UNIT 3

INDIVIDUAL
DETERMINANTS OF OB - II

MR.T.SOMASUNDARAM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUIDES
KRISTU JAYANTI COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
BENGALURU
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 1
UNIT 3: INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - II
Perception: Meaning; Need; Perceptual
process; Perceptual mechanism; Factors
influencing perception; Motivation;
Meaning; Nature; Motivation process;
Theories of motivation (Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy Theory, Herzberg’s Two factor
Theory, McGregor Theory X & Y);
Learning: Meaning; Components of
learning; Theories of learning (Classical
conditioning and Operant conditioning
only); principles of learning. 2
 PERCEPTION
Meaning:

Perception means perceiving (i.e.) giving meaning
to the environment around us.

It is perceiving objects what we are faced with.

(E.g.) Looking at a painting some may perceive it as

beautiful, the others as ugly. Then, the question arises
is why the same objects is perceived/ understood
differently by different people.

The answer to it is perception which is a cognitive
(gaining of knowledge through thought and senses)
factor of human behavior. 3

The ability to see, here or become aware of something
through the senses, understanding something.

Individuals differ in the way of understanding and
appreciating the environment, things and people around
them.
(E.g.) one person may admire a piece of jewellery while others
may consider the
same as just average
and still another person
may find it unimpressive.

What appears to be

good to some may appear to

be bad to others.

This happens because of difference in perception. 4
Definition:
“Perception can be defined as the process of receiving,
selecting, organizing, interpreting (understanding),
checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
“Perception can be defined as a process by which
individuals organise and interpret (understand) their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.”
“Perception includes all those processes by which an
individual receives information about the environment
seeing, feeling, tasting and smelling. Perceptual process
shows functioning by three class like objects or event
perceived, environment in which perception occurs and
individual doing the perceiving.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 5
Stimuli:
 Stimuli play a vital role in perception.

 The word ‘stimuli’ is the plural form of stimulus.

STIMULUS - Make more active, interested or excited.

- Raise level of nervous activity in the body.
(E.g.) smell of the food.
Stimulus Means - anything that
excites or arouses a person.
Sensation and Perception:
* Sensation is the response of a
physical sensory organ
Eye – See Ears – Hear
Hands – Touch Nose – Smell
Tongue – Taste 6
 People usually mean sensation and perception the same.
But there is a clear cut distinction between the two.
 In simple words sensation may be described as the
response of a physical sensory organ to some stimuli
(our physical sensory organ often reacts to these stimuli).
 The reaction of our eyes to colour, ears to sound, and so
on are examples of our every day sensations.
 Perception is much more than sensation.
 Perception depends upon the sensory raw data, yet it
involves a process that includes filtering, modifying (or)
even changing these raw data to make sense out of
them.
 Result from sensation is called perception.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 7
 NEED OF PERCEPTION
Need of the Perception:
i) Perception is very important in understanding the human
behaviour, because every person perceives the world and
approaches the life problems differently.
ii) It can predict their behaviour in the changed circumstances
by understanding their present perception of the
environment.
iii) With the help of perception, the needs of various people
can be determined, because people’s perception is
influenced by their needs.
iv) Perception is very important for the manager who wants to
avoid making errors when dealing with people and events
in the work setting. 8
 DETERMINANTS OF
PERCEPTION
Determinants of Perception:
The various determinants of Perception are as follows –
1. Qualities of the Perceiver (Employees):
It includes – Personality and Experience.
- Needs (Monetary benefits)
- Attitude (positive attitude)
- Value system (A system does the perceiver have influence
his perception).
2. Qualities of the Perceived (fellow man, supervisor,
employer):
a) Physical stamina - A person with good physical stamina, he
is deemed to be fit for any kind of physical work. 9
b) Mental Qualities – A person with good level of IQ is
perceived to be fit to solve any organizational problem by his
intellectual capacity.
c) Level of commitment- If an employee is highly irregular for
work, and quarrels with supervisors and fellow workmen he
will be perceived to be indiscipline.
3. Environmental Condition:
a) Physical environment - If the work place is not neat and tidy
and lacks even basic facilities like lighting, ventilation,
drinking, water, toilet etc. The employer will be perceived to
have no regards for the physical and mental being of his
employee.
b) Social environment - If there is always misunderstanding
among employees and also between the employees and the
employer, the perception will be that the interpersonal
10
relationship in the organization is very poor.
 PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
The process of perception involves six stages –
1. Receiving stimuli:
- the perception process starts with the reception of
stimuli.
- the stimuli are received from the various sources.
- we receive stimuli through our sense organs - eyes,
ears, hands, nose and tongue.
- stimuli may be in the form of objects, events or
people.
- when a person interacts with stimuli, sensation
(feeling from something) takes place and that is the
beginning process of perception. 11
2. Selecting stimuli:
- among various stimuli an individual may come across,
only when some are important and relevant.
- the election of stimuli is not made at random, but
depending on the two type of factors namely -
a) External factors:
- influencing the selection of stimuli are nature of the
stimulus, location, size, colour and shape familiarity,
contrast and reputation.
i) Nature – by nature whether the object is visual or auditory
and it involves pictures, people or animals.
- pictures attract attention than words and rhyming auditory
passage attracts more attention than narrative passage.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 12

ii) Location – the best location of a visual stimulus for
attracting attention is directly in front of eyes.
(E.g.) location of message or picture in newspaper in upper
portion is more favourable than in lower portion.
iii) Colour – a modicum of colour catches the eye in mass of
black and white.
- it used to emphasize attractive features of product or
create sustainable atmosphere.
- some products like cars comes in variety of colours, but
others like toothpaste are in limited range of colours.
- it is used to enhance the lighting effects, for creating
pleasant surroundings.
- it is psychological impact on an individual and act as
stimulant and others as depressant.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 13
Effects of Colour:
Colour Psychological Effect
Violet Aggressive and tiring
Blue Restful
Brown Exciting
Green Very restful
Yellow Exciting
Orange Exciting
Red Very Stimulating
iv) Size – objects of larger size attract more attention than
smaller ones.
(E.g.) Engineering staff pay more attention to big machine
than small one.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 14

v) Contrast – it states that external stimuli which stand against
background, will receive their attention.
(E.g.) Parking or No parking sign boards are block letter on
yellow background or red lettering on white background to
get attention from drivers.
- managers utilize this factor in organizing in work places to
create contrast atmosphere.
vi) Movement – the principle of motion states that moving
object receives more attention than object that is stationary.
- in work environment the attention of workman will be
focused more on conveyor belt than on paintings on walls or
illumination.
- advertisers capitalize on this principle by creating signs
which incorporate moving parts.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 15
vii) Repetition – it states that a repeated external stimulus is
more attention than non – repetitive one.
- same advertisement of product flashed daily on television
is based on principle of repetition.
- the supervisor have to give directions to workers over and
over again for even simple tasks.
viii) Novelty and Familiarity – it states that either a novel or
familiar external situation can serve more attention.
- new jobs in familiar settings or familiar objects in new
settings draw the attention of perceiver.
(E.g.) Job rotation – changing workers jobs from time to time
will tend to increase attention they given to task.
- novel attracts attention fast like humour, animation,
graphics.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 16
b) Internal factors:
- influencing the selection of stimuli are personality, age
difference, unfulfilled needs and special interest.
- people selectively perceive objects, or things which are
interested to them and avoid those for which they are not
interested.
i) Learning – it is a cognitive factor, considerable influence
on perception and creates expectancy in people.
- people tend to perceive what they want to perceive.
(E.g.) One person read the sentence in triangle, it
takes few seconds to realize there is extra ‘the’ in Bird in
the the
sentence. This creates expectancy in learning. hand

Another word is machinery which indicates M- A-C-H-I-N-E-R-Y

in different pattern. 17
ii) Psychological needs – it plays significant role in
perceptual selectivity.
(E.g.) A thirsty person in desert gets the illusion of water
when seeing sand from distance.
- every person’s psychic energies are expanded in trying to
satisfy basic psychological needs for love, esteem and
adequacy.
- it can interact with those sector’s another personality
through which can gratify these needs.
iii) Age difference – senior executives complain about the
inability of new, young ones to take tough decisions
terminating people or paying attention to details.
- different perceptions of old and young executives are due
to their age differences.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 18
iv) Interest – perception is influenced by interests of perceive.
- interest can’t be distinguished from needs.
- person with a particular interest has a need to involve himself in
activities.
- if a person with special interest, his perception is likely to be
selective at any time.
v) Ambivalence – it is also a mixed feelings about a situation.
(E.g.) Young man may be ambivalent about his fiancée's virtues,
attractive, charming and he wants to remain success in his circle by
having beautiful fiancee, represses the awareness of her negative
qualities and selectively perceive that are favourable.
vi) Paranoid (afraid or suspicious of other people) Perception – it is
characteristic of emotionally disturbed person that his perceptual
field differs from that of reality and personalized interpretation.
- his self concept is poor & very insecure, as a result he behave in
inflexible manner.
19
3. Organizing stimuli:
- it is the process by which people group stimuli into
recognizable patterns.
(E.g.) people have a mental picture of an object made of wood
and having four legs, seat, back, an image of chair.
- people actually see an object having these characteristics
and able to organize information into meaningful way and
recognize an object as chair.
a) Ambiguous figure – it becomes a difficult task when there
are confusing and discouraged stimuli in the external
environment.
(E.g.) seeing that pictures, it could
Represent either a duck or rabbit,
which fluctuates two images.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 20
b) Figure background – it is considered to be the most basic
form of perceptual organization.
- the relationship of a target to its background influences
perception.
- perceived objects stand out separable from their general
background.
- in organizations managers face are similar experiences.
c) Perceptual Grouping - the tendency to group stimuli in
certain ways has been a common means of organizing
perception.
- it include similarity, proximity, closure, continuity and
area.
(E.g.) all workers having similarity in certain aspects have
perceived similar about their boss.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 21
* Principle of similarity – it is exemplified when objects of
similar shape, size, colour tend to be grouped together.
(E.g.) all employees who wear white collars may be perceived as
a common group, in reality, each worker is a unique
individual.
* Principle of proximity – it underlines the tendency to perceive
stimuli which near one another as belonging together.
(E.g.) several employees in organization may be identified as a
single group because of physical proximity.
* Principle of Closure – it states that a person has a tendency to
perceive a whole when none exists.
- the person’s perceptual process will close the gaps which are
unfilled from sensory inputs.
- it demonstrates the perceiver’s ability to perceive a whole
object even though only part of object is evident.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 22
* Continuity – it is the tendency to perceive objects as
continuing patterns.
- it is an useful organizing principle, but it may also
have negative aspects.
(E.g.) tendency to perceive continuous patterns may result
in an inability to perceive uniqueness and detect
change.
- in business forecasting, a common continuity error is
to assume that the future will simply reflect current
events and trends.
* Area – one part of area depicting an ambiguous figure
is smaller in size than the remainder.
- it is likely that smaller area will be seen and rest of
area is background. 23
d) Perceptual Constancy – a more subtle part of perceptual
organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain
characteristics of an object as remaining constant, despite
variations in the stimuli that provide us with conflicting
information.
* Shape constancy – a object appears to maintain its shape
despite marked changes in retinal image.
(E.g.) we see the top of a glass bottle as ‘circular’ whether we
view it from side or from top.
* Size constancy – it refers to the fact that as an object is
moved farther away we tend to see it as more or less
invariant in size.
(E.g.) Football players on opposite side of field don’t look
appreciably smaller than those closer to us on field even
though their images on retains are much smaller. 24
* Colour constancy – it implies that familiar objects are
perceived to be of the same colour under varied conditions.
(E.g.) owner of blue car sees it as blue whether looking at it
bright sunlight, dim illumination or under yellow street
light.
- constancy gives a person a sense of stability in a changing
world.
- without perceptual constancy, sizes & colour of objects
would change as worker moved about and make job almost
impossible.
4. Process of Interpreting stimuli: (understanding meaning)
- interpretation in the process of assigning meaning to the
stimuli received and organized.
- data collected and organized do not make any sense
without interpretation. 25
There are several factors contribute towards interpretation and
important among them are –
a) Perceptual Set (Mind Set) - the opinion or belief that one has
developed about someone or something or objects.
(E.g.) If a supervisor thinks that a particular employee is insincere
& uncooperative, the tendency will be to interpret (explain the
meaning) behavior according to one’s mind.
b) Attribution – it refers to the process by which the individual
assigns causes to the behaviour that he conceives.
- people are not interested only in observing behaviour in
organizations, but in determining causes also.
- it explains human behaviour in terms of cause and effects.
(E.g.) Late coming should be viewed as an act in workplace. Late
coming by workers may be perceived to be an offence & they
may even be punished. Late coming by managers is ignored.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 26
c) Stereotyping – it is the tendency to assign attributes to
someone solely on basis of a category of people to which
that person belongs.
- a person is perceived based on the characteristics of the
group to which he belongs rather than his individual
characteristics.
(E.g.) women, doctors, professors, artists, etc and at a broader
level there are Americans, Indians and Africans.
- stereotyping is not prejudice and prejudice is stereotyping
that refers to change when presented with information
indicating that the stereotype is inaccurate..
- it is useful process that greatly increases one’s efficiency
in making sense out of his or her environment.
- it leads to inaccuracies and negative consequences.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 27
Stereotyping is four step process –
i) It begins by categorizing people into groups according to
various criteria like age, gender, occupation, etc.
ii) It infer that all people within a particular category possess
the same traits.
iii) It form expectations of others and interpret their behaviour
according to our stereotypes.
Stereotypes are maintained by –
i) Overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviours
exhibited by others.
ii) Incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected
behaviours.
iii) Differentiating minority individuals from oneself.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 28
d) Halo Effect – it refers to the tendency to perceive a person,
possessing few good qualities, as too good or to perceive
another, with a few bad qualities, as totally bad.
- drawing a general impression about an individual based on a
single characteristics or trait is called halo effect.
(E.g.) Teacher awarding more marks to well liked student. It is
not much conscious bias on professor, as he like the student
and wants him to do well in examination, perception about
student are influenced by what he wants to see.
- it need not always mean overrating positive characteristics.
- a individual may be down rated based on negative
evaluation of his behaviour and it is called rusty halo or
horns effect.
(E.g.) it occurs in organizations when superiors rate
subordinates in a formal appraisal on certain dimensions.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 29
* Perceptual Context – the context in which an object is
placed influences perception.
- the visual stimuli by themselves are meaningless.
- organizational culture and structure provide the primary
context in which workers and managers do their perceiving.
(E.g.) A memo issued to an employee, who has shown
negligence, is usually taken seriously by him as getting a
memo from the employer is normally perceived as a black
mark in one’s career.
* Perceptual Defence – an individual is likely to put up a
defence when confronted with conflicting, unacceptable or
threatening stimuli.
- perceiver may assume four forms: outright denial,
modification of data received, change in perception but
refusal to change and change in perception itself. 30
* Implicit Personality theory – an individual’s
perceptions are influenced by belief that certain
human traits are associated with one another
making inferences.
(E.g.) Trait honesty is associated with hardworking.
* Projection – people tend to see in another person
traits that they themselves process.
- their feelings, tendencies or motives into their
judgement of others.
(E.g.) individual who is himself not very energetic
may see others as lazy or may explain their lack of
achievement, unwillingness to work hard.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 31
5. Process of Checking stimuli:
- it is the process of perception is that the perceiver has to
check whether the interpretation made by him in right or
wrong.
- one way of checking is that the perceiver should ask
himself certain questions and the answers to the question
whether his perception about someone or something is
correct.
6. Reacting to stimuli:
- at the last steps the perceiver has to react to what he has
perceived about someone or something.
- the reaction will be positive if the perception is favorable
and it will be negative if the perception is unfavorable.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 32

 FACTORS INFLUENCING
PERCEPTION
Factors Influencing Perception:
Situational factors
• Physical setting
• Social setting
• Organizational
setting

Perceiver’s
Characteristics
characteristics
of perceived
• Needs Individual’s • Nature
• Experience Perception • Size
• Values
• Appearance
• Attitudes
• Location, etc.
• Personality Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 33
Factors that influences the selection of stimuli are of two
types -
a) Internal factors:
1. Needs and desire:
- unfulfilled needs of a person influence the selection of
stimuli.
- a person whose need for food, clothing and shelter is not
fulfilled will perceive anything as unimportant.
2. Personality:
- person with a positive outlook always think of the positive
aspects.
- while those with a negative outlook perceive any decision
to be detrimental (harm or damage).
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 34
3. Experience:
- experience and knowledge serve as basis for
perception.
- successful experience also helps perceive understand
stimuli with more accuracy.
4. Age difference:
- age differences play an important role in the process
of perception. (e.g.) Son, father
5. Special interest:
- a person who has special interest in anything on
anyone may perceive anything as less important.
(E.g.) for a musician nothing is more important than
music.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 35
b) External factors:
1. Nature of stimuli:
- if it is picture type, better impact is created. Picture has
greater attention than words.
2. Location:
- where, in a newspaper an advertisement for (e.g.) is going
to be placed is important (i.e.) whether in the front page,
center page, last page, sports page etc.
3. Size and shape:
- size attracts the attention of the individuals
- larger objects attract attention more than the smaller ones.
- it is this reason that some advertisers advertise in a full
page in a newspaper on a magazine.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 36
4. Intensity (quality):
- intensity is closely related to size.
(E.g.) Bright light, loud sound, strong fragrance etc, can create
better impact than dim light and mild fragrance.
- the intensity principle of attention states that the more
intense the stimuli, the more likely it is to be perceived.
5. Contrast:
- if the object stands out against the background, it receives
better attention.
(E.g.) Safety signs with black lettering on a yellow background
(or) white lettering on a red background are more attention
attracting.
6. Movement / Motion:
- it says that moving objects receive better attention than
objects that stand still. 37
7. Rejection:
- a repeated stimulus has greater impact than the one
that occurs only once.
- it is for this reason that most advertisement are
repeatedly shown in the media to gain the customer’s
attention this product.
8. Status:
- it held by an individual also influences his/her
perception about things or events.
- researchers suggest that people with high status often
exert (apply a force) more influence on the perception
of an individual as compared to those holding low
status.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 38
 WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS

Perception is the starting point of human behaviour.

Individual selects, organizes and interprets information and
forms basis for behaviour.

If stereotype people in negative ways, it may not take
interest on them.

If we see things in frame of reference, we may be in
constant conflict with others.

If we see and hear what we expects, we may turn people off.

Selective exposure cause people to get angry for not
listening to them.

People don’t like to make projective statements about
others.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 39
Systematic errors or biases that affects perception are –
a) Fundamental attribution errors – it refers to tendency to
underestimate the importance of external factors and
overestimate internal factors about behaviour of others.
b) Self – fulfilling prophecy – the people’s expectations or beliefs
determine their behaviour and performance, serving to make
their expectations come true.
- it occurs when our perceptions about another person cause
that person to act in a way that is consistent.
c) Illusions – it provides false interpretation of sensory
information, a term used by psychologists to refer to incorrect
perceptions.
* Physical process – individual perceives object which are non
existent. (E.g.) water from dry area.
* Cognitive process – it is due to shape illusions and results in
unsettling consequences. 40
Managing the Perception Process:
1. Have a high level of self – awareness.
2. Seek information from various sources to confirm or
disconfirm personal impressions of a decisions situation.
3. Be empathetic that is, be able to see a situation as it is
perceived by other people.
4. Influence perceptions of other people when they are
drawing incorrect or incomplete impressions of events in
the work setting.
5. Avoid common perceptual distortions that bias our views of
people and situations.
6. Avoid inappropriate attributions.
7. Diversity management programmes.
8. Know yourself. 41
MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION
Definition:
“Motivation” is a Latin word, meaning ‘to move”.
“Motivation is the process of inducing people inner
drives and actions towards certain goals and committing his
energies to achieve these goals”.
“Motivation is a general term applying to the entire
class of drives, desires, needs wishes and similar forces that
induce an individual or a group of people to work”.
- Koontz & O’Donnell
“Motivation means a process of stimulating people to
action to accomplish desired goals”. - Scott

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 42

Nature (Characteristics) of motivation:
- it is an unending process because human needs are unlimited.
- it is an psychological concept. (inducement of feeling)
- it is behavioural concept that directs human behaviour.
- person can’t be partially motivated, frustrated man can’t be
motivated.
-it can be either positive (incentive, bonus, rewards) & negative
(demotion, penalties).
- it is a complex process & system oriented.
- it depends on 3 factors –
i) influences individual
ii) influences organization and iii) external environment.
- it is different from satisfaction. (i.e.) Motivation is drive &
effort to satisfy and Satisfaction is experienced, feels when
person is satisfied. Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 43
Importance of Motivation:
- proper utilization of human resources, efficiency of
operation.
- willingness on part of workers, job satisfaction.
- solve labour problems & maintains good relations.
- it brings co-operation to get best output.
- it reduces resistance to change.
- all members try to be efficient as possible to improve their
skill and knowledge.
- financial & non-financial incentives retain and attract the
employees.
- motivation scheme promotes clear relationship between
organization and workers.
- guides the worker’s action in desired direction. 44
Motivation Process:
- M.A.Jucius has developed motivation process in 3 steps:
Step 1: Analysis of Situation:
- motivational inducement must be created based on the
situation which give appropriate recognition of differences
in individual needs.
Step 2: Preparing, Selecting and Applying a set of
appropriate motivation tools:
- list of all devices are drawn and it is selected based on
types of people under different situations.
Step 3: Follow – up:
- desired motivation are provided by evaluating the
feedback.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 45
Types of Motivation (Techniques):
1. Positive motivation:
- proper recognition of employee’s efforts and appreciation of
employee contribution towards goal achievement.
(E.g.) pride, authority, responsibility, economic benefits.
2. Negative motivation:
- this is based on force, fear & threats.
(E.g.) fail to complete the work, demotion, dismissed, pay cut.
3. Extrinsic motivation:
- this is induced by external factors.
(E.g.) higher pay, rest periods, holidays, profit share, health
insurance.
4. Intrinsic motivation:
- this is available at the time of performance of work.
(E.g.) Praise, recognition, power, status, participation. 46
Motivation Theories:
Some of the motivation theories are discussed
below:
1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory.
2. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Approach
theory (or) Two – factor theory of Motivation.
3. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.
4. Vroom’s Expectancy theory.
5. McClelland’s Needs theory.
6. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 47

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:
- this was developed by eminent American Psychologist
Dr.Abraham H.Maslow in proper classification of human needs.
* Features:
- human wants are innumerable and never ending.
- adult motivates are complex,
- human needs form a hierarchy & higher order needs required
satisfaction.
- satisfied wants don’t motivate workers, only unsatisfied wants
induce man to work hard.
- higher level needs can be satisfied in many ways than lower
levels.
- fulfill needs is the prime factor in motivation of people at work.
- people seek the satisfaction of higher order needs.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 48
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy level:

1. Physiological needs:
- biological needs required to preserve human life.
- it include food, cloth and shelter, this is partly higher level needs.
2. Safety needs:
- this needs become predominant.
- it include i) Protection from psychological dangers (fire, accident),
ii) Economic security (benefits, health, insurance), iii) Desire for an
orderly, predictable environment and iv) acceptable behaviour. 49
3. Social needs:
- sense of belonging and acceptance becomes predominant in
motivating behaviour.
- these needs are for love, friendship, exchange of feelings,
recognition, belongingness.
- this is stronger for some people than for others and stronger in
certain situations.
4. Esteem needs:
- it has two types of esteem needs: i) Self – esteem (self – confidence,
achievement, competence, self – respect, knowledge and freedom) and
ii) Esteem of others (needs for status, for recognition, for appreciation
and deserved respect of one’s fellows).
5. Self – actualization needs: (Or) Self – realization needs:
- this is desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
(E.g.) doctor things that he is capable of saving the life of patient.
- this is a ‘growth need’.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 50
Critical Appraisal of Maslow’s theory:
- this helps the management to understand the behaviour of workers
and motivate them.
- this is very simple, direct and practical & this can be changed from
one person to another person.
Some of the problems not adequately solved by this theory –
- this theory may not apply at all time, in all places.
- some people don’t require social needs because they might have lost
during childhood.
- need recognition and fulfillment don’ t always follow specific
sequence.
- behaviour of man is not a result of his needs only.
- single need can’t motivate any individual.
- people differ in their expectation significantly & it may not lead to
same response in all individuals.
- no practical evidence that once need is satisfied and it looses its
motivating force. 51
2. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Approach theory Or Two factor
theory of motivation:
- this theory was established in late 1950’s by Frederick Herzberg
and his associate.
- this indicates effects towards effective utilization of human
resources.
- this theory based on two factors:
i) Motivational factors: - creation satisfaction to the workers at the
time of presence but their absence doesn’t cause dissatisfaction.
- motivational factors like achievement, recognition, advancement,
opportunity for growth, responsibility, work itself.
ii) Hygiene or maintenance factors: - to maintain reasonable level of
satisfaction among employees.
- hygiene factors like company policy & administration, technical
supervision, interpersonal relations, salary, job security, personal life,
working conditions, status.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 52
Critical Appraisal of Herzberg theory:
- this theory is based on small sample which is not
representative of workforce and therefore it has no
universal application.
- it is based on two factors theory of motivation & it
suggest job satisfiers and dissatisfies as two
different qualitative factors.
- it is a ‘method bound’ and no. of others used for
similar study to show different results.
- the distinction between motivational and
maintenance factors is not fixed.
- this focuses too much attention on satisfaction
rather than on performance level. 53
3. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:
- people inside the organization can be managed in two ways, first is
basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is
basically positive, which falls under the category Y.
- the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of
assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
towards subordinates according to these assumptions.
Assumptions of theory X:
- employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
- employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
- employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal
directions are issued.
- most workers place a greater importance on security over all other
factors and display little ambition.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 54
Assumptions of Theory Y:
- physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or
play.
- people do exercise self-control and self-direction and if
they are committed to those goals.
- average human beings are willing to take responsibility
and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
solving the problems of the organization.
- that the way the things are organized, the average human
being’s brainpower is only partly used.
* Theory X assumes that lower order needs dominate
individuals.
* Theory Y assumes that higher order needs dominate
individuals.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 55
4. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:
- this theory was developed by Victor Vroom & it is based on self –
interest to maximize expected satisfaction.
- this is strongly determined by an individual’s perception based on
certain type of behaviour will lead to certain type of outcome.
Elements:
a) Valance:
- people have preferences (valances) for various outcome or incentive.
- it refers to importance or personal value that individuals places on
rewards.
b) Expectancy:
- person believes that his effort will led to high performance.
- person have certain expectations about their work, whether it will be
successful or not.
c) Instrumentality:
- relationship between performance and reward. (i.e.) will I be rewarded
56
if I perform the job well?
 - it implies the degree to which a first level outcome leading to a
desired second level outcome.
Motivational force = Valance X Expectancy X Instrumentality.
Critical appraisal of Vroom’s theory:
- it emphasizes expected behaviours along with expectation.
- it is a predictive & cognitive model and it is based on self interest.
* Implications:
- it emphasizes payoffs. (i.e.) what they think they will get.
- rewards should be tied to performance & equitable.
- it emphasizes expected behaviours.
* Limitations:
- it has not fully tested empirically & it is complex.
- it is rational as it is based on rational economic view of people.
- predictive accuracy of the theory is doubtful & amount of effort put
on job is influenced by many factors.
- this is difficult to research and apply in practice. 57
5. McClelland’s Needs Theory:
- this is developed by David C.McClelland and his associates.
- this offers an opportunity to satisfy at lest three needs namely:
a) Need for Power (n PWR):
- this is need to dominate, influence or control people.
- it deals with ability to control the activities of others.
- set goals, make decisions and direct activities.
b) Need for Affiliation (n Aff):
- it is social need for support and develop relationship with people.
- people are motivated by jobs that demand frequent interaction with
co-workers.
c) Need for Achievement (n Ach):
- this is need for challenge, personal accomplishment and success in
competitive situations.
- it can be developed at an early age and also at later stage.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 58
* Characteristics:
- take personal responsibility for finding solution to problems.
- high achievement seeker totally preoccupied with the task.
- take calculated risks and set morale goals.
- to risky approach greatly reduce the chances of goal achievement.
- concrete feedback on their performance & high achievers like to
know how well they are doing.
- high achievers are not motivated by money but keep methods of
scoring their achievements.
* Achievement development course contains -
- individual should strive to attain concrete and frequent feedback..
- individual should seek models of achievement (i.e.) watch those
who have performed well.
- individual should imagine himself as one who needs success and
challenge and carefully planned.
- individual must control daydreaming by thinking and talking. 59
* Limitations:
- use of projective technique is objectionable.
- this theory is fragmentary and doubtful.
- this motivation can’t be thought because
acquisition of motives occurs in childhood.
- persons high need for achievement expect similar
results from others.
- this is time consuming and expensive.
- this theory doesn’t address the question of process
of motivation and how it really comes about.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 60

6. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
- this is based on another hierarchy model ERG (i.e.) Existence –
Relatedness – Growth.
* Existence – basic material existence.
* Relatedness – maintain interpersonal relationship with members.
* Growth – intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally.
ERG Theory Hierarchy of needs theory

• 5. Self - actualization
Growth • 4. Self - esteem

• 3. Social needs (Belongingness)

Relatedness • 2. Interpersonal security

• Physical activity
Existence • 1. Physiological needs
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 61
 LEARNING
Meaning:

A study on OB will remain incomplete without studying
learning.

If a manager wants to explain & predict human behavior,
he/she needs to understand how learning occurs & how people
learn.

Learning is a powerful incentive for many employees to
stick to certain organizations.

Learning has significant impact on individual behaviour as
it influences abilities, role perceptions and motivation.

In simple words, learning is a change in behavior as a result
of experience.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 62
Definition:
“Learning is the
process by which new
behavior are acquired.
Learning involves changes in
behavior, practicing new behavior & establishing in the
change.”
“Learning defined as relatively permanent change in
behavior on potential behavior as a result of direct on
indirect experience”.
“Learning can be defined as relatively permanent
change in behaviour potentially that results from
reinforced practice or experience”.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 63
Characteristics of learning:
 Learning results in change in behavior.

 The change must be relatively permanent.

 Learning has to support the

behavior.
 Learning has to strengthen the

 behavior.

 Learning is a continuous

process.
 Learning should help to achieve.

 Learning arises out of training or practice.

 Learning is not caused by biological changes.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 64
Components of learning:
1. Learning involves change:
- change may be for good or bad from an organization’s
point of view.
- change may not be evident until a situation arises in
which new behaviour occur.
2. Not all changes reflect learning:
- change should be relatively permanent.
- temporary changes may be only reflective and fail to
represent any learning.
- rules out behaviour changes caused by fatigue or
drugs.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 65
3. Learning is reflected in behaviour:
- change in individual’s thought process or attitudes
not accompanied by behaviour is not learning.
- learning needs to result in behaviour potentially
and not necessarily in the behaviour itself.
- individual may learn but owing to lack of
motivation, may not exhibit any changed behaviour.
4. Change in behaviour should occurs as a result of
experience, practice or training:
- it implies that behaviour caused from maturity,
disease or physical damages does not constitute
learning.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 66
5. Practice or experience must be reinforced in order
for learning to occur:
- reinforcement does not accompany the practice or
experience, the behaviour will eventually disappear.
6. Through not implied in any standard definition of
learning:
- it contrary to popular belief, learning is not
confined to one’s schooling.
- learning occurs throughout one’s life.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 67

Learning – Explicit and Tacit Knowledge:
* Explicit Knowledge – it is organized and can be
communicated from one person to another.
- it can be written down and given to others.
- it is only a small portion of the total knowledge.
(E.g.) student receives information in a class room is mainly
explicit knowledge because professor transfers it to students.
* Tacit Knowledge (implied knowledge) – it is the idea that one
knows more than what he can tell.
- it is embedded in our actions and ways of thinking.
- it is acquired through observation and direct experience.
(E.g.) Driver does not learn how to operate vehicle through
lectures, he has necessary skills by experiencing or watching
subtle details and perform the tasks.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 68
Factors determining learning (or) types of learners (or)
Factors affecting learning:
1. Motivation (nothing occurs without motivation).
2. Qualities of the trainee & the learner: An efficient trainee
can make difficult task easy for the learner.
3. Environment (if among a group of lesson, majority is
disinterested it will affect a few who are keen to learn.)
4. Practice (practice make man perfect) Without practice it does
not help much. (e.g.) Basic knowledge of computer.
5. Feedback / response: It is important that the learner gets the
feedback information of his performance at regular intervals.
This enables him to know how far he stands in relation to
requirements.
6. Meaning fullness of the subject: Learning is meaningful if
the subject matter is meaningful. 69
7. Time schedule: If the time given is too short, it will not
help the learner.
8. Retention (hold or keep): (Retention means remembrance
of learnt behavior). Learning which is forgotten is called
extinction (loss of memory).
9. Reinforcement: Reinforcement is anything done to
strengthen or support behaviour.
a) Positive - an employee who is very good in his words is
usually given a reward, the reason being that he will excel
every time. (E.g.) Reward.
b) Negative - to restrain (prevent) a person. (E.g.) an
employee coming late always& may be imposed a penalty.
The reason is to discourage the occurrence of such
behavior. (E.g.) Pay fine to change is behavior.
10. Nature of learning materials. 70
Learning & Organizational Behaviour:
 Learning is therefore considered for understanding human behavior
at work in organization.
 Learning helps the manager to change behavior in different situation.

1. Reducing absenteeism:
- learning can help managers evolve programmes to reduce
absenteeism.
2. Improving employee discipline:
- late arrival for work & coming for work in drunken condition
- thefts in work place
- frequent quarrelling (argument) with superior & workmen.
3. Developing training program:
4. Substituting well pay for sick pay:
- to prevent misuse of the sick leave facility, the employee can
introduce a system of rewarding employee with regular attendance in
the form of benefits.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 71
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Some of the Principles of learning are:
1. Motivation:
- without motivation learning does not take place or at least is
not discernible.
- motivation seen at different levels of complexity of a
situation.
2. Reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction:
a) Reinforcement – it is used to enhance desirable behaviour,
punishment and extinction are employed to minimize
undesirable behaviour.
- it is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behaviour.
i) Positive reinforcement – it strengthens and enhances
behaviour by the presentation of positive reinforces. 72
* Primary reinforces – satisfy biological needs and include food,
water and sexual pleasure.
* Secondary reinforces – it includes benefits as money, status,
grades, trophies and praise from others.
* Conditioned reinforces – due to association with the primary
reinforces.
Principles of reinforces:
 Principle of contingent reinforcement – states that reinforcer
must be administered only if desired behaviour occurred.
 Principle of immediate reinforcement – states that the
reinforcer will be most effective if administered immediately
after desired behaviour has occurred.
 Principle of reinforcement size – states that the larger the
amount of reinforcement delivered after the desired behaviour,
more effect the reinforcer on frequency of desired behaviour.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 73
 Principles of reinforcement deprivation – states that more a
person is deprived of reinforcer, greater effect it will have
on future occurrence of desired behaviour.
ii) Negative reinforcement:
- unpleasant event that preceded a behaviour is removed
when the desired behaviour occurs.
- it increases the likelihood that the desired behaviour will
occur.
- it stimuli that strengthen responses that permit an
organism to avoid or escape from their presence.
- supervisors apply negative reinforcement when they stop
criticizing employees whose poor performance has
improved.
- it is sometimes confused with punishment, because both
use unpleasant stimuli to influence behaviour. 74
Schedule of Reinforcement:
- it determine when reinforces are applied.
- psychologists have identified several different schedules
of reinforcement.
- reinforcement is administered uninterruptedly, it is called
continuous reinforcement.
Organization reinforces are administered by various partial
reinforcement –
i) Fixed interval schedule – provide reinforcement on a
predetermined, constant schedule.
- the desired behaviour to occur after interval has elapsed is
reinforced.
- it tends to lead to average and irregular performance.
- it result in fast extinction of behaviour too.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 75
ii) Variable interval schedule – it also uses time as the basis
for applying reinforcement, but it varies intervals between
reinforcement.
- there is extinction of behaviour but the process is slow.
iii) Fixed Ratio Schedule – reinforcement is administered
after the desired behaviours occur a specified no. of times.
- there is moderately fast extinction of behaviour too.
iv) Variable Ratio Schedule – certain no. of desired behaviour
must occur before the reinforcer is delivered, but no. of
behaviours varies.
- it provokes most interest and is preferred by employees
for some tasks.
- it tends to be more powerful of all reinforcement
schedules.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 76
b) Punishment:
- it is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable
behaviour.
It is used in two ways –
i) One way to punish a person is to apply a negative
consequences called punishers – following an undesirable
behaviour.
ii) Other way to punish a person is to withhold a positive
consequences following an undesirable behaviour.
c) Extinction:
- it is an alternate to punishing undesirable behaviour.
- it is the weakness of a behaviour by ignoring it or making
sure it is not reinforced.
- extinction needs time and patience to be effective.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 77
3. Whole Vs Part Learning:
- a great deal of work has been done in psychology of
learning to decide whether learning a whole job is superior
to breaking the job into parts and learning the parts.
- in part learning, individual is not only required to learn
each individual part but must be able to combine separate
parts so that whole performance can be accomplished.
4. Learning Curves:
- it is valid for wide range of situation and highly useful
concept.
- it is diagrammatic presentation of amount learned in
relation to time.
- rate of learning increases or decreases with practice.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 78

It has certain characteristics features –
a) Spurt – rate of learning exhibits a spurt at beginning,
which indicates maximum performance has been achieved.
- subject is highly motivated and seems to exhibit
significance surge of effort.
- experienced trainers exploit this initial spurt by selecting
most important items to be communicated and presenting
them at beginning of training.
b) Learning plateau – there is flattening off in terms of
improvement.
- the process of learning is marked by discontinuities and
involves escalating from one plateau to another.
- most learners aware of experience of finding themselves
on a plateau, which manifests itself in feeling.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 79
c) Organization of learning – jumping from one plateau to
another is called organization of learning.
- it is achieved when learner discovers a new and more
effective method of performance particular tasks.
d) Disorganization of learning – it is an actual fall off in
performance.
- it arises when the subject has to choose between
alternative methods of tackling a task.
e) End spurt – it is preceded by fatigue which is likely to set
in with the passage of time.
- when the training session draws nearer to an end, it occurs
resurgence of interest and effort to learn more and this is
called end spurt.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 80

5. Meaningfulness of material:
- a definite relationship established between learning and
meaningfulness of subject learnt.
- more meaningful the material, better does learning
proceed.
- each task, trainers have certain techniques that increase
meaning for the trainees.
- organizing meaningfulness unit, creating association and
providing conceptual basis of logical reason for material
are some of the practical possibilities.
6. Learning Styles:
- it refers to the ability of an individual to learn.
- manager’s long term success depends on ability to learn
than on specific skills or technical knowledge.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 81
Learning styles are –
a) Accommodator – learns by doing and feeling.
- it tends to learn primarily from hands on experience and
act on feeling rather than logical analysis.
- it rely more on people for information while making
decisions.
b) Diverger – learns by observing and feeling.
- diverger has ability to view concrete situations from
different angles.
- it takes time and analysis with many alternatives.
- he is imaginative and sensitive to the needs of other
people.
- he seek careers in entertainment, arts and service sector.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 82
c) Converger – learns by doing and thinking.
- he seeks practical use for information.
- converger tend to focus on solutions when dealing with problems
and making decisions.
- he prefer to dealing with technical tasks rather than social and
interpersonal issues.
- it seeks technical career in scientific fields, engineering, IT, etc.
d) Assimilator – learns by observing and thinking.
- he is effective at understanding wide range of information and
putting in to concise and logical form.
- it is more important that an idea or theory is logical than
practical.
- he tends to be more concerned with abstract ideas and concept
than with people.
- he seeks careers in education, information and science.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 83
 THEORIES OF LEARNING
The following are the importance theories of learning –
1. Classical conditioning theory or Stimulus - Response
association theory:
- the classical conditioning theory is given by IVAN
PAVLOV, a Russian psychologist.
- his theory is based on to teach dog to salivate (a watery
liquid produced in the mouth) in response to the ringing of a
bell.
- Pavlov offered the dog meat & noticed that the dog was
salivating.
- afterwards without offering meat, be merely rang a bell.
The dog had no salivation.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 84
 - as the next step he rang the bell before giving the dog meat.
This went on for some time. Thereafter, PAVLOV merely rang
the bell without offering meat & noticed that the dog was
salivating.
- the dog thus learnt to respond. (i.e.) to salivate to the bell.
- the classical conditioning theory has some relevance in
understanding human behaviour in work place.
(E.g.) They expect a hike in their pay when they know that the
financial position of the organization is very sound.
Limitation:
- human being are more complex (hard to understand) than
dogs but less amenable (cooperative).
- the behavioural environment in organization is also complex.
- the human decision making process being complex in nature
makes it possible to override (over rule). 85
2. Operant conditioning theory:
- B.F SKKINNER a psychologist is given the credit for his
contribution to operational conditioning.
- it focuses on the relationship between behaviour & its
consequences (importances).
- he says a particular behaviour is likely to be repeated if its
consequences (importance) and favourable.
(E.g.) When an employee, who has performed his task well, in
rewarded, he is likely to repeat his performance in future too.
- behaviour of the employee may be positive or negative
consequence
 Repeat behaviour - positive consequences.

 No repeat or less likely repeat behaviour – negative

consequences.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 86
Distinction between Classical conditioning & Operant
conditioning:
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
theory theory
1. Behaviour is the result of 1. Behaviour is not the
stimulus . (i.e.) dog meat result of stimulus. It occurs
spontaneously.
2. Response to the stimulus
is fixed. 2. Responses may vary

3. The stimulus is presented 3. The stimulus is presented

every time for response to only if the desires response
occur occurs.

Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 87

3. Cognitive theory: (gaining of knowledge through thought &
senses
- cognition is the act of knowledge.
- cognition refers to an individual’s thoughts, knowledge,
understandings or views about oneself, his/her
environment.
(E.g.) Kohler presented two sticks to a monkey in a cage. Both
sticks were too short to reach a banana lying outside cage.
What monkey did without any prior exposure joined both
sticks together & pulled the banana inside the cage.
- learning took place inside the mind of monkey. Thus the
learning process involved in this case. (Monkey is thought
already).
- this type of learning is very important in organizational
behavior for changing attitudes by the individuals. 88
 - knowledge of the cognitive theory is also useful in
understanding the concept of motivation better.
- the above two theories are explained through the stimulus
& response. But this theory did not emphasize on the
process of receiving, memorizing & reacting to stimuli,
which is vital in learning.
4. Social Learning theory:
- individuals also learn by observing their models whom
they admire.
- social learning theory is based on the view that a person
learn by observing others - parents teachers, friends, film
artists, superiors & fellow – workmen.
- it occurs due to the influence of the role model.
- learning through both observation & direct experience has
been called Social – learning theory. 89
The following processes determine the influence that a model
will have on an individual.
a) Attention process - a person learns from a model that has
impressed him the most.
- the models that are attractive, repeatedly available (or)
important influence us the most.
b) Retention process - it depends on how well the
individual can remember in memory the behaviour/action
displayed by him/her when the model is no longer available
c) Reproduction process - the individual needs to convert the
model’s action into his /her action. This process shows how
well an individual can perform the modeled action.
d) Reinforcement process - individuals will be motivated to
display the actions of the model if incentives & rewards are
provided to them.
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 90
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 91
Unit 3– Individual Determinants of OB - II 92