - Xc)2

It should be noted that this formula can only be

used for a series circuit. With this in mind, consider
a 400-hertz, 115 volt AC circuit with a total resis-
tance of 100 ohms, inductance of 20 millihenries,
and capacitance of 5 microfarads. [Figure 3-129]

Figure 3-129. A series circuit with 100 ohms of resistance,

20 millihenries of inductance, and 5 microfarads of
capacitance.
CURRENT
Once impedance is found, you can use Ohm's law to
determine circuit current. However, since the symbol
"Z" is used to represent total opposition in an AC
circuit, it takes the place of "R" in Ohm's law. The
total circuit current is 1.10 amps.

I = E/Z

= 115 volts/104.22 ohms =

1.10 amps
3-64 Basic Electricity

VOLTAGE DROP
To calculate the voltage drop across each compo-
nent, use Ohm's law and multiply the total circuit
amperage by each of the values of resistance, induc-
tive reactance, and capacitive reactance.

Since the inductor and capacitor cause a phase

shift, the voltage dropped across the inductor and Figure 3-130. The power factor is equivalent to the ratio
capacitor are not in phase with the current through between the voltage drop across the resistor to the circuit's
each. However, the voltage and current are in phase total voltage.
through the resistor. Because of this, the sum of the
voltage across the three components is greater than PHASE ANGLE
the source voltage.
The phase angle is the angle whose cosine is the
ER = ITxR = 1.10 x 100 = 103.0 volts EL = power factor. The trigonometric function chart in
figure 3-92 reveals that 0.96 is the cosine of 16
IT x XL = 1.10 x 50.25 = 55.28 volts Ec = degrees. Therefore, in this circuit, the current lags
behind the voltage by 16 degrees.
ITxXc = 1.10 x 79.62 = 87.58 volts
TRUE POWER
The true power developed in this circuit is found by
the formula P = E x I x power factor, and is equal to
121.44 watts. [Figure 3-131]
APPARENT POWER
Apparent power is the product of the source voltage Ptme = E x I x Power Factor
times the total current. In this circuit, the apparent
power is 126. 5 voltamps. = 115 x 1.1 x .96 =

  FT annargnt 121.44 watts

Papparen

= 115 volts x 1.1 amps = PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

126.5 voltamps Almost all of the alternating current circuits in
shops and homes have their components connected
in parallel rather than in series. Parallel AC circuits
are handled in much the same way as parallel DC
circuits. The main exception is that you must take
POWER FACTOR
Not all of the current and voltage in this circuit are
in phase, and, by definition, power is produced
only by those portions of voltage and current that
are in phase. You must therefore find the percentage
of voltage and current that are in phase.

You saw earlier that a circuit's power factor is the

ratio of the true power to the apparent power.
However, since the voltage varies in a series circuit,
it is also the ratio of the voltage drop across the
resistor to the total voltage. In this problem, the volt-
age drop across the resistor is 110 volts and the total
circuit voltage is 115 volts. This results in a power
factor of .96, which means that 96 percent of the
current is in phase with the voltage. [Figure 3-130] Figure 3-131. Values for the series R-L-C circuit.
Basic Electricity 3-65

into consideration the phase shifts that occur among other words, impedance in a parallel circuit equals
the current flow in each of the three components. the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
[Figure 3-132] individual components. This requires the use of the

The circuit has a 115-volt, 400-hertz power source and

consists of a 50-ohm resistor, a 40-millihenry inductor,
and a 10-microfarad capacitor, all in parallel.

The reactance of the inductor and capacitor is cal- formula;

culated using the same formulas as before. The ________1
inductive reactance is 100.48 ohms and the
capaci-tive reactance is 39.81 ohms.

Example:

Inductive reactance

XL = 2TT/L

= 6.28 X 400 X .040

= 100.48 ohms Z=
Using this formula, you can calculate the imped-
Capacitive reactance ance within the parallel circuit.
_ 1 Example:
C
~ 2 T I /C

6.28 x 400 X .000010

= 39.81 ohms
V.0004 + .0002
As mentioned earlier, impedance is calculated with 1
a different formula in a parallel circuit than in a " .0245
series circuit. The difference in formulas is similar
to the difference between the formulas for calculat- = 40.82 ohms
ing total resistance in a series and parallel circuit. In
CURRENT
Once impedance is found, you can use Ohm's law to
determine circuit current. The total current flowing
through the circuit is 2.82 amps.

I = E/Z

= 115 volts/40.82 ohms

= 2.82 amps
Figure 3-132. This parallel R-L-C circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor placed in parallel with each other.
 3-66 Basic Electricity

CURRENT DROP PHASE ANGLE

To calculate the current drop across each compo- The phase angle is the angle whose cosine is the
nent, use Ohm's law and divide the total circuit power factor. The trigonometric function chart of
voltage by each of the values for total resistance, figure 3-92 reveals that .82 is the cosine of 35
inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance. degrees. In this circuit, the current lags behind volt-
age by 35 degrees.
IR = E/R = 115/50 = 2.3 amps

IL = E/XL - 115/100.48 = 1.14 amps

TRUE POWER
Ic = E/Xc = 115/39.81 = 2.89 amps
The true power developed in this circuit is found by
the formula P = E x I x power factor, and is equal to
265.9 watts. [Figure 3-134]
APPARENT POWER
Apparent power is the product of the source voltage Ptrue = E x I x Power Factor
times the total current. In this circuit, the apparent
= 115 volts x 2.82 amps x .82 =
power is 324.3 voltamps.
265.9 watts

= 115 volts x 2.82 amps =

324.3 volt-amps RESONANCE IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Inductive reactance in a coil is zero when the fre-
quency is zero. However, as the frequency increases,
the inductive reactance increases. Therefore, the
POWER FACTOR higher the frequency, the more back voltage the
As with the earlier series circuit, not all of the cur- inductor generates, and less current flows. This con-
rent and voltage are in phase. Therefore, power is tinues until the back voltage equals the source volt-
produced only by those portions of voltage and cur- age, and no current flows.
rent that are in phase. You must therefore find this
percentage, which is the power factor. The reactance in a capacitor varies in the opposite
way. For example, at a frequency of zero, no current
Since the current varies in a parallel circuit, the flows through a capacitor, and therefore reactance is
power factor is equivalent to the ratio of the current
drop across the resistor to the total current. In this
problem, the current drop across the resistor is 2.3
amps and the total circuit current is 2.82 amps. This
results in a power factor of .82, which means that 82
percent of the current is in phase with the voltage.
[Figure 3-133]

POWER FACTOR = JR.

IT

2.30

2.82

= 0.82

Figure 3-133. The power factor is equivalent to the ratio

between the current drop across the resistor to the circuit's Figure 3-134. Values for a parallel circuit.
total current.
Basic Electricity 3-67

infinite. But, as the frequency increases, the the sum of the individual voltages does not equal
capaci-tive reactance decreases until there is no the source voltage as it does in a DC circuit.
capacitive reactance. Both of these relationships can
be plotted on a graph. [Figure 3-135]
A series resonant circuit acts as a pure resistance
The lines representing the two reactances cross at circuit. The source voltage and current are in phase,
the resonant frequency. In other words, a circuit's so the power factor of the circuit is one.
resonant frequency is that frequency where
inductive and capacitive reactance are the same.
The resonant frequency is expressed in hertz and PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT
is found by dividing 1 by the constant 2 n times
A large amount of current flows between the capac-
the square root of the product of the inductance in
itor and the inductor in a parallel R-L-C circuit at its
henrys and the capacitance in farads. This is resonant frequency. This allows energy to first be
expressed in the formula: stored in the electrostatic field of the capacitor and
then in the electromagnetic field around the induc-
tor. If there were no resistance in the circuit, once
the exchange of energy between the two types of
fields started, the circulating current would con-
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT tinue to flow back and forth indefinitely. But in
practice, all circuits have some resistance which
In a series R-L-C circuit at its resonant frequency, causes this current to die down, unless extra energy
the current flowing in the inductor and the capaci- is added from the source.
tor are equal. However, they are 180 degrees out of
phase with each other. The inductive and capacitive
reactances are also exactly the same, but because of At the resonant frequency, the circulating current in
the phase difference they cancel each other, leaving the inductor and capacitor is high. There is almost
a total reactance of zero. In this case, the total oppo- no current supplied from the source, though, so the
sition offered to the flow of AC is that of the resis- source sees the parallel circuit as having a high
tance. Therefore, a circuit's impedance is minimum impedance. The reactances cancel each other, and
when at its resonant frequency and is equal to the so the opposition is purely resistive. The power fac-
circuit resistance. tor of the circuit is one.

The voltage drop across the resistor equals the

source voltage and the current flow remains con- CONVERTING AC TO DC
stant. The voltage across either of the reactances can
be higher than the source voltage. However, since It is often necessary to convert alternating current
they are 180 degrees out of phase, their polarities into direct current to power various circuits in the
are opposite and they cancel each other. Therefore, aircraft or within electronic equipment. The con-
version of alternating to direct current is accom-
plished by a circuit referred to as a rectifier.
Rectifier circuits employ vacuum tube or
solid-state diodes that allow current flow in only
one direction. Rectifier circuits are discussed in
detail in Section E of this chapter.

THREE-PHASE AC
When it is necessary to get the maximum amount of
power from alternating current, it is typically con-
verted into three-phase AC. Generators that produce
three-phase AC have three sets of output windings
excited by a single rotating field. The voltage in
Figure 3-135. This graph illustrates how inductive reactance each winding is 120 degrees out of phase with that
increases as the frequency increases and how capacitive in the other windings. Three-phase AC offers sev-
resistance decreases as the frequency increases. eral advantages. For example, when it is rectified
3-68 Basic Electricity

into direct current, there are three times as many

pulses of rectified current as there are in
single-phase AC, The pulses overlap so the current
never drops to an instantaneous value of zero.
Furthermore, the higher the pulse frequency, the
easier it is to filter the AC and make it smooth.
[Figure 3-136]

Figure 3-137. In a Y-connected, three-phase alternator, 208

volts is obtained between each phase winding and 120 volts
is obtained between the neutral and one phase winding.

degrees out of phase with that in the other wind-

ings, the output current is 1.73 times that of the cur-
rent in the phase winding. [Figure 3-138]
Figure 3-136 (A)   With single-phase AC, the current drops
below zero making it impossible to smooth out. (B)   With
three-phase AC, current flows in the circuit at all times THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
resulting in minimal drop from peak current per cycle.
Three-phase transformers can have their primary
and secondary windings connected in either a Y or
There are two ways of connecting the three output a delta to provide the needed output.
windings of an alternator. The first is a Y connected
hookup. With this type of connection, one end of In a delta-to-delta connection, both the primary and
each winding is connected at a common point. The secondary windings have their leads connected in
other ends of the three windings are brought out as the delta form. If there are the same number of turns
the output leads. Each output lead crosses two of in the secondary as there are in the primary, both
the windings in series. A fourth neutral lead coming Figure 3-138. In a delta-connected, three-phase alternator,
off the common point is also established. Since the the output voltage is the same as the phase voltage.
voltage across each winding is 120 degrees out of
phase with that in the other windings, the output
voltage is never twice that of one of the phase wind-
ings. Instead, it is 1.73 times that of a single-phase
winding. Therefore, if 120 volts is produced across
each phase, the voltage between any two of the
leads is 208 volts. Since the windings are in series
between the output leads, the output current is the
same as the phase current. [Figure 3-137]

The second method for connecting the phase wind-

ings is through a delta connection. With this
method, both ends of each phase winding are con-
ooooooooooooo
nected to the ends of the other windings to form a
loop. An output lead is brought from each junction
so that the output voltage is always the same as the However, since two windings parallel the third, the current
phase voltage. However, there are two windings in is 1.73 times the phase winding.
series acrpss, or in parallel, with the third winding.
Since the current in each of these windings is 120
Basic Electricity S-63

the secondary voltage and current are the same as times as high as the primary voltage. But remember,
the primary voltage and current. [Figure 3-139] a transformer is not capable of producing power.
Therefore, when the secondary voltage is higher than
If both the primary and secondary windings are the primary, the secondary current must be lower.
Y-connected, the secondary voltage and current With this type of connection, the current in the sec-
are the same as the voltage and current in the ondary is only 0.578 times the primary current.
primary. [Figure 3-140]
If the primary winding is connected as a Y and the
Connecting the primary as a delta and the secondary secondary as a delta, the secondary voltage is again
as a Y produces a secondary voltage that is 1.73 only 0.578 of the primary voltage. The secondary
current becomes 1.73 times the primary current.

Figure 3-139. In a delta-to-delta three-phase transformer, if Figure 3-140. Y-to-Y three-phase transformer.
the number of windings in the secondary are the same as
the primary, there is no change in the output.
 ELECTRON CONTROL DEVICES

VACUUM TUBES
Dr. Lee DeForest ushered in the age of electronics in
1907 with the discovery of the vacuum tube, or
audion. This device controlled the flow of electrons
by electrical charges rather than by mechanical
switches and power dissipating resistors. Vacuum
tubes served well and played a major role in the
development of radio communication, television,
and the electronic computer. However, because of
their large physical size, the amount of power they Figure 3-141. In a half-wave vacuum tube diode, the cathode
releases electrons on the first alternation, allowing current
require, and the heat they generate, they have been
to flow through the load and back into the diode. This pro-
replaced almost entirely by the more modern duces pulsating DC current.
solid-state devices and integrated circuit (IC) chips.

flows from the top plate through the load on one

DIODES alternation, and on the next alternation, current
The simplest vacuum tube is the diode, or two-ele- flows to the lower plate and through the load in
ment tube. The vacuum tube diode consists of a the same direction.
glass or metal container with two active elements,
a cathode and a plate, and a small electric heater. Due to the limitations discussed earlier, vacuum
When power is applied to a vacuum tube diode, tube rectifiers have almost entirely been replaced in
the cathode is heated. When this happens, the elec- aircraft by semiconductor diodes. These will be dis-
trons accelerate until they leave the cathode. To cussed later in this section.
enhance this process, the cathode is typically
coated with a material that weakens the bonds of THE DRY-DISC RECTIFIER
electrons. When a DC source is connected across
the cathode and the plate with the positive side of Another type of rectifier you may see is the dry-disc
the voltage connected to the plate, the electrons rectifier. Three types of dry-disc rectifiers may be
emitted by the cathode are attracted to the plate. found on aircraft: copper-oxide, selenium, or mag-
Therefore, current flows through the tube when the nesium. The copper-oxide rectifier consists of small
plate is positive with respect to the cathode. This copper discs with an oxide film deposited on one
characteristic allows the diode to rectify AC into side, and a lead disc pressed against the oxide to
DC. Diode rectifiers may be used as either form a conductor. When an AC source is supplied,
half-wave or full-wave rectifiers. In a half-wave electrons flow during the half-cycle when the cop-
rectifier, current flows only during that half-wave per is negative, and cease during the half-cycle
when the plate is positive and the cathode is when the copper is positive. This results in a pul-
negative. However, during the other half of the sating DC output. Dry-disc rectifiers are not very
cycle, the negative plate repels the electrons back efficient because they provide a great
to the cathode and there is no flow. This results in deal of
an output of pulsating direct current. [Figure
3-141]

In a vacuum tube connected as a full-wave recti-

fier, current flows to the load on both half cycles
of the alternating voltage. For example, current
Basic Electricity 3-71

resistance and, therefore, they generate a substantial

amount of heat. For this reason, cooling plates are
required to dissipate the excess heat so the rectifier
won't become damaged. Another problem is the rel-
atively low voltage the rectifier can withstand with-
out breaking down. Because of this characteristic, a
number of disks must be stacked in series so the
voltage drop across each does not exceed each disk's
relatively low breakdown voltage. [Figure 3-142]

Figure 3-143. The plate in the triode tube is connected to the

positive terminal of a high-voltage DC power supply
through the load resistor. The cathode is connected to the
negative terminal, or the ground, of the power source.
When the heater warms up, the cathode emits electrons
which are attracted to the positively charged plate. There is
then electron flow within the tube.

The most common use of a triode is as an amplifier

tube. When a resistance is connected in series in
the plate circuit, the voltage drop across the plate
can be changed by varying the grid voltage. A small
change in grid voltage causes a large change in the
voltage drop across the plate resistance. Therefore,
Figure 3-142. A dry-disc rectifier.
the voltage applied to the grid is amplified in the
plate circuit.
TRIODES
The triode vacuum tube contains three elements: a
cathode, a plate, and a control grid located
between the cathode and the plate. This allows the
triode to act more like a control valve rather than a
check valve. For example, if a negative voltage is
placed on the grid, the electrons are repelled back
to the cathode so they cannot be influenced by the
positive plate. In fact, a high enough negative
potential on the grid can completely stop the flow
of electrons. However, if a positive potential is
placed on the grid, electrons are accelerated on
their way to the plate, thereby increasing the cur-
rent flow. The grid is so small relative to the plate,
and the positive potential on the grid is so much
lower than that on the plate, that only a few elec-
trons are attracted to the grid. The grid current is
negligible compared to the flow between the cath-
ode and the plate. [Figure 3-143]
Figure 3-144, An AC input causes a varying DC output. When
there is no signal voltage on the grid, the output is a steady
If a low-voltage AC signal is placed across the grid,
flow of direct current. However, when the grid has a positive
the amount of current through the tube varies in the voltage on it, the electron flow through the tube increases,
same way as the voltage on the grid. [Figure 3-144] and the voltage drop across the load resistor increases.
3-72 Basic Electricity

The polarity of the voltage across the load resistor is such velocity that some of them bounce off and are
opposite that of the power source. As a result, the attracted to the positively charged screen grid. This
output becomes less positive as the grid becomes secondary emission can cause an unwanted screen
more positive. When a negative voltage on the grid current. To control this, a suppressor grid is added
makes it so negative that all flow through the tube is between the plate and the screen grid. This grid is
shut off, there is no voltage drop across the load connected either directly to the cathode inside the
resistor, and the output voltage rises to the value of tube, or, in some cases, to the ground outside the
the DC source. tube. When electrons bounce off the plate, they are
forced back to the plate by the negative charge on
the suppressor grid before they have the chance to
TETRODES attach to the positively charged screen grid. Vacuum
At high frequencies the capacitive reactance tubes containing a suppressor grid are called pen-
between the control grid and the plate of a triode todes. [Figure 3-146]
tube is low enough that voltage can feed back from
the plate to the grid. This feedback generates an
unwanted AC voltage that causes the tube to oscil-
SOLID-STATE DEVICES
late. Therefore, to prevent oscillation, an extra grid Although vacuum tubes ushered in the age of elec-
is built into the tube between the plate and the con- tronics, they did have their shortcomings. For
trol grid. This second grid is called a screen grid, example, because of their very large size and
and because the tube now has four active electrodes, power requirements, they were not practical for
it is called a tetrode. use in the somewhat compact electronic equip-
ment used in modern aircraft. Therefore, almost
The screen grid is connected to the plate through a all vacuum tubes have been replaced by solid-state
resistor and to ground through a capacitor. Since the devices. The term solid-state refers to any elec-
screen grid is between the control grid and the plate, tronic mechanism that utilizes a solid material to
the grid intercepts any AC signal fed back from the control the flow of electrons.
plate and bypasses it to ground through the capaci-
tor. This way, feedback never reaches the control SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
grid to cause oscillation. [Figure 3-145] Before you can understand how a semiconductor
diode rectifies AC to DC, you must gain an under-
standing of what takes place within the solid mate-
PENTODES rials that make up a diode. To begin, a semiconduc-
When the power handled by a vacuum tube is tor material is one that has four electrons in the
increased, electrons are drawn to the plate with outer, or valence shell of each atom. Two types of
material that exist in this configuration are silicon

Figure 3-145. A tetrode vacuum tube uses a screen grid to

intercept AC feedback and send it through a capacitor to the Figure 3-146. The suppressor grid is connected either to the
ground. When this is done, interelectrode capacitance cathode or to the ground, giving the grid a negative charge
between the plate and the control grid is minimized. that suppresses secondary emissions back into the plate.
Basic Electricity 3-73

(Si) and germanium (Ge). Because of the number Elements such as boron, indium, and gallium have
of electrons in the valence shell and the strong only three valence electrons. When any of these are
covalent bonds formed when the valence electrons doped with silicon or germanium, there are areas
in one atom combine with those in another, nei- where covalent bonds can not form due to the short-
ther silicon nor germanium conduct electricity. age of electrons. These areas are called holes and
[Figure 3-147] accept electrons from an outside source. Materials
doped in this way are called acceptors, or P-type
material. [Figure 3-149]

Figure 3-149. When an insulator is doped with an impurity

Figure 3-147. Here you can see the shared valence electrons having only three valence electrons, it produces a material
of a semiconductor material. Since there is only room for that accepts electrons. This type of material is referred to as
eight electrons in a valence shell, the material will not a P-type material.
accept electrons from an outside source.

The N- and P-type materials can be joined either by

The only way silicon or germanium can carry a cur- a junction or a point contact to form a semiconduc-
rent is if you combine or dope them with another tor diode. However, when this is done, the holes, or
material containing atoms with five electrons in positive charges, in the P-type material attract the
their valence shells. Common elements that are electrons, or negative charges, in the N-type mater-
doped with silicon and germanium include arsenic, ial. The unlike charges combine at the junction,
bismuth, and antimony. When this is done, spare, or leaving a depletion area where there are no more
free electrons exist after the covalent bonds are free electrons or holes. [Figure 3-150]
formed. These electrons are free to move, so the
material is called a donor, or an N-type material.
[Figure 3-148]

igure 3-148. When an insulator is doped with an element Figure 3-150. When a piece of P-type and N-type silicon are
having five valence electrons, it produces a material with an joined, the electrons and holes combine along the junction
excess of electrons. This type of material is referred to as an and form a depletion area that can act as either a conductor
N-type material. or insulator.
 3-74 Basic Electricity

As the charges move toward the junction, a large

number of positive ions are left in the N-type mate-
rial farthest from the junction and a large number of
negative ions are left in the P-type material farthest
from the junction. These stationary ions provide
charges that stop the movement of electrons and
holes across the junction.
When a voltage source is attached to a semiconductor
diode with its positive terminal connected to the P
material and its negative terminal to the N material,
electrons combine with the positive ions to neutralize
their hold on the electrons in the depletion area. This
allows the electrons to flow across the depletion area
to occupy the holes in the P material and flow to the
battery's positive terminal. In this example, the diode
is said to be forward biased, and electrons flow from Figure 3-152. When a conductor is reverse biased, the holes
and electrons are attracted away from the junction and no
the N material to the P material. [Figure 3-151] current can flow.

When the power source is turned around so that the

positive terminal is attached to the N material and
the negative terminal to the P material, the electrons
and holes are attracted away from the junction. In
this situation, the diode is said to be reversed
biased, and no electrons or holes can combine.
Therefore, electron flow in the external circuit
stops. [Figure 3-152]

DIODE TESTING
Since a diode only allows electrons to flow in one
direction, it can be tested by applying a current Figure 3-153. A semiconductor diode acts as an electron
across it. The easiest way to do this is with an check valve, allowing current flow in one direction. Its small
ohm-meter. To test a diode, set the ohmmeter to a size makes it more practical for use in modern electronics.
low resistance scale. Next, place the positive lead on
one end of the diode and the negative lead on the other
and note the indication. Now, reverse the leads and
note the indication again. With a good diode, the
ohmmeter should indicate a low resistance when
forward-biased and a high indication when
reverse-biased. In a defective diode, the resistance
readings will be nearly the same. [Figure 3-154]

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
A half-wave rectifier circuit uses a single diode in
series with an AC source and a load. Electrons flow
only during the half-cycle when the cathode, repre-
sented by the bar across the arrowhead, is negative.
The output waveform of this type of rectifier is
one-half the alternating-current wave, making it
inefficient for many applications. [Figure 3-155]

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Figure 3-151. A semiconductor is forward biased when the
positive terminal of the power source is attached to the A full-wave rectifier contains two diodes that
P-type material and the negative terminal is attached to the change both halves of an AC cycle
retype material. into DC.
Basic Electricity 3-75

Figure 3-156. In a basic full-wave rectifier, two diodes are

connected to each end of a transformer's secondary coil.
Figure 3-154. To test a diode with an ohmmeter, place the After the current passes through the load, it flows back to
test leads on opposite terminals and note the reading. Then, the coil through a center tap.
reverse the leads and note the second indication. A good
diode has low resistance when forward biased and high
resistance when reverse biased. negative with respect to the bottom. Current flows
through diode D2 and through the load resistor in
Therefore, full-wave rectification is more efficient the same direction it passed during the first
and produces a much smoother output. The diodes half-cycle. The output waveform is pulsating direct
are connected to the secondary coil of a transformer current with a frequency twice that of the pulsating
that is tapped at its center. [Figure 3-156] DC produced by a half-wave rectifier.

When analyzing a schematic, it is usually easier if

you assume a current flows from positive to negative, BRIDGE-TYPE RECTIFIER
following the arrowheads in the diode symbols. For The two-diode full-wave rectifier requires a trans-
example, during the first half-cycle, when the top of former to produce the desired output voltage across
the secondary coil is positive, current flows through one-half of a secondary coil. To overcome this inef-
diode Dlt and passes through the load from top to ficiency, four diodes must be arranged into a
bottom. This causes the top of the load to be positive. bridge-type rectifier circuit. [Figure 3-157]
After leaving the load, the current flows into the sec-
ondary coil at the negative center tap.

During the next half-cycle, the bottom of the sec-

ondary winding becomes positive and the center tap

Figure 3-157. A bridge-type rectifier utilizes four diodes and

Figure 3-155. A semiconductor diode half-wave rectifier with an AC power source connected at points A and C. The load
its output waveform. is then connected at points B and D.
3-76 Basic Electricity

During the half-cycle when the top of the secondary and coil B to be negative causing current to leave
coil is positive, current flows through diode B1 and coil C and pass through diode D5, the load, diode D6
through the load resistor from right to left, and then and back into coil B.
down through diode D2 and back to the negative end
of the secondary coil. The polarity of the secondary The output waveform of a three-phase rectifier gives
coil reverses during the next half-cycle, and current a very steady direct current as the current from the
flows through diode D4 to the positive side of the three phases overlap. There is never a time when
load, and up through diode D3 to the opposite side the current drops to zero.
of the coil. The output waveform is similar to that
produced by the two-diode full-wave rectifier, but ZENER DIODES
the voltage is much higher because the entire sec- You have just seen that a semiconductor diode con-
ondary coil is used. ducts when it is forward biased and does not con-
duct when it is reverse biased. However, there is an
exception to this. When a specific voltage, or zener
THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER
voltage is placed across a diode in its reverse bias
Almost all aircraft alternators produce three-phase direction, the covalent bonds between the atoms
AC, therefore, a three-phase rectifier must be used break down and the diode allows current to flow.
to produce direct current in modern aircraft. A typ-
ical three-phase rectifier in an aircraft alternator Figure 3-159 shows a 15-volt zener diode in series
uses a three-phase stator and six silicon diodes. with a bleeder resistor across a 24-volt direct current
[Figure 3-158] power supply. The anode of the zener diode is con-
nected to the negative terminal. This is the reverse bias
Examine the current flow through the load resistor direction. The zener diode breaks down at 15 volts
for one complete cycle of all three phases. and allows enough current to flow through the bleeder
Remember that you are tracing conventional current resistor to maintain a nine volt drop across it. The
so you can follow the direction indicated by the load is connected across the zener diode, and since
arrowheads in the diode symbols. In that portion of it maintains a 15-volt drop across it, there is always
the cycle when the output end of phase A is posi- exactly 15 volts across the load. When the load cur-
tive, current leaves coil A and flows through diode rent increases, the current through the zener diode
Da to the load. After leaving the load, the current decreases enough to maintain the nine volt drop
flows through diode D2 and coil C, whose output across the bleeder resistor. When the load current
lead is negative. As the alternator field rotates, it decreases, rather than allowing the voltage to rise, the
causes the output end of coil B to become positive current through the zener diode increases. The current
and the output of coil A to be negative. Current through the zener diode varies so that the total current
flows out of coil B and passes through diode D3, the through the load and the zener diode is the correct
load, diode D4, and back through coil A. Continued amount to maintain the nine volt drop across the
rotation causes the output of coil C to be positive bleeder resistor.

TRANSISTORS
The transistor is an electronic device that is capable
of performing most of the functions of vacuum
tubes. However, transistors are very small, light-
weight, and do not require a heating element.
Furthermore, transistors are mechanically rugged
and do not pick up stray signals. [Figure 3-160]

Figure 3-158. Most aircraft direct current is produced by a

three-phase alternator. To rectify three-phase current, a
three-phase rectifier with six-diodes is used. Figure 3-159. A zener diode voltage regulator circuit.
Basic hlectricity 3-77

between its emitter and its collector, the

emitter-base junction must be forward biased and
the collector-base junction reverse biased. On an
NPN transistor, the emitter-base is forward biased
when the base is positive with respect to the
emitter and the collector-base junction is reverse
biased when the collector is positive with respect to
the base. On a PNP transistor, the emitter-base is
forward biased when the base is negative with
respect to the emitter and the collector-base is
reverse biased when the collector is negative with
respect to the base.

In most applications, the output circuit path you

wish to control is from the emitter to the collector.
The base is the control element that turns the main
Figure 3-160. The transistor serves as an electron control stream current on and off. This is done by injecting
valve in much the same way as a vacuum tube, but it is much electrons into the base or pulling them out, depend-
smaller and does not require as much power to operate. ing on whether the transistor is PNP or NPN, respec-
tively. For example, when the emitter-base of a PNP
A transistor is essentially a sandwich of N-type sili- transistor is forward biased and a small amount of
con or germanium between two pieces of P-type current flows, the depletion area at the emitter-base
material, or a piece of P-type material between two junction becomes extremely narrow. This allows the
pieces of N-type material. Transistors having a P-type relatively large reverse bias collector-base current to
material between two N-type materials are called force electrons to the emitter-base junction where
NPN transistors, whereas a PNP transistor consists of they are attracted to the positive voltage source
an N-type material between two P-type materials. attached to the emitter. Electrons leaving the collec-
The center piece of material is called the base, and is tor return to the positive terminal of the emitter
the control element of a transistor. One end piece is source, rather than returning to the positive termi-
the emitter and the other is the collector. In circuit nal of the collector source. [Figure 3-162]
diagrams, NPN and PNP transistors are represented
by different symbology. [Figure 3-161]

The operation of NPN and PNP transistors is essen-

tially the same, except the polarity of the power
sources required to provide the bias for their opera-
tion. For example, for a transistor to conduct current

Figure 3-161. You can differentiate the symbols for PNP and
NPN transistors by referring to the arrowhead on the emit-
ter. For a PNP transistor, the arrowhead points to the base, Figure 3-162. When the emitter-base junction of a transistor
whereas the emitter arrowhead on an NPN transistor points is forward biased, current flows. The large emitter-collector
away from the base. current is controlled by varying the much smaller
emitter-base current.
3-78 Basic Electricity

If the base circuit is opened, as it is in figure 3-163, The last junction to check is the collector-base. Like
there is no longer a force to keep the emitter-base the emitter-base junction, the resistance should be
depletion area reduced. Therefore, there is no high in one direction and low in the opposite direc-
attraction for the electrons from the negative termi- tion. If this is not the case, the transistor is defective.
nal of the collector source across both depletion
areas to the positive terminal of the emitter source.
Therefore, when there is no base current, there can OTHER SOLID-STATE DEVICES
be no flow between the emitter and the collector. In addition to diodes and transistors, there are sev-
[Figure 3-163] eral other solid-state devices that control the flow of
electrons. As an aircraft technician, you should
have a working understanding of each of these.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

At times, it is necessary to limit the amount of cur-
rent that flows to some electrical devices such as
lights and some types of motors. One way to do this
is by dropping the voltage supplied to these devices
through a relatively large resistor which, in turn, gen-
erates a great deal of heat. Another way to accom-
plish the same task is to use a silicon controlled rec-
tifier, or SCR. Instead of dropping the voltage, an SCR
decreases the amount of current supplied to a device
by controlling the time cycle of AC.
Figure 3-163. When the base circuit is open, no base current
flows, and there is no emitter-collector current. A silicon controlled rectifier is similar to a silicon
diode in its outward appearance, except for its extra
terminal, or gate. Another difference is that the case
NPN transistors are used in circuit applications that of a stud-type SCR is its anode, while on a regular
require a positive voltage to cause a transistor to diode, the case is the cathode. [Figure 3-164]
conduct. NPN transistors are similar in almost every
way to the PNP transistor, except for the arrange-
ment of the doped areas. When biasing an NPN tran-
sistor, the voltage polarities are exactly opposite
those of the PNP transistor. However, for maximum
conduction with either type, the emitter-base junc-
tion must be forward biased and the collector-base
junction reverse biased.

TRANSISTOR TESTING
Like diodes, transistors can be tested with an
ohm-meter. To do this, begin by removing the
transistor from the circuit and measuring the
resistance between the emitter and collector. Since
no current is flowing to the base, the resistance
should be high across the emitter-collector in both
directions.

Now, check the emitter-base junction with both for-

ward and reverse biasing. Since current flows easily
when the emitter-base is forward biased, the resis-
tance indicated should be low. On the other hand,
when the emitter-base is reverse biased, no current
flows and a high resistance is indicated. If the resis- Figure 3-164. A typical silicon controlled rectifier and its
tance readings in both directions are equal, the tran- symbol.
sistor is defective.
Basic Electricity 3-7

An SCR is a special type of diode having three junc-

tions. Two of these junctions are forward biased,
and one is reverse biased so no electrons can flow
through the load. If the gate is momentarily con-
nected to a positive voltage at the anode, the reverse
biased junction becomes forward biased, and elec-
trons flow through the SCR. Once this flow starts, it
maintains the forward bias and current flow contin-
ues until the voltage across the SCR is removed.
This feature makes SCRs useful as warning circuits
on aircraft. For example, if an overtemp condition
momentarily occurs in a turbine engine, an engine,
or overheat warning light will illuminate in the
cockpit. The light will remain illuminated until the
pilot opens the circuit carrying voltage to the light.
[Figure 3-165]

Since the SCR is a rectifier, it can also be used to

convert AC to DC. In fact, an SCR not only produces
DC, but it is selective in the amount that it produces. Figure 3-166. The position of the control R2 determines the
The diode Da, figure 3-166, and the voltage divider time in the cycle the silicon controlled rectifier conducts.
Rl5 R2, and R3 provide an adjustable direct current to Current flows only during the positive half-cycle after the
SCR has been triggered.
trigger the SCR. Observe the waveform of the output
controlled by the SCR, and note that there is no cur- TRIACS
rent flow in the half cycle when the anode is nega-
tive. There is also no current flow during the One of the limitations of a silicon-controlled rectifier
half-cycle when the anode is positive until the is that it controls only one-half of the cycle of AC. A
voltage across the divider rises sufficiently to charge triac, on the other hand, overcomes this by acting as
capacitor Ca enough to trigger the gate of the SCR. two SCRs connected side by side, in opposite direc-
When the voltage rises high enough, the gate is tions. As explained earlier, an SCR requires a posi-
triggered and the charged capacitor provides the tive pulse to trigger its gate. However, a triac can be
needed pulse to start the SCR conducting. Once it triggered by a pulse of either polarity. Therefore, a
starts conducting, it continues until the supply triac controls a full cycle of AC. [Figure 3-167]
voltage reverses, as it does in the next half-cycle.
[Figure 3-166]

Figure 3-167. A triac is triggered with a pulse of either polar-

ity, and it conducts during the remainder of the cycle after it
has been triggered. To develop full power, the triac must be
Figure 3-165. A pulse of positive voltage on the gate of a sil- triggered at the beginning of the cycle. However, if it is trig-
icon controlled rectifier causes it to conduct until the volt- gered later in the cycle as seen here, only about one-half of
age across the anode and the cathode is removed. the current flows.
3-80 Basic Electricity

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS given value. They are also used to provide the gate
pulses for silicon controlled rectifiers and triac cir-
A transistor is a low-impedance device that cuits. [Figure 3-169]
depends on the control of current flow into or out of
the base to control the flow of current between the
emitter and the collector. However, some applica-
tions require a solid-state device that controls cur-
rent flow by controlling voltage. The field effect
transistor, or FET, has been developed to do just
this. An FET is constructed of a channel of either re-
type or P-type silicon with a gate sitting in the chan-
nel and acting as a valve. One end of the channel is
called the source and the other end the drain. A
channel constructed of N-type material has a P-type
gate. Therefore, when a positive voltage is applied
to the gate, the FET is forward-biased, resulting in a
greater flow of electrons between the source and the
drain. If a negative voltage is applied to the gate, the
FET becomes reverse-biased, and the flow between
the source and the drain slows. [Figure 3-168]

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
Figure 3-169. A unijunction transistor produces a pulse out-
A unijunction transistor, or UJT, is sometimes called put when the voltage between its emitter and base rises to
a double-base diode. It is made up of a single crys- a predetermined value.
tal of uniformly doped N-type silicon, and has con-
tacts at each end. A small emitter made of P-type
material is located near the middle. A UJT acts as an MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS
insulator until the voltage at the emitter becomes
high enough to allow the transistor to conduct with Vacuum tubes and most semiconductor devices are
a minimum of resistance. UJTs are used in circuits used to control relatively small amounts of current.
where it is necessary to provide short, high intensity To control large amounts of current, the magnetic
current pulses when the control voltage rises to a amplifier, or saturable reactor is often employed. A
magnetic amplifier, or magamp, is a special form of
transformer in which one coil is supplied with a
flow of direct current. The DC input can be varied to
change the permeability of the core which, in turn,
controls the amount of alternating current that is
allowed to flow.

To understand the operation of a magamp, consider

an AC circuit with a coil of wire in series with an elec-
tric light bulb. If the coil's core has a low permeabil-
ity, it has little inductance and, therefore, produces a
small amount of back voltage. In this type of circuit,
most of the source voltage is dropped across the light
bulb as it burns brightly. However, if a highly perme-
able core is inserted into the coil to concentrate the
lines of flux, a significant amount of back voltage is
generated within the coil. Therefore, less voltage
flows to the light. The amount of inductance in series
with an electrical load determines the amount of cur-
rent flow through the load. [Figure 3-170]
Figure 3-168. A field-effect transistor is a high-impedance
control device that uses a change in voltage on its gate to Now, if you add a second coil to the core that is
control the current between the source and the drain. attached to a DC power source, you can control the
Basic Electricity 3-81

Magnetic amplifiers are often wound on a

ring-shaped soft iron core to form a toroidal coil.
This type of core concentrates lines of magnetic
flux and provides maximum inductance by
reducing the number of flux lines that are lost.
Toroidal coils can be mounted close together
without there being any magnetic reaction or
coupling between them. [Figure 3-172]

Figure 3-170. (A)   The amount of inductance that occurs in

a coil with a low permeable core may not generate enough Figure 3-172. A toroidal coil concentrates the lines of mag-
back voltage to oppose the flow of alternating current. In netic flux and prevents any stray fields from interfering with
this situation, almost all of the voltage flows to the load. (B) other coils.
  However, with a highly permeable core, the lines of flux
become concentrated and produce enough back voltage to
prevent the flow of alternating current. A practical example of a magnetic amplifier circuit
in an aircraft is the voltage sensing circuit in some
core's permeability and, therefore, control the AC voltage regulators. A toroidal coil is wound with
amount of alternating current that flows to the load. three windings, one of which is a DC bias-voltage
For example, when the DC supply is off, the iron coil supplied with a constant amount of current
core accepts lines of flux more readily from the AC from a regulated DC source. A second control coil is
and concentrates them to produce a back voltage supplied with direct current that varies with the
that opposes the source voltage. However, when the alternator output voltage. The polarity of these two
DC current is increased, its magnetic field saturates coils is such that they tend to cancel each other. The
the core so it no longer accepts the flux lines from third coil has the excitation current for the alterna-
the AC coil. The core now appears to have a low tor field. [Figure 3-173]
permeability, so a minimal back voltage is generated
and the bulb illuminates. Regulating a small amount
of DC allows a large amount of AC to be controlled.
It is for this reason that a saturable reactor is called
a magnetic amplifier. [Figure 3-171]

Figure 3-173. A magnetic amplifier-type voltage regulator con-

Figure 3-171. Direct current flowing in the control coil can sists of three coils on a single core. One coil contains a con-
magnetically saturate a core and decrease its permeability. stant DC bias-voltage supplied by a DC source. The second
Therefore, if you can control the amount of DC current, you coil is a control coil that is supplied with a variable DC current.
can control an AC coil's output. The third coil contains the AC output from the alternator.
 3-82 Basic Electricity

When the alternator produces the proper voltage,

the magnetizing force from the opposing DC bias
current and the DC control current maintain the per- A phototransistor is a transistor that incorporates a
meability of the core so the correct amount of field photocell at its emitter-base junction. When light
current passes through the AC output coil. strikes the photocell, energy is released to forward-bias
However, if the load on the alternator decreases and the emitter-base junction and allow current to flow
the voltage rises, the magnetizing force from the through the emitter-collector circuit. [Figure 3-175]
control coil increases and opposes the magnetizing
effect of the bias coil. This decreases the magnetiza-
tion in the core and, in effect, increases its perme-
ability so more back voltage is produced. The
increased back voltage then decreases the alternator
field current which lowers the alternator output. On
the other hand, when the alternator load increases,
the output voltage drops and the magnetizing effect
of the control coil decreases. This allows the bias
coil to nearly saturate the core which decreases the
permeability, so less back voltage is generated. This
increases the alternator field current and brings the
output voltage back to the desired value.
Figure 3-175. A phototransistor conducts when sufficient light
PHOTODIODES strikes its emitter-base junction to provide a forward bias.

Light is increasingly used as both a power source

and a control in sophisticated electronic circuits.
Light energy is electromagnetic in nature and has LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
the ability to increase the reverse, or leakage, cur- One of the most familiar optoelectronic devices is the
rent in a semiconductor device. A photodiode is a light-emitting diode, or LED. An LED consists of tiny
special diode that is triggered by light. Light shining bars or dots of photo-conductive material that light up
through an aperture in its case releases free elec- when forward-biased current flows through them.
trons into the diode's depletion area and causes it to However, when an LED is reverse-biased, no current
conduct. When no light shines, no current can flow. can flow and the diode is dark. LEDs are commonly
[Figure 3-174] used in aircraft instruments. [Figure 3-176]

Figure 3-174. When the photodiode is dark, no current can

flow and the relay is open. However, when light shines Figure 3-176. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light when
through the aperture, the diode breaks down and allows they are forward-biased and current flows through them.
current to flow from the battery through the relay coil and The most common layout for LEDs will display both num-
close the contacts. bers and letters.
Basic Electricity 3-83

FILTERS
As mentioned, the output waveform of a
single-phase rectifier is pulsating direct current
which drops to zero, then rises to a peak. In a
half-wave rectifier, the voltage drops to zero and
remains there during one-half of the cycle before it
rises to a peak, and back to zero. In order to make
this type of voltage output useful, some form of
filter must be used to smooth out the DC so it
remains at a fairly constant value.

CAPACITOR-IIMPUT FILTERS

The capacitor-input filter smooths out pulsating DC Figure 3-178. When a capacitor-input filter is installed on a
by using a large capacity electrolytic capacitor full-wave rectifier, the action of the capacitor is the same as
across the load. The capacitor charges as the voltage that in a half-wave circuit.
rises, and then, as the voltage drops, it discharges to
keep the voltage from dropping to zero. The rate at
which the capacitor discharges is based on the opposes any change in the load current. During the
amount of current the load requires. For example, part of the cycle in which the current increases, the
since a capacitor can only store a given amount of magnetic field in the inductor induces a current that
current, a large flow of load current causes a capac- opposes the rise. By the same token, when the
itor to discharge more rapidly than a small current. source current starts to drop off, the inductor pro-
[Figure 3-177] duces a current that opposes the drop-off. This
action results in a waveform of low alternating volt-
When a capacitor is installed in a full-wave rectifier, age whose frequency is twice that of the source.
the action of the capacitor-input filter is the same as [Figure 3-179]
that in a half-wave circuit, except that the frequency
of the output ripple is twice as high. [Figure 3-178]
PI FILTER

CHOKE-INPUT FILTER An even more effective way to smooth out, or filter

DC current is to combine a capacitor and an induc-
As discussed in Section D, a choke is a type of tor. There are a number of arrangements of capaci-
inductor that when placed in series with the load, tors and inductors that can be used. One of the most
common is the capacitor-input filter whose circuit

Figure 3-179. When a choke-input filter is installed on a

Figure 3-177. One way to smooth out the flow of pulsating full-wave rectifier, the magnetic field in the choke induces a
DC is to install a capacitor across the load. When this is current that opposes the rise and drop-off of current. This
done, the capacitor discharges when the voltage drops and results in a low alternating voltage with a frequency twice
keeps the load voltage from dropping to zero. that of the source.
 3-84 Basic Electricity

diagram resembles the Greek letter pi (TT). In this a steady current flowing through the transistor
type of circuit, two high-capacity capacitors are and resistor Rc, whose voltage drop is opposite in
connected in parallel and one high impedance polarity to that of the battery. This results in a
inductor is connected in series with the load. The steady negative output current that is not as nega-
capacitors offer a minimum reactance to the ripple tive as the battery.
frequency of the rectified AC load, but do not allow
any flow of DC to ground. The inductor, on the other When a negative signal is put on the input between
hand, has a high opposition to the AC caused by the the base and the emitter across RB, the forward bias
ripple, but offers very little opposition to the flow of across the emitter-base increases. This results in
the DC. With this arrangement, the ripple frequency more current flow through the transistor and Rc.
AC is passed to ground and leaves an almost pure The increased flow increases the voltage drop
DC output. [Figure 3-180] across Rc which causes the output to become less
negative. During the half-cycle when the input sig-
nal is positive, the forward bias of the emitter-base
decreases and the transistor conducts less. This
decreases the voltage drop across resistor Rc, caus-
ing the output to become more negative.

In a common-emitter transistor amplifier, the

emitter-collector current is much greater than the
emitter-base current. The output current is similar
Figure 3-180. Pi-filter on a full-wave rectifier.
to, but opposite in phase to the input current.
[Figure 3-182]
AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier uses a very small change in either input In studying this basic transistor amplifier, you
should note a very important principle. When the
voltage or current to produce a large change in the
output voltage or current. A transistor is a low-imped- base of a PNP transistor is negative with respect to
ance device, which means that it uses a small change its emitter, the transistor conducts. When it is not
negative, it does not conduct. An NPN transistor
in current in the emitter-base circuit to cause a large
works in the same way, except its base must be pos-
change in the current in the emitter-collector circuit.
itive for it to conduct.
In a common-emitter amplifier such as that in figure
3-181, the transistor is installed in such a way that
OSCILLATORS
the forward-bias for the emitter-base junction is pro-
vided by the voltage drop across resistor RB, and the In order to better understand electronic oscillation,
reverse bias for the collector-base junction is pro- let's briefly review resonance in a parallel L-C cir-
vided by the voltage drop across resistors RA and Rc. cuit, or tank circuit. You saw earlier that when the
When there is no signal voltage across RB, there is value of a capacitor and an inductor are chosen so

Figure 3-181. A small voltage applied to the input of a transistor amplifier causes a large change in the output current. However,
the output voltage is 180 degrees out of phase.
Basic Electricity 3-85

Figure 3-182. Current flows in the emitter-collector circuit of a transistor amplifier when current flows in the emitter-base circuit.

that their reactances at a particular frequency are stored in capacitor C2 as it discharges. Furthermore,
the same, the energy stored in the electromagnetic as C2 discharges, the forward bias on the transistor's
field around the inductor is exactly the same as the emitter-base junction decreases and the transistor
energy stored in the electrostatic field across the conducts less, thereby decreasing the current in Lt.
plates of the capacitor. When this occurs, a large This decrease in current induces a voltage into L2
amount of current circulates back and forth between which charges capacitor C2 in such a direction that
the inductor and the capacitor, while little source it decreases the transistor's forward bias and even-
current flows through the circuit. Also recall that tually reverse-biases the emitter-base junction caus-
the current would continue to flow back and forth, ing current to stop flowing. When this happens, C^
or oscillate, indefinitely if there were no circuit and C2 are both fully charged and the cycle repeats
resistance. However, as you know, all practical cir- itself. [Figure 3-183]
cuits have some resistance. Therefore, in order for
an electronic oscillator to function, the feedback
from the output back into the input must be ampli-
fied with the proper phase to replace the energy that
is lost in the resistance.

When switch S in figure 3-183 is closed, current

begins to flow in the circuit. The transistor is biased
through the voltage divider, RB and RA, and current
flows through the lower half of the tapped coil at La.
As the current increases in the coil, it induces a
voltage into L2, the upper half of the coil. Voltage
flows through L2 and charges capacitor C2 which
increases the forward bias on the transistor and fur-
ther increases the current flow. By the time maxi-
mum current flows in the circuit, there is no more
voltage induced into L2 from La. At this point, all of
the energy stored in the tank circuit is in the elec-
trostatic fields in the capacitor Ca. Since there is no
excess force left to push electrons into capacitor Cl9
it discharges, and the energy lost is made up by that Figure 3-183. A Hartley oscillator using a transistor.
 3-86 Basic Electricity

The frequency of the oscillation is determined by LOGIC GATES

the value of the capacitor and the inductor. By vary-
ing either one, the frequency of the alternating cur- Logic gates represent digitally controlled binary cir-
rent produced by the oscillator can be changed. cuits used in computers and microprocessors. To
understand their function and purpose, recall the
discussion on the binary number system from
FULL-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER Chapter 1. If you recall, the only real option in an
electrical circuit is ON or OFF. Therefore, a number
A circuit consisting of three capacitors and two system based on only two digits is used to create
diodes can be used to provide direct current with a electronic calculations. For example, when a circuit
voltage almost twice the peak input AC voltage. An is ON, a 1 is represented, and when a circuit is OFF,
illustration of the circuit arrangement needed to do a 0 is indicated. By converting these ON or OFF
this is in figure 3-184. During the half cycle when messages to represent numbers found in the deci-
the top of the power source is positive, current mal system, a computer can perform complex tasks.
flows through diode Da to fully charge capacitor Ct. [Figure 3-185]
During the next half-cycle, when the bottom termi-
nal of the power source is positive, current flows
through D 2 and fully charges capacitor C2 .
Capacitors Ca and C2 are in series across capacitor
C3, which charges to twice the voltage of the input.

The DC output voltage depends to a great extent on

the amount of load current that flows. When a
low-output current is produced, the DC voltage is
approximately twice the peak value of the source
AC.

Figure 3-185. In a simple circuit with a switch representing

the input and a light representing the output, when the
input is 0, the output will be 0. If the input is 1 then the out-
put will be 1.

A truth table depicts the combinations of switch

positions and their resulting outputs. At times, a
truth table can be a helpful means of understanding
how a specific logic gate operates.

The most common logic gates used are the AND

gate, OR gate, NAND gate, NOR gate, and the exclu-
sive OR gate. The name given to each gate repre-
sents the task it performs. For example, in an AND
gate, every input must be 1 (on) in order for the out-
put to be 1 (on). This is similar to having two
switches connected in series with a light. In this
type of circuit, switch number 1 AND switch num-
ber 2 must be on (1) before the light can turn on (1).
If either switch is off (0), the light remains off (0).
[Figure 3-186]

The OR gate requires that one OR more of the inputs

be 1 (on) to produce a 1 (on) output. In other words,
if input number 1 OR input number 2 is 1 (on), the
Figure 3-184. (A)   During the first half-cycle, capacitor C, output will be 1 (on). Another way of expressing the
charges to full line voltage. (B)   During the second
half-cycle, capacitor C2 charges to full line voltage. Since C, and OR function is if all inputs are 0 (off), the output
C2 are in series across C3, it charges to double the line
voltage.
Basic Electricity 3-87

Figure 3-188. The symbol for a two-input NAND gate is illus-

trated along with its truth table. A NAND gate produces a 1
(on) output when either input is 0 (off).

the output side. The circle indicates the negation or

inversion of the symbol. [Figure 3-188]
Figure 3-186. The symbol for a two-input AND gate is illus-
trated along with its corresponding truth table. The AND
gate is similar to a simple series circuit consisting of two The operation of a NOR gate, or NOT OR gate, is the
switches and a light. Both inputs must be 1 (on) to get an inverse of the operation of an OR gate. A NOR gate
output of 1 (on). gives a 0 (off) output anytime there is a 1 (on) input.
[Figure 3-189]
will be 0 (off). An electrical circuit that is similar to
an OR gate is represented by two switches con-
nected in parallel with a light. In this situation, if
either switch number 1 OR switch number 2 is on
(1), the light will turn on (1). [Figure 3-187]

The function of a NAND gate, or NOT AND gate, is

opposite that of an AND gate. For example, the out-
put of a NAND gate is 1 (on) when input number 1
or input number 2 are NOT 1 (off). In other words,
at least one of the inputs must be 0 (off) to produce
an output of 1 (on). The symbol for a NAND gate is Figure 3-189. The symbol for a two-input NOR gate is illus-
the same as the AND symbol with a small circle on trated along with its truth table. For a NOR gate, if either
input is 1 (on), the output is 0 (off).

The EXCLUSIVE OR gate produces an output of 1

(on) when one and only one of its inputs is 1 (on).
In other words, if both inputs are 1 (on) or 0 (off),
the output is 0 (off). [Figure 3-190]

Figure 3-187. The symbol for a two-input OR gate is illus-

trated along with its corresponding truth table. The OR gate Figure 3-190. The symbol for a two-input EXCLUSIVE OR
is similar to a circuit with two parallel switches connected gate is illustrated along with its truth table. An EXCLUSIVE
in parallel with a light. If either input is 1 (on), the output OR gate produces a 1 (on) output when one and only one of
will be 1 (on). its inputs is 1 (on).
 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Measurement of electrical quantities is essential to

the maintenance of any modern device. As a techni-
cian you must be able to measure each of the four
electrical variables: current, voltage, resistance, and
power. There have been a number of principles used
for these measurements, but by far the most com-
mon is electromagnetism. It is based on two funda-
mental assumptions:
Figure 3-191. As current flows through the coil of a
1. The strength of an electromagnetic field is pro D'Arsonval-type meter, the coil obtains a magnetic field
portional to the amount of current that flows in with the same polarity as the permanent magnet. The like
magnetic fields oppose each other causing the meter indi-
the coil. cator to rotate.
2. Voltage, resistance, and power all relate to a
flow of current, and if the amount of current is
known, the other values may be found. METER RATINGS AND TERMS
Before using a basic meter you need to understand
some of the terms associated with it. For example,
full-scale current is the amount of current that must
THE D'ARSONVAL METER flow through the meter coil to cause a full scale
The most widely used meter movement is the deflection. The amount of current required to do
D'Arsonval movement, whose pointer deflects an this varies with the scale the meter is set to.
amount proportional to the current flowing through
its moving coil. A reference magnetic field is cre-
ated by a horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet, and
its field is concentrated by a cylindrical keeper in
the center of the open end.

The current being measured flows through the coil

and creates a magnetic field whose polarity is the The measurement of meter sensitivity is the recip-
same as that of the permanent magnet. The two rocal value of the full-scale current and represents
fields thus oppose each other and cause the coil to the total amount of resistance for each volt needed
rotate on its low-friction bearings until the force of to produce a full-scale current. For example, a meter
a calibrated hairspring exactly balances the force that requires 1 milliamp (.001 amp) of current to
caused by the magnetic fields. [Figure 3-191] produce a full-scale deflection requires 1,000 ohms
of resistance to limit the current through the meter
to 1 milliamp. This meter is said to have a sensitiv-
ity of 1,000 ohms per volt.
Oscillation of the pointer is minimized by electro-
magnetic damping. The moving coil is wound
around a thin aluminum bobbin, or frame, and as Many multimeters have a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms
this frame moves back and forth in the concentrated per volt. These meters require 50 microamps of cur-
magnetic field, eddy currents are generated within rent to move the pointer full scale. Highly sensitive
the bobbin that produce their own fields which meters are used for applications that require precise
oppose the movement. measurement of very small electrical quantities.
Basic Electricity 3-89

The total resistance of a meter, also known as meter has an internal resistance of 50 ohms, you can use
resistance, must be considered when making com- Ohm's law to determine that a full scale deflection
putations regarding the current through the meter. occurs when the meter is connected across a volt-
Both the moving coil and the hairsprings have resis- age of 50 millivolts.
tance, and in some meters there is a temperature
compensating resistor in series with the coil. This E = IR
resistor is made of a material whose resistance
decreases with an increase in temperature, which is = .001 x 50
opposite to the change in resistance in a coil. As a
result, the meter resistance remains constant as the - .050 volts
temperature changes.
Therefore, if you want a full-scale deflection to
occur when 10 milliamps flows through the meter,
AMMETERS, MILLIAMMETERS, the shunt must produce a voltage drop of 50 milli-
AND MICROAMMETERS volts when 9 milliamps flows through it. To deter-
If the range of current to be measured is greater than mine the resistance needed to do this, use Ohm's
the full-scale current of a particular meter, a shunt law again.
must be installed in parallel with the meter. A shunt
is a type of resistor that is connected in parallel with Rshunt = E ~ I
a meter that increases the amount of current it can
measure. The load current flowing through a shunt = 0.050 4- 0.009 =
produces a voltage drop that is proportional to the
current. The meter displays this voltage drop in 5.55 ohms
terms of amps, milliamps, or microamps. The stan-
dard aircraft shunt produces a voltage drop of 50 In this example, when the meter is connected in
millivolts when its rated current flows through it. parallel with a 5.55-ohm shunt, full scale deflection
[Figure 3-192] occurs when 1 milliamp flows through the meter
and 9 milliamps through the shunt.
It is sometimes necessary to extend the range of an
ammeter by using a precision resistor as a shunt. VOLTMETERS
For example, assume that you want a meter to
deflect full scale when 10 milliamps flows through A D'Arsonval meter can be used to measure voltage
the meter and shunt combination. If the meter by connecting resistance in series with the meter
requires 1 milliamp for full-scale deflection and movement. This limits the current flow to a value
which results in full scale deflection. For example,
if a 1 milliampere meter with a resistance of 1,000
ohms is used to measure the voltage across a 1.5 volt
battery, how much additional resistance must be
connected in series with the meter to limit the cur-
rent to 1 milliampere? To determine this you must
first calculate the total resistance required using
Ohm's law.
Given:
E = 1.5 volts
I = .001 amps

E = IR

R = 1.5 -f- .001

R = 1,500 ohms

A total of 1,500 ohms of resistance is required to

Figure 3-192. The voltage drop across an ammeter shunt is limit the current to 1 milliampere. However, since
proportional to the amount of current flowing through it. the meter already has a resistance of 1,000 ohms
3-90 Basic Electricity

only 500 ohms of additional resistance is required.

[Figure 3-193]

Figure 3-194. When the meter is used to measure 1.5 volts,

the test leads are connected to the common terminal and
the 1.5-volt terminal. Current then flows through the meter
and the 500-ohm resistor. To measure 15 volts, the current
flows through the meter, the 500-ohm, and the 13,500-ohm
Figure 3-193. If 1 milliamp produces a full-scale deflection in multiplier resistors. The total resistance in the circuit is
a meter with a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms per volt and a resis- 15,000 ohms. To measure voltages as high as 1,500 volts,
tance of 1,000 ohms, then an additional 500 ohms of resis- the current must flow through all of the resistors in the volt-
tance is required to measure the voltage across a 1.5 volt meter circuit.
battery.

Because the battery voltage changes with use, the

A resistor that is placed in series with the meter
variable resistor is used to "zero," or standardize,
movement is called a multiplier resistor, or multi-
plier, because it multiplies a meter's basic range. the meter before each use. To set the meter up for
Multi-range voltmeters use one meter movement use, hold the test leads together without touching
the metal leads and turn the zero adjusting knob
with several different multipliers. These multipliers
are usually arranged so the current for each until the meter indicates an exact full-scale deflec-
tion. When the leads are separated, the
suc-ceedingly higher range flows through the
needle
multipliers for all of the lower ranges. [Figure
3-194]

Instead of using separate terminals to measure dif-

ferent voltages, most multi-range meters use a selec-
tor switch. When using this type of meter, set the
switch to the voltage range that is higher than that
anticipated. After the meter is connected and the
needle is deflected, select the range which results in
a needle deflection in the center third of the scale.

OHMMETER
Resistance is most easily determined by measuring
the current through an unknown resistor when a
known voltage is placed across it. The series
ohm-meter uses small flashlight or penlight
batteries connected in series with a fixed resistor,
an adjustable resistor, and a meter. If a meter uses a
3.0 volt battery and has a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms Figure 3-195. In this circuit, if a resistance of 3,000 ohms, the
same as the total circuit resistance, is placed between the
per volt, the total resistance required to produce a test leads, the current drops to one-half of its original value.
full scale deflection equals 3,000 ohms. [Figure At this point, the meter indicates 3.0 kilo-ohms.
3-195]
Basic Electricity 3-91

drops back to the opposite side of the scale which

is sometimes marked with the symbol   >, This is
the symbol for infinity, and indicates that there is
an infinite resistance between the test leads, and
no current is flowing.

Since this meter has 500 ohms of meter resistance

and uses a 2,000 ohm fixed resistor, the variable
resistor must provide 500 ohms resistance with a
fully-charged battery to zero the meter. When a
resistor is placed between the test leads, the meter
circuit is completed and the meter indicator deflects
an amount proportional to the voltage dropped by
the unknown resistance. In this example, the indi-
cator moved to the middle of the scale, meaning that
the unknown resistance dropped exactly the same
voltage as the internal resistance of the meter.
Therefore, the value of the unknown resistance is
3,000 ohms.
Figure 3-196. The voltage across the standard resistor is pro-
portional to the current through the unknown resistance. A
The scale on a series ohmmeter is nonlinear, mean- sensitive meter having a high internal resistance is used to
ing that there is no uniform distance between the measure the voltage drop across the standard resistor;
graduations. The numbers are widely separated at hence the name potentiometer-type ohmmeter.
the low-range end and are close at the high end. To
obtain the most accurate measurement of resistance,
you should use a scale that results in a pointer SHUNT-TYPE OHMMETER
deflection in the center third of the dial. Different
resistance ranges are selected by using different val- It is sometimes necessary to measure very low resis-
ues of battery voltage and fixed resistance. tances, such as that of the primary winding of a
magneto coil. To do this, a shunt-type ohmmeter is
used. The shunt-type ohmmeter uses a meter with a
POTENTIOMETER-TYPE OHMMETER very low internal resistance connected in series
with a switch, a fixed resistor, a variable resistor,
The series-type ohmmeter has a shortcoming in that and a power source. [Figure 3-197]
resistances on the high end of the scale are crowded
together on the meter face. This problem is solved to
some extent by the potentiometer-type ohmmeter.
Although the scale on a potentiometer-type ohmme-
ter is still nonlinear, the meter face is not crowded
nearly as bad. To accomplish this, a low resistance
resistor is connected in series with the battery and
the resistance to be measured. This sets up a voltage
divider circuit. [Figure 3-196]

Rather than being calibrated in volts or millivolts,

the meter dial on an ohmmeter is calibrated in
ohms. When the test leads are shorted together, all
of the battery voltage is dropped across the standard
resistor, and the meter is adjusted with the zero-set
variable resistor. At this point, the indicator reads
zero since there is no resistance between the leads.
When the leads are separated, the battery circuit is
open and no current can flow. The point at which Figure 3-197. This shunt-type ohmmeter consists of a meter
with an internal resistance of 4 ohms connected in series
the needle rests is marked   >, indicating that there is with a switch, a 4,000-ohm fixed resistor a 600-ohm variable
an infinite resistance between the leads. resistor, and a 4.5 volt power source.
3-92 Basic Electricity

The unknown resistance is placed between the ter- injury to personnel. Some maintenance organiza-
minals in parallel with the meter movement. The tions or companies limit or prohibit the use of meg-
smaller the resistance value being measured, the gers. [Figure 3-198]
less current flows through the meter movement.

The value of the fixed resistor is usually large com-

pared to the resistance of the meter movement. This MULTIMETERS
keeps the current drawn from the battery practically The most versatile electrical measuring instru-
constant. Thus, the value of the unknown resistor ment used by the aircraft technician is the multi-
determines how much constant current flows meter. This handy tool has a single meter move-
through the meter and how much through the ment and a selector switch which is used to select
unknown resistor. what you are measuring as well as the appropriate
range. [Figure 3-199]

MEGOHMMETER
ANALOG MULTIMETERS
It is sometimes necessary to measure very high resis-
tance values that require a voltage in excess of that Analog multimeters typically have voltage ranges
provided by a standard ohmmeter. For this applica- from 0 to 2.5, 10, 50, 250, 1,000, and 5,000 volts for
tion the megohmmeter, or megger, is used. A both AC and DC. They can measure amperes in
hand-cranked generator with a slip clutch allows the ranges of 100 microamperes; 10, 100, and 500
operator to produce a voltage of several hundred mil-liamps; and 10 amps. Ranges for resistance
volts. When the leads are separated and the crank is typically include from 0-2,000 ohms, 0-200,000
turned, the pointer deflects fully to the left, ohms, and 0-20 megohms. Most analog meters
indicating that there is an infinite resistance usually have a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms per volt
between the leads. When a high resistance is for measuring DC. However, because of the
placed between the leads, a second coil within the rectifier circuit, the sensitivity for AC is typically
meter pulls the needle to the proper resistance 1,000 ohms per volt. All analog multimeters have a
measurement. Meggers are often used for "zero adjust" knob to reset the scale as the internal
measuring insulation resistance in ignition systems battery discharges with time and usage.
and other high-voltage circuits.
DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
It is important that you exercise caution when test-
ing resistance with a megger. The high voltage gen- In addition to the analog multimeters, there are sev-
erated by the megger can arc to ground through eral digital multimeters, or DMMs that are used
defective insulation in a wire being tested and, if within the industry. In addition to the tasks an ana-
conditions are right, cause damage to equipment or log meter can perform, several upper-end digital

Figure 3-198. A megohmmeter measures high resistances

by applying a high voltage across the resistance being Figure 3-199. The multimeter is one of the most useful elec-
measured. trical measuring instruments used by the A&P technician.
Basic Electricity 3-93

multimeters can measure frequency and test diodes. ACCURACY

However, the primary difference between analog
A meter's accuracy is the largest allowable error that
and digital multimeters is the way the information
occurs under specific operating conditions. In other
is displayed. [Figure 3-200]
words, it is an indication of how close a meter's dis-
played measurement is to the actual value of the sig-
nal being measured. Accuracy for a meter is usually
expressed as a percent of reading. An accuracy of
RESOLUTION
  1 percent means that for a displayed reading of
Resolution refers to how small a measurement a 100.0 volts, the actual value of the voltage could be
meter can make. The terms bits and counts are used anywhere between 99.0 volts to 101.0 volts.
to describe a meter's resolution. Digital multimeters Specifications may also include a range of digits
are grouped by the number of counts or digits they added to the basic accuracy specification. This indi-
display. A 3-1/2 digit meter, for example, can dis- cates how many counts the digit to the extreme right
play three full digits ranging from 0 to 9, and one of the display may vary. Therefore, an accuracy of
"half" digit which displays a 1 or is left blank.   (1 percent + 2) indicates that for a display reading
Therefore, a 3-1/2 digit meter displays up to 1,999 of 100.0 volts the actual voltage is between 98.8
counts of resolution. It is more precise to describe a volts and 101.2 volts.
meter by counts of resolution rather than by 3-1/2 or
4-1/2 digits. Today's 3-1/2 digit meters may have For high accuracy and resolution, the digital display
enhanced resolution of up to 3,200 or 4,000 counts. excels, showing three or more digits for each mea-

Figure 3-200. A digital multimeter can have a great many special features that differ from an analog multimeter.
3-94 Basic Electricity

surement. The analog needle display is less accurate or if it is too high or too low, the voltage problem
and has lower effective resolution since you must should be corrected before investigating further.
estimate values between the lines. [Figure 3-201]

The waveforms associated with AC voltages are either

Some DMMs have a bar graph display. A bar graph sinusoidal (sine waves) or non sinusoidal (sawtooth,
shows changes and trends in a signal just like an square, ripple, etc.). DMMs display the
analog needle, but is more durable and less prone root-mean-square, or RMS value of these voltage
to damage. waveforms. The RMS value is the effective or
equivalent DC value of the AC voltage. Most meters,
called "average responding," give accurate RMS
MEASURING VOLTAGE readings if the AC voltage signal is a pure sine wave.
One of the most basic tasks a multimeter performs is Averaging meters are not capable of measuring
measuring voltage. Testing for proper supply volt- non-sinusoidal signals accurately. Special DMMs,
age is usually the first thing measured when trou- called "true-RMS" DMMs, accurately measure the
bleshooting a circuit. If there is no voltage present, correct RMS value, regardless of the waveform, and
should be used for non sinusoidal signals.

Figure 3-201. For DC readings of the correct polarity, touch the red test probe to the positive side of the circuit, and the black probe
to the negative side or circuit ground. If you reverse the connections, a DMM with auto polarity merely displays a minus sign indi-
cating negative polarity. However, with an analog meter you risk damaging the meter.
Basic Electricity 3-95

A DMM's ability to measure AC voltage can be lim- As you know, resistance is measured in ohms (Q).
ited by the frequency of the signal. Most DMMs can Resistance values may vary from a few milliohms
accurately measure AC voltages with frequencies (mQ) for contact resistance to billions of ohms for
from 50 Hz to 500 Hz, while others can measure AC insulators. Most DMMs can measure a resistance as
voltages with frequencies from 20 Hz to 100 kHz. small as 0.1 ohm, and some measure as high as 300
DMM accuracy specifications for AC voltage and megaohms (300,000,000 ohms). Infinite resistance is
AC current should state the frequency range of a sig- read as "OL" on some displays and means the resis-
nal the meter can accurately measure. tance is greater than the meter can measure. Open
circuits also read OL on some displays.

Resistance measurements must be made with the

RESISTANCE
circuit power off. If power is left on, you may dam-
Resistance measurements allow a technician to age the meter and the circuit. Some DMMs provide
determine the resistance of a conductor, the protection in the ohms mode in case of accidental
value of a resistor, or check the operation of a contact with voltages. The level of protection varies
variable resistor. greatly between different models. [Figure 3-202]

HOW TO MAKE RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

©
NOTE: 1,000Ct =
. CONNECT THE PROBE TIPS
1,000,000^ =
ACROSS THE COMPONENT
TURN OFF POWER
OR PORTION OF THE
TO THE
CIRCUIT FOR WHICH YOU
CIRCUIT
© WANT TO DETERMINE
RESISTANCE.

©2
SEL
ECT
RESISTANCE (Q)
M
A
K VIEW THE READING, BEING
E SURE TO NOTE THE UNIT
OF MEASUREMENT-OHMS
S (Q), KILOHMS (kQ), OR
U MEGOHMS (M< >)
R
E

PLUG THE BLACK TEST.

PROBE INTO THE COM
INPUT JACK. PLUG
THE RED TEST PROBE INTO
THE Q INPUT JACK.
T
H
E

P
OWER IS OFF BEFORE MAKING RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS!

Figure 3-202. Using a DMM, resistance measurements should never be made with the circuit powered up.
3-96 Basic Electricity

For accurate low resistance measurements, the resis- switches, and facilitate the tracing of circuit paths.
tance in the test leads must be subtracted from the A DMM with a continuity beeper allows you to con-
total resistance measured. Typical test lead resistance duct many continuity tests easily and quickly. The
is between 0.2 and 0.5 ohms. If the resistance is greater meter beeps when it detects a closed circuit, so you
than 1 ohm, they should be replaced. If a multimeter don't have to look at the meter as you test. The level
supplies less than 0.3 volts DC test voltage for mea- of resistance required to trigger the beeper varies
suring resistance, it can measure the values of resistors from model to model of DMM.
that are isolated in a circuit by diodes from semicon-
ductor junctions. This often allows you to test resistors
MEASURING CURRENT
on a circuit board without unsoldering them.
Current tests help determine circuit overloads, cir-
cuit operating currents, or current in different
CONTINUITY branches of a circuit. Current measurements are dif-
Continuity tests distinguish good fuses from bad ferent from other measurements made with a multi-
ones, open or shorted conductors, the operation of meter in that current is measured in series, unlike

TURN OFF THE POWER CONNECT THE PROBE TIPS

TO THE CIRCUIT. TO THE CIRCUIT ACROSS
CUT OR UNSOLDER THE THE BREAK AS SHOWN SO
CIRCUIT, CREATING A THAT ALL CURRENT WILL
PLACE WHERE THE METER FLOW THROUGH THE
PROBES CAN BE INSERTED. METER (A SERIES
CONNECTION).

TURN THE CIRCUIT

POWER BACK ON.

©
VIEW THE READING, BEING
SURE TO NOTE THE UNIT
OF MEASUREMENT.
SELECT AMPS (A~), OR
AMPS DC (Arr.).
AS DESIRED.
©
PLUG THE BLACK TEST
PROBE INTO THE COM
INPUT JACK. PLUG THE
RED TEST PROBE INTO NOTE: IF TEST LEADS ARE
THE 10 AMP (10A) OR REVERSED, A (-) SIGN WILL
300 MILLIAMP (300mA) SHOW IN THE DISPLAY.
INPUT JACK DEPENDING
ON THE EXPECTED VALUE
OF THE READING.

HOW TO MAKE CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

NEVER ATTEMPT A VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
WITH THE TEST PROBES IN THE CURRENT JACKS.
METER DAMAGE OR PERSONAL INJURY MAY RESULT!

Figure 3-203. Always make sure the power is off before cutting or unsoldering the circuit and inserting a multimeter for current
measurements. Even small amounts of current can be dangerous.
Basic Electricity 3-97

voltage or resistance measurements, which are hand, is connected across the load, and its magnetic
made in parallel. This allows the entire current strength is proportional to the amount of voltage
being measured to flow through the meter. On most dropped across the load. The magnetic fields caused
multimeters, the test leads must be plugged into a by the current and the voltage react with each other
different set of input jacks to measure current. to move the pointer an amount that is proportional
[Figure 3-203] to the power dissipated by the load. [Figure 3-204]

Electrodynamometer wattmeters may be used in

SAFETY CHECKLIST either DC or AC circuits. In an AC circuit they mea-
Meters must frequently be used in operating electric sure true power, because even if the current and
circuits. As a result, the risk of electric shock is voltage are out of phase, they will also be out of
often present. To avoid injury to personnel and phase within each of the coils of the instrument.
damage to equipment, follow these basic safety The resultant field causes the pointer to deflect an
rules when using measuring instruments. amount proportional to the true power rather than
the apparent power. The apparent power in an AC
circuit is found by measuring the current with an
1. Use a meter that meets accepted safety stan
AC ammeter and the voltage with an AC voltmeter.
dards. The product of these two values is the apparent
2. Use a meter with fused current inputs and be power.
sure to check the fuses before making current
measurements.
Apparent power (volt-amps) = volts x amps
3. Inspect test leads for physical damage before
making a measurement.
The power factor of a circuit can be found as the
4. Use the meter to check continuity of the test
quotient of the true power divided by the apparent
leads.
power.
5. Only use test leads that have shrouded connec
tors and finger guards. Power factor = True power (watts)
6. Only use meters with recessed input jacks. Apparent power (volt-amps)
7. Select the proper function and range for your
measurement.
8. Follow all equipment safety procedures.
9. Always disconnect the "hot" (red) test lead first.
10. Don't work alone.
11. Use a meter which has overload protection on
the ohms function.
12. When measuring current without a
current
clamp, turn the power off before connecting
into the circuit.
13. Be aware of high current and high voltage situa
tions and use the appropriate equipment, such
as high voltage probes and high current clamps.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER
WATTMETER
An electro dynamometer operates in a manner simi-
lar to a D'Arsonval meter, except that an electro-
magnet is used instead of a permanent magnet to
produce the fixed field. The electromagnet consists Figure 3-204. In an electrodynamometer-type wattmeter,
of a large coil of heavy wire connected in series with coils of wire replace the permanent magnet. Since these
coils are connected in series with the load, the force of the
the load. Since the electromagnet is connected to electromagnetic field varies with the current through the
the load, the strength of the magnetic field is pro- load. The movable voltage coil is connected across the load
portional to the amount of current flowing through and is therefore controlled by voltage.
the load. The movable voltage coil, on the other
3-98 Basic Electricity

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER VOLTMETERS
AND AMMETERS
Electro dynamometers are used as voltmeters and
ammeters to measure both DC and AC values. An
electrodynamometer can measure AC since the
polarity of both the fixed and movable fields reverse
at the same time. The sensitivity of this type of
meter is considerably lower than that of the
D'Arsonval-type meter. [Figure 3-205]

REPULSION-TYPE
MOVING-VANE METERS
The repulsion-type moving-vane meter, like the
electrodynamometer, can be used to measure either
AC or DC voltage or current. If the meter is used as
an ammeter, its coil has relatively few turns of
Figure 3-206. A repulsion-type moving-vane meter can be
heavy wire. However, if it is designed as a voltmeter, used in either AC or DC circuits. This principle is used for
the coil has several turns of fine wire. Inside the coil ammeters and voltmeters.
there are two vanes, one fixed and the other mov-
able. The pointer staff is attached to the movable
vane by a calibrated hairspring. When current flows
in the coil, both the fixed and moving vanes are
magnetized with the same polarity, therefore, they D'ARSONVAL METERS
repel each other. This action drives the pointer. The WITH RECTIFIERS
greater the current, the farther the pointer deflects.
It makes no difference in which direction the cur- D'Arsonval meter movements can be adapted for
rent flows, the pointer always deflects upscale. It is use in AC circuits by using a rectifier to change
for this reason that moving-vane meters can be used AC into DC before it flows through the meter coil.
on AC circuits without a rectifier. [Figure 3-206] Once this is done, meter indications are identical
to those obtained when measuring direct current.
Most D'Arsonval meters used in AC circuits
employ a four-diode full-wave bridge-type recti-
fier. [Figure 3-207]

Figure 3-207. D'Arsonval meters must use a rectifier such as

Figure 3-205. An electrodynamometer-type voltmeter can be this four-diode, bridge-type, full-wave rectifier when they
used in either AC or DC circuits. are used in an AC circuit.
Basic Electricity 3-99

THERMOCOUPLE-TYPE AMMETERS current increases. As a result, when the current

doubles, there is four times as much deflection.
Low-frequency alternating current can be measured [Figure 3-208]
with an electrodynamometer or by a repulsion-type
moving-vane meter. However, these meters do not
work when the frequency is in the kilohertz or VIBRATING-REED FREQUENCY
megahertz range. For these applications, the ther- METERS
mocouple type indicator is used. In a thermocou-
ple-type indicator, the alternating current being For precise frequency measurement, integrated cir-
measured passes through a small piece of resistance cuit chips having clock circuits are used to actually
wire inside the meter case. The greater the amount count the cycles in a given time period. However, a
of current, the more the wire is heated. A thermo- much simpler type of frequency meter is used for
couple made of two dissimilar metals welded determining the frequency of the AC produced by
together is attached to the resistance wire. The aircraft alternators. These frequency meters use a
other ends of the thermocouple are connected to series of metal reeds of different lengths. The center
the moving coil of a D'Arsonval-type meter move- reed has a resonant frequency of exactly 400 hertz
ment. A voltage is generated in the thermocouple while the reeds on one side have a higher resonant
that is proportional to the difference in the temper- frequency, and those on the opposite side have a
ature between the two junctions. Since the junction lower resonant frequency.
at the meter movement has a relatively constant
temperature, the amount of voltage, and therefore Alternating current flows through a coil that is
the current, through the meter is proportional to the wound around the fixture holding the reeds. The
temperature of the resistance wire. The meter scale magnetic fields generated by the AC cause the fix-
is calibrated in amperes, and since the amount of ture to vibrate at the applied AC frequency. The reed
heat produced in the wire is a function of the whose natural resonant frequency is that of the AC
square of the current (P = I2 x R), the scale is not vibrates with a large amplitude and shows up as a
uniform. Therefore, the numbers are close together blur. The other reeds remain stationary or move
on the low end of the scale and spread out as the with far less amplitude. [Figure 3-209]

Figure 3-208. Thermocouple-type ammeters are useful for

measuring high-frequency alternating current. Their opera-
tion is based on the amount of heat a given value of AC
produces in a resistance wire. The heat transfers to a ther-
mocouple which produces a small voltage that causes the
needle to deflect. Figure 3-209. A vibrating-reed type frequency meter.
 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING

USING METERS
When it comes to troubleshooting electrical circuits,
there are two basic instruments used. They are the
voltmeter and the ohmmeter. It is extremely impor-
tant for you to understand that the voltmeter is used
to find circuit problems with power on the circuit,
One of an aviation maintenance technician's while the ohmmeter is used only when the power is
most important jobs is the analysis of faults, or removed from the circuit. If an ohmmeter is used on
as it is more commonly called, troubleshooting. a circuit that is energized, the meter will probably
By definition, troubleshooting is the process of be damaged. When using a meter for troubleshoot-
locating the cause or causes of a malfunction. ing there are a few rules to remember.
Systematic troubleshooting allows you to find
the cause of a problem and intelligently choose
the correct solution.
1. Voltage measurements are taken by placing the
meter across (parallel to) the component.
2. The battery negative terminal, or ground, is con
PRINCIPLES OF sidered to be the zero reference for voltage.
TROUBLESHOOTING 3. When a voltmeter is placed across an open com
ponent in a series circuit, it reads the battery, or
Electrical troubleshooting is very similar to that
of any other system. When there is a malfunction applied voltage.
or a problem, you must first find out exactly how 4. When a voltmeter is placed across a functioning
component in an open circuit, the voltmeter
the system should operate. Only when you
clearly understand what should be happening are reads zero.
you able to find the problem. The difference 5. When an ohmmeter is properly
connected
between what is actually happening and what
across a circuit component and a
should happen is a clear statement of the prob-
resistance
lem. More often than not, when a problem is
clearly stated, its cause and solution are evident. reading is obtained, the component has conti
nuity and is not open.
6. Current measurements are taken by connecting
the meter in series with the component being
Before you can begin troubleshooting, there are tested.
two basic terms you must be familiar with. The
first is the short circuit. A short circuit is simply
a low resistance path. It can be across a power
source or between two points in a circuit. When SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING
a short circuit is present, circuit resistance
When troubleshooting a system fault, you should
decreases and current flow increases. The
never assume you know what is wrong before you
increased flow can result in circuit over-heating
have all pertinent information. As an example, con-
and even burning of the conductor and circuit
sider a problem where the navigation lights on an
components.
airplane do not illuminate. When confronted with a
problem such as this, the first thing to do is review
the nav light electrical system. One way to do this is
An open circuit is a circuit that is not continuous to list the conditions that describe the situation as it
or complete. An open circuit is typically the should be:
result of a broken conductor or a damaged com-
ponent. For example, a burned out light bulb, a
loose connection, or burned out fuse all create an
open within a circuit.
Basic Electricity 3-101

1. The battery should be in the airplane and con this, set the multimeter on a DC voltage scale that is
nected. higher than the aircraft system voltage, and place
2. The master switch should be on. the negative test lead against the light socket and the
3. The navigation light circuit breaker must be in. positive lead against the center conductor. Assume
4. The navigation light switch should be on. that there is no voltage here. Now, have someone
5. All three navigation lights should illuminate. turn on the master and the nav light switch. If there
is no voltage reading, current is being stopped
somewhere between the switch and the light socket.
The next step is to go to the airplane and see what Figure 3-211 illustrates a typical nav light circuit.
is actually happening: You know there is voltage at point A because the
green and white lights are burning. However, there
is no voltage between points B and C. In this situa-
tion, there are two possibilities. The wire connect-
ing the lamp socket to the airframe may not be mak-
ing a good ground connection, or there is no con-
nection between point A and B. The easiest place to
check for a good ground is between point C, the case
of the lamp socket, and the airframe. Set the multi-
meter to the R x 1 ohmmeter scale and hold one test
lead on the aircraft structure while you touch the
lamp socket with the other lead. If the ground con-
nection is good, the ohmmeter should give an indi-
cation of zero resistance. If you find that the lamp
fixture is properly grounded, the trouble is most

The most logical condition, if only one light does

not illuminate, is a burned-out light bulb. At times
it can be difficult to visually check if a bulb's fila-
ment is damaged. Therefore, to check a bulb you
should remove it and check the continuity of the fil-
ament with an ohmmeter. With the meter set on the
R x 1 scale, touch one lead to the base of the bulb
and the other lead to the bulb's end. If some value of
resistance is indicated there is continuity. If there
were no continuity, the ohmmeter would read an
infinite resistance. [Figure 3-210]
If the bulb has continuity, the trouble is in the air-
Figure 3-210. To measure the continuity of a light bulb,
craft wiring. To see if current is getting to the light touch one lead to the base of the bulb and the other lead to
socket, connect a voltmeter across the socket. To do the bulb's end. If some value of resistance is indicated, the
bulb is good.
3-102 Basic Electricity

likely in the quick-disconnect fitting in the wing

root. This fitting allows the electrical circuits in the
wing to be disconnected when the wing is removed.
[Figure 3-211]

As an aviation maintenance technician you will fre-

quently encounter more complex circuit analysis
problems than the one just discussed. For example,
consider the circuit diagram in figure 3-212. The
diagram shows the electrical diagram for the land-
ing gear system of a tricycle gear aircraft. Suppose
the flight crew reported that when they put the gear
switch in the down position, the gear came down
and locked, but the green gear down light did not
illuminate. This condition indicates that there is a
problem within the indicator portion of the circuit.
Like the navigation light circuit discussed earlier,
the most logical thing to check first is if the indica-
tor light is burned out. To do this, begin by tracing Figure 3-211. A typical aircraft navigation light circuit.

Figure 3-212. A complex landing gear circuit.

Basic Electricity 3-103

the press-to-test circuit. Power comes off the bus

through a 5 amp circuit breaker and goes through
wires #7 and #17 to power the press-to-test func-
tion. If the bulb illuminates when you press it, you
know that the circuit breaker and lamp are good.
Further analysis of the circuit reveals that the only
path current can flow to the green light passes
through wire #6, the nose gear down switch, wire
#5, the left gear down switch, wire #4, the right gear
down switch, and finally wire #3 to the lamp. Since
this is the only path for current, there must be either
an open in one of the wires or a defective gear down
switch. To determine where the problem is, begin
checking for power at each of the switches begin-
ning at the circuit breaker.

To become familiar with circuit troubleshooting

procedures, try analyzing the affect a given fault
would have on a system. For example, what would
be the result of a break in wire #12?

Wire #12 powers the relay that supplies one side of

the gear actuator motor. Trace current flow from the
bus, through the 20 amp circuit breaker, to the gear Figure 3-213. When the main battery solenoid is connected
switch. When the aircraft is in the air and the gear in an aircraft electrical system as shown, a relatively small
up position is selected, current continues through amount of current is needed to close the contacts and sup-
ply power to the bus.
wire #13, wire #10, the up-limit switch, the gear
safety switch which changes position as soon as
weight is off the landing gear, and finally through When the master switch is OFF, there should be bat-
wire #12 to the relay coil. With the coil energized tery voltage at terminal SW. However, there should
the relay closes and current flows through wire #14 be no voltage between terminal A and the ground. If
to the motor and ground allowing the gear to be there is no voltage at the SW terminal when the
retracted. Based on this, if there were a break in master switch is off, there is a possibility of an open
wire #12, the relay would not close and power coil. To find out if this is the problem, disconnect
would not engage the motor to retract the gear. the wire from the SW terminal and, with the battery
disconnected, measure the continuity between ter-
minals B and SW with an ohmmeter. If the coil is
SOLENOIDS AND RELAYS intact, a low resistance will be indicated. However,
if there is an infinite resistance reading, the coil is
In most aircraft, the main battery solenoid is con- open, and the solenoid is defective.
nected in series between the battery and bus. To
energize the solenoid, the ground circuit for the coil
is completed through the aircraft master switch. When the master switch is ON, there should be no
Therefore, when the master switch is closed, cur- voltage at terminal SW since the master switch con-
rent flows through the solenoid's coil, causing the nects the SW end of the coil to ground. If there is
contacts to close and complete the circuit from the voltage at SW with the master switch ON, there is a
battery to the bus. [Figure 3-213] problem in the master switch circuit. With the coil
energized, the solenoid closes and supplies battery
voltage between A and ground. If no voltage exists
If, when the master switch is closed, there is no at terminal A, there is a problem with the solenoid.
voltage on the main bus, you can easily check the
solenoid with a voltmeter. Since the solenoid is con- Relays pose special challenges when troubleshoot-
nected directly to the battery, there should always ing complex circuits because they typically open or
be battery voltage at terminal B. close several switches at one time. As a result, actu-
3-104 Basic Electricity

Figure 3-214. A complex fuel crossfeed system schematic with multiple relays.

ating one relay often changes an entire circuit's point 1 and powers the FCF relay, which opens
operating characteristics. For example, figure 3-214 switches 9 and 18. This cuts power to relays PCC
shows a fuel system circuit containing several and TCC, which close switches 15 and 16. At the
relays. The notes in the upper right and top of the same time, switches 10 and 17 close, powering the
schematic state that the circuit is shown with no
power to the bus, and that all relays are spring
loaded to the positions shown.

When power is supplied to the bus, current flows

through the 5 amp circuit breaker on the right,
through the contacts at 18 FCF, through switch 20,
and actuates relay TCC to open the tank cross-feed
switch at 16. At the same time, current flows
through the 5 amp circuit breaker on the left side of
the bus and travels through points 5, 7, and 9,
through switch 11 in the fuel pressure cross-feed
valve, and powers relay PCC to the open position. In Figure 3-215. If there is an open in the primary winding, full
this configuration, current does not flow to source voltage exists between points A and B, but if the
the source is disconnected at either A or B, there is an infinite
cross-feed valve indicator lights in the cockpit. resistance between them. In an open secondary winding no
voltage will exist across points C and D. However, if the load
is disconnected at either point and some resistance is indi-
When the fuel selector switch is placed in the cated, the transformer is good.
cross-feed position, current from the bus flows
through
Basic Electricity 3-105

motors in the fuel pressure and fuel tank crossfeed of resistance with an ohmmeter. As a general rule, if
valves to the open position. When the valves fully a capacitor does not indicate infinite resistance, it is
open, switches 12 and 19 close, and current flows to probably short-circuited.
relays PCO and TCO which open the pump and tank
cross-feeds and close switches 13 and 14. The fuel An electrolytic capacitor, however, can be tested by
system is now cross-feeding fuel, and the cockpit using an ohmmeter on its R x 1 scale. When mea-
warning lights illuminate. suring its resistance, the ohmmeter needle should
deflect slightly up-scale as the capacitor charges,
and then come to rest at a high value of resistance.
TRANSFORMERS Now, reverse the leads. The needle should read far
up-scale (low resistance) for a short time and then
There are two problems that could cause a trans- come back to a high-resistance reading. This large
former to function improperly. Either one of the and temporary deflection of the pointer is caused by
windings could be open, or one of them could be the capacitor discharging before it recharges in the
shorted. If either winding of a transformer is open, no opposite direction. [Figure 3-216]
voltage flows out of the transformer to the load. For
example, with an open in the primary winding, no Another thing you must be aware of is that anytime
voltage is induced into the secondary winding. By you handle a high-voltage capacitor, you should
the same token, an open in the secondary winding short across its terminals before removing it from a
allows no power to flow to the load. [Figure 3-215] circuit. The reason for this is that some capacitors
can store enough of a charge that you can be injured
if it discharges through your body.
In a step-up transformer, the secondary winding
usually has a higher resistance than the primary.
However, in a step-down transformer, the secondary
winding usually has a very low resistance. When
measuring the resistance of either winding, it is
important that the transformer be removed from the
circuit. If this is not done, the shunting effect from
the rest of the circuit affects the resistance reading.
For example, if you attempt to measure the resis-
tance of the secondary winding without disconnect-
ing the load, the ohmmeter reads the resistance of
the load as well as that of the winding.

It is often difficult to find a shorted transformer

winding by measuring its resistance unless you have
an extremely accurate ohmmeter and know exactly
what the resistance should be. Therefore, it is easier
to determine if a coil is shorted by feeling the trans-
former after it has been operating for a while. If a
winding is shorted, the transformer heats up.

Another way to check for a shorted winding is to

measure the output voltage. If the input voltage is
the proper value and the output voltage is low, it is
a good indication that a winding is short-circuited.

CAPACITORS
It is difficult to check low-capacity capacitors for Figure 3-216. When checking an electrolytic capacitor with
an ohmmeter, the indicator will deflect momentarily toward
open circuits without a special tester. This is a low resistance value and then come to rest at a high resis-
because even good capacitors indicate some value tance value.
3-106________________________________________________________________________ Basic Electricity

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
A word of warning is needed here about checking cir- current when set on its R x 1 range to damage the
cuits with an electrical measuring instrument, such as meter being examined. If it is necessary to measure
a voltmeter or ammeter. Many of these meters use across a meter, be sure that the ohmmeter is on its
external multiplier resistors or shunts, and if an highest range. In this range, the minimum current
attempt is made to check continuity through the meter flows through the test leads, and most meters can be
itself, it is possible for the ohmmeter to put out enough checked for an open circuit without damaging them.