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A guide to current uses of vertical seismic profiles

Article  in  Geophysics · December 1985

DOI: 10.1190/1.1441878

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GEOPHYSICS VOL. 50. NO. 12 (DECEMBER 1985); P. 2473-2479, 1 FIG., 2 TABLES.

A guide to current uses of vertical seismic profiles

Michael L. Oristaglio*

ABSTRACT allowing a detailed analysis of reflection and transmis-

sion properties of the earth at a given location. These
Vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) are small-scale seismic applications rely heavily on signal processing to sepa-
surveys in which geophones are lowered into a well to rate the upgoing and downgoing waves and to study
record waves traveling both down into the earth (direct their relationships to data recorded at the surface.
waves from the surface source and downgoing multi- When the earth varies laterally or when the source is
ples) and back toward the surface (primary reflections offset from the well, the VSP can be used to comple-
and upgoing multiples). VSPs thus contain information ment surface surveys by providing high-resolution
about the reflection and transmission properties of the images of structure near the well. Current work has
earth with a coverage that depends upon the geometry concentrated on forming images from the reflected
of the VSP experiment and the structure near the well. waves by the methods of common-depth-point (CDP)
This article describes the uses of VSPs in seismic ex- stacking and migration. Tomographic methods for in-
ploration that have been published in the last three verting the traveltimes and amplitudes of transmitted
years and is designed to complement the more detailed waves are also being developed and will become impor-
surveys by Hardage (1983) and Balch and Lee (1984). tant when downhole arrays and powerful downhole
When the earth is horizontally layered, the well is sources are available. The most significant advance in
vertical, and the source is close to the wellhead, upgoing the next few years, however, will be the development of
and downgoing waves recorded by the VSP travel verti- a reliable three-axis tool with internal devices for deter-
cally, and the VSP can be used to calibrate surface seis- mining both the orientation of the tool and the quality
mic sections by providing the time-to-depth curve and of its coupling to the borehole wall.

modeling are available, and the VSP method is evolving rap-

idly.
In this paper, I have tried to supply the reader with a guide Missing from this guide are the details about instrumenta-
to the current uses of vertical seismic profiles (VSPs). VSPs tion, field procedures, and processing steps that make VSPs
add the depth dimension to seismic data-and with this di- work in practice. These aspects of VSPs, along with more
mension have come new approaches to velocity estimation detailed discussions of their uses, can be found in the excellent
and deconvolution and old approaches to seismic imaging books by Hardage (1983) and Balch and Lee (1984).
cast “sideways.” Seismic measurements in boreholes have also VSPs share many features with conventional surface seismic
led to a greater awareness of the complexities of wave propa- profiles, but their geometry is distinctive and it provides the
gation in the earth. organization for the material in this article. The current uses
Although the VSP has become an important tool for ex- of VSPs are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, which include
ploration only in the last few years, its origins lie in the 1950s. references for each application, primarily to the literature of
Early workers first measured full seismic waveforms in bore- the last three years. More complete lists of references are given
holes to test theoretical results that were then available, such in the two books mentioned above. Also shown in these tables
as Ricker’s wavelet theory for a homogenous medium, and to are figures from two early works (Jolly, 1953; and McCollum
study cases such as a layered medium that were beyond the and LaRue, 1931) that depict the geometry of the two main
computational resources of the time (Ricker, 1953; Jolly, 1953; types of VSPs: zero-offset VSPs and offset VSPs. After a short
Riggs, 1955; Levin and Lynn, 1958; and McDonal et al., 1958; digression on the other geometries and names used for
and see the Introductions in Gal’perin, 1974; and Hardage, modern VSPs, I discuss some common themes and problem
1983). Now both borehole seismic measurements and realistic areas in the VSP method.

Manuscriptreviewed by P. C. Wuenschel.
Manuscript received by the Editor April 1, 1985; revised manuscript received May 1, 1985.
*Schlumberper-Doll Research, P.O. Box 307, Ridgefield, CT 06877.
t: 1985 Socrety of Exploration Geophysicists. All-rights reserved.

2473
2474 Oristaglio

GEOMETRIES AND NAMES Obviously, there are many variations of these four basic
types. Actual offset VSPs, for example, often include more
Four basic types of VSP surveys are usually distinguished than one source position, and walkaway surveys more than
(Figure 1) : one receiver level (mainly for velocity filtering). In such cases,
the offset VSP as defined above is just a common-source
(1) standard VSP-geophones in a vertical well and a gather of the data, whereas the walkaway VSP is a common-
source at (close to) the wellhead; receiver gather of the data. Azimuthal surveys around bore-
(2) deviated-well VSP-source moves along the sur- holes are also popular (“walkaround” VSPs), as are surveys of
face to be directly above a geophone that moves along deviated wells with a single source position close to the well-
the well; head. In both Table 2 and the discussion below, these special-
(3) offset VSP-source is at a fixed offset from the ized geometries are all considered under the general heading
well and geophones are at different levels in the well; of offset VSPs. Finally, a name that is becoming popular for
(4) walkaway VSP-source is moved to many offset any experiment that involves either seismic sources or receiv-
positions and a geophone is held at a fixed level in the ers in a well is borehole seismic projle.
well.
ZkRO-OFFSET VSPs
More generally, surveys (1) and (2) are called zero-offset VSPs,
while surveys (3) and (4) are called offset VSPs. Today, nearly Vertical well
all VSPs are recorded with a single geophone and are thus
composite experiments, but in principle, the data recorded in Under the ideal conditions of a horizontally layered earth, a
standard, offset, and walkaway VSPs can represent a single vertical well, and a source at the well, the VSP records
wave field and are usually interpreted as such. For the walk- downgoing and upgoing waves traveling along the same verti-
away VSP, this interpretation requires the use of reciprocity. cal path through the earth. All the special applications of the

Table 1. Summary of the applications of zero-offset VSPs. The figure on the left, illustrating the zero-offset geometry, is taken from
Jolly (1953).

Zero-Offset VSPs Applications References

Vertical Well
Time-depth curve and Omnes (19801,
interval velocities Stewart (1984)

Identification of events Kennett et al. (1980)

on seismic sections

Prediction ahead of the

bit

-acoustic impedance Tal-virsky and Tabakov (1983),

Grivelet (1985)

-porosity Stone (1983)

Desiqn of deconvolution Hubbard (1979),

operators for surface Omnes (1984)
seismic data

Attenuation studies Hauge (1981),

Stewart et al. (1984),
Dietrich and Bouchon (1985)

Stratigraphic studies Balch et al. (1984a, 1984b)

Deviated Well
 Vertical Seismic Profiles 2475

zero-offset VSP derive from this basic feature. The figure for tion of upgoing and downgoing waves is thus the first step in
the zero-offset VSP in Table 1 is taken from Jolly (1953). Some studying the generation of primaries and multiples in VSPs
of his objectives in recording seismic data with a geophone (Kennett et al., 1980). in calculating transfer functions between
clamped to the borehole wall are clear from this figure. These the two wavetrains for stratigraphic studies (Balch et al.,
objectives were 1984a, b), in designing deconvolution operators for the up-
coming waves and for surface data from the downgoing waves
(1) to observe the form of the initial downgoing pulse (Hubbard, 1979; Omnes, 1984) and in predicting impedances
and its amplitude decay with depth (or with traveltime); below the well (“prediction ahead of the bit”) (Grivelet, 1985;
(2) to observe reflected pulses and determine depths Tal-virsky and Tabakov, 1983).
of reflectors and their reflection coefficients; and Current methods for velocity filtering VSP data include
(3) to correlate these reflections in time and ampli- frequency-domain (f- k) methods (Christie et al., 1983)
tude with reflections recorded at the surface (Jolly, median filters (Fitch and Dillon, 1983) multichannel filters
1953). based on different optimal designs (Lee, 1984; Simaan and
Love, 1984; Seeman and Horowitz, 1983) and slant stacks
These are still the objectives of most VSPs done today, with (Carswell et al., 1984). Some of these methods rely heavily on
refinements having come chiefly in processing the data. (Pre- the alignment of waves based on first-break picks. Each
cise figures are difficult to obtain, but a reasonable estimate is method has advantages for special cases, but they all work
that nearly 90 percent of all VSPs are standard zero-offset well in areas of mild structure when the VSP is properly sam-
surveys.) The most important development has been the use of pled in depth (not aliased) over many levels. Moreover, when
velocity filters to separate the upgoing and downgoing waves, only a few traces are recorded or when complex structure near
thereby allowing studies of their internal relationships and the well generates numerous sideswipe events, velocity filtering
their relationships to data recorded at the surface. The separa- is difficult on theoretical grounds because of edge effects and

Table 2. Summary of the applications of offset VSPs. The figure on the left, illustrating the offset geometry, is taken from McCollum
and LaRue (1931).

Offset VSPs Applications References

Structural mapping

-VSP-CDP stack Wyatt and Wyatt (1981).

Gaiser et al. (1983),
Cassell et al. (1984),
Christie and Dangerfield (1984)
Dillon and Thomson (1984),
Mons et al. (1984)
-------- --------
-migration Gazdag and Sguazzero (1983).
Keho (1984).
Kbhler and Koenig (1984).
Miller et al. (1984).
Yiggins and Levander (1984).
Chang and McMechan (1986)

Three-dimensional dip Chun et al. (1983)

analysis

Traveltime inversion

-dip estimates Lines et al. (1984)

-interface mapping Miller (1983)

Amplitude studies

-fracture volume Turpening (1984).

analysis Turpening and Blackway (1984)

-locating edges of Karus et al. (1975)

reservoirs

Anisotropy studies with Gaiser et al. (1984).

three-axis data Sriram et al. (1984)

Source radiation patterns

-surface sources Robertson and Corrigan (1983).

-downhole sources Lee et al. (1984)

2476 Oristaglio

the small moveout of events between traces. The identification survey. The separation of upgoing and downgoing waves in
of upgoing and downgoing waves in such cases can involve a the deviated-well VSP is conceptually difficult, since the data
large component of (visual) interpretation. from different levels do not represent a single wave field (when
One major objective which has been added to Jolly’s list is the earth is not plane-layered). However, if structure is varying
to tie VSP data to well logs, in particular the sonic log. Recent slowly along the well, the separation can be done by using
work has shown the importance of not only attenuation and filters that operate over a narrow range of levels.
dispersion in the different bandwidths involved (Stewart et al., The deviated-well survey is the best method for imaging
1984) but also of the processing steps and assumptions used structure near the well. The upgoing reflected waves can be
to simplify synthetic calculations from the logs, such as the use used to simulate a surface zero-offset section of the region
of plane-wave sources and acoustic models or the failure to below the well by simply shifting the traces by the one-way
include multiples (Neitzel and Kan, 1984). Of course, the re- traveltime (first-break time) to each level. Moreover, because
conciliation of VSP data, logs, and (ultimately) surface data the geophones are close to the reflectors, the resolution of such
can involve an endless list of complications (borehole rugosity, sections is often extraordinary. Examples can be found in
mud invasion, three-dimensional structure, etc.), most of which Kennett and Ireson (1982, also reprinted in Hardage, 1983)
are beyond today’s computer models. Within the next few and Johnson et al. (1984). (The static shift properly positions
years, however, simplified, three-dimensional (3-D) modeling reflectors at the well, but migration is needed away from the
of a layered medium penetrated by a fluid-filled borehole well, as discussed below.)
should become practical, which will be a large step toward the Seismic trace inversion can also be applied to the deviated-
goal of tying VSPs to logs. well VSP to estimate rock properties below the track of the
Also important for the goal of tying VSP data to well logs is well (Ahmed, 1984). This inversion has the same limitations
a closer study of the inverse problems associated with VSP for VSP as for surface data (e.g., difficulty in extracting low-
data, especially the problem of estimating the velocity (or im- frequency trends); however, the inverse problem is better
pedance) profile along the well when dispersion is significant posed in the VSP case when an accurate estimate can be made
or when the earth is layered on a much finer scale than the of the downgoing waves. Information from well logs can also
spacing between the VSP traces. Some initial work in this area help to constrain the inversion (Grivelet, 1985).
can be found in Stewart (1984a, b), Mace and Lailly (1984),
and Dietrich and Bouchon (1985) but there are still many OFFSET VSPs
unresolved questions regarding the uniqueness and stability of
such inverse problems for VSP data. When the source is offset from the well, or when the earth
varies laterally, geophones in the borehole record waves trav-
eling in all directions, including shear waves, converted waves,
Deviated well and sometimes head waves and guided-wave modes. Offset
VSPs contain information about the reflection and transmis-
By having the source move with the receiver, the zero-offset sion properties of the earth laterally away from the well, with
VSP in a deviated well provides lateral coverage of reflectors the coverage depending upon the geometry of the experiment
while retaining many features of the standard zero-offset and the structure of the earth.

StandardVSP Deviated-Well VSP

Offset VSP Walkaway VSP

fa

FIG. 1. Four basic types of VSP surveys+top) zero-offset VSPs, (bottom) offset VSPs.
 Vertical Seismic Profiles 2477

The figure in Table 2 for the offset VSP geometry is taken Studies of VSP migration have appeared only very recently;
from McCollum and LaRue (193 1) and is typical of the early they include methods based on (acoustic) wave field extrapola-
emphasis in borehole seismic methods on the traveltimes of tion using the Kirchhoff integral (Wiggins, 1984; Keho, 1984;
the direct transmitted waves. Similar figures can be found in Kijhler and Koenig, 1984; Wiggins and Levander, 1984),
Gardner (1949) and Slotnick (1941). Modern work, in contrast, phase-shifting in the frequency domain (Gazdag and Sguaz-
has concentrated on structural mapping using reflected sig- zerro, 1983), and finite-difference approximations of the wave
nals. This situation may soon change as velocity inversion equation (Chang and McMechan, 1986). Miller et al. (1984)
methods based on tomography are developed and applied to also described a method for migrating VSPs that is derived
the transmission problem (see the section below). from the wave equation, but it uses principles from the Radon
transform instead of a coherency condition to form the image.
Reflected waves: Imaging offset VSPs. These studies of VSP migration show that the last two diffl-
culties mentioned above-handling wide propagation angles
The most popular method of imaging the reflected waves in and strong “lateral” velocity variations+an be overcome
offset VSPs is a coordinate transformation introduced by with modern wave-field extrapolation methods. The problem
Wyatt and Wyatt (1981; see also the patent by Anstey, 1980) of limited aperture, however, is inherent in the VSP geometry,
which is called the VSP-CDP stack, the VSP-CDP transform at least for structures that are more or less flat, and this prob-
(Cassell et al., 1984), or reflection-point mapping (Gaiser et al., lem is best treated by careful design of the VSP experiment to
1983; Dillon and Thomson, 1984). This transform is like the ensure proper illumination of the target area. Aspects of this
ordinary CDP stack of surface seismic data, in that data re- design are discussed in Wiggins and Levander (1984), which is
corded in one domain-in this case, depth, time and source the most extensive study of VSP migration published thus far.
offset-are mapped to the domain of horizontal reflecting [The conclusions reached by these authors, however, seem
point and two-way traveltime by tracing rays and applying a overly pessimistic; good examples of migrated sections based
moveout correction. With offset VSPs, however, reflection on real VSPs have been presented in talks at conferences,
point coverage and stacking fold are erratic (and often low), although none as yet (March, 1985) has been published.]
and the VSP-CDP stack is usually done by binning the output Overall, the migration of VSPs is still an area of active re-
domain into vertical strips of a chosen thickness and stacking search, and the practical advantages of performing a limited
within the bins (sometimes called a corridor stack; Mons et VSP survey for imaging, as opposed, e.g., to prestack imaging
al., 1984). Other features are (1) the mapping is based on a of surface data using a velocity model from the VSP, have not
model which is determined in advance-from a zero-offset been settled. In fact, combining both surface and borehole
VSP, log data, the surface section, or by inverting offset travel- data should produce the best images (Miller et al., 1984).
times; (2) the model is not always plane-layered; and (3) ray Finally, Chun et al. (1983) described a different approach to
bending is usually included in the ray tracing. the use of reflected waves that is designed for azimuthal VSP
As with the surface CDP stack, the sections produced by surveys. Instead of trying to image an interface directly from
the VSP-CDP stack can require further migration to position the reflections, their stacking method is designed to form a
reflecting points correctly. Some of the structural distortions virtual image of the source in the reflecting interface. The 3-D
that are produced in the mapping are discussed in Dillon and dip and strike of the interface can then be estimated from the
Thomson (1984). With mild structures, these distortions are location of the virtual source point.
small and can be corrected by simple rules (Wyatt and Wyatt,
1981; Dillon and Thomson, 1984); with complex structures, Transmitted waves
the process of model building, ray tracing, and stacking can be
iterated until (with the hope that) the image converges (Cassell The raypath coverage in most offset VSP surveys is not
et al., 1984). A standard zero-offset migration could be applied dense enough for the methods of acoustic tomography (Bois et
to the stacked section, but to my knowledge this has not been al., 1972; Devaney, 1984) to be used in estimating the veloci-
tried. ties between the source and well from the arrival times along
Despite its limitations, the VSP-CDP stack is very useful in direct raypaths. These methods will become prominent, how-
processing offset VSPs, since it produces a section in two-way ever, when downhole sources or downhole receiver arrays
travehime that can be compared directly with the surface seis- become available and enable extensive surveys around the
mic section. Examples can be found in the references given in well to be done rapidly. In the meantime, parametric methods
Table 2; in most cases, the examples show much finer resolu- of traveltime inversion can be used; two possible approaches
tion of structure near the well than the surface section. are described by Miller (1983) and Lines et al. (1984). Both
The data from offset and walkaway VSPs can also be start at the well with a layered model derived from the sonic
imaged directly by so-called prestack wave-equation methods. log or near-offset VSP, which is then corrected to fit offset
In these methods, wave fields are extrapolated from both the traveltimes by allowing interfaces to vary away from the well.
source and the receiver array, and the image is formed when Lines et al. (1984) used an iterative least-squares inversion to
the two wave fields are coherent or “time-coincident” at a adjust the interfaces, whereas Miller (1983) applied the method
given location (Claerbout, 1971; see also Stolt and Weglein, of ovals, which was originally used by Gardner (1949) to map
1985, this issue). The difficulties here are (1) the limited aper- the flanks of salt domes (see also Holste, 1959). Nonunique-
tures and unusual source or receiver configurations of VSP ness is still a problem with parametric approaches and can
experiments; (2) the wide range of propagation angles that only be resolved by including more raypaths.
must be treated correctly; and (3) the presence of strong veloc- The amplitudes of transmitted waves have also been used to
ity variations in the vertical direction, which in effect are later- study the volume of rock between the source and well, in
al velocity variations with respect to the direction of imaging. particular man-made fracture zones with “before and after”
2478 Oristaglio

VSPs (Turpening, 1984; Turpening and Blackway, 1984) and body waves into the formation when they encounter the
the edges of reservoirs (Karus et al., 1975) with multioffset bottom of the hole or other major discontinuities. The quasi-
VSPs. Again, though, the full potential of such work will only static theory of tube waves and their coupling to seismic
be realized when experiments can be done with a dense net- waves in the formation, which was developed by White (1953,
work of sources and receivers. 1983), accurately describes many of these effects up to fre-
quencies of about 100 Hz, but it needs to be extended to
Processing higher frequencies to study the influence of casing conditions
and rugosity on tube wave propagation.
Processing offset VSPs requires special care (Lee, 1984). Ve- The full power of borehole seismic methods is only be-
locity filtering is still the most important step, and it is compli- ginning to develop. In the next few years, the VSP should
cated by the fact that upgoing and downgoing waves travel replace the check-shot survey as the preferred method of sur-
obliquely across the well and show much smaller moveouts veying a well for velocity; with better downhole tools and a
than in the zero-offset geometry. Deconvolution of the upgo- better theory of seismic waves and boreholes, VSPs may well
ing waves using an operator designed on the downgoing become the preferred method for exploring the interior of the
waves is also more difficult, since the upgoing and downgoing earth.
waves recorded in the VSP have traveled along different paths
through the earth. Moreover, it is often necessary to remove
or attenuate a given event before further processing, e.g., a
REFERENCES
strong converted shear wave before reflection point mapping
or migration based on an acoustic model. Ahmed. H., 1984,Reservoirdelineationand porosity evaluationfrom
VSP: Presentedat the 54th Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot.
With oriented three-axis data and a large number of source Explor. Geophys., Atlanta; expanded abstracts, 847-850.
and receiver positions, velocity filtering and identification of Anstey. N. A., 1980, Seismic delineation of oil and gas reservoirs using
events in offset VSPs can be straightforward. However, today’s borehole geophones: Great Britain Patent no. 1 569 581.
Baker. L. J., and Harris, J. M., 1984, Cross-borehole seismic imaging:
surveys fall short of this ideal, and their processing is by neces- 54th Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos.. Sot. Explor. Geophys., At-
sity highly interpretive and model-based. lanta; expandedabstracts,23-25.
Balch. A. H., and Lee, M. W., Eds.. 1984, Vertical seismic profiling:
Techniques, applications, and case histories: International Human
CONCLUSIONS: Resources Dev. Corp.
TOOLS, BOREHOLES, AND SEISMIC WAVES Balch, A. H., Lee. M. W., and Ryder, R. T., 1984a, Case history:
Detection of Leo sand lenses. Powder River Basin, Wyoming, in
Balch, A. H., and Lee, M. W., Eds., Vertical seismic profiling: Tech-
Shear waves, converted waves, and other elastic phenomena niques,applications,and case histories:International Human Re-
such as anisotropy all play a much larger ;ole in borehole sources Dev. Corp., 269-287.
Balch. A. H., Lee, M. W., Miller, J. J., and Ryder, R. T., 1984b, Case
seismic data than in surface seismic data. The ideal downhole history: Detection of Madison Limestone porosity, Powder River
tool for studying these phenomena would consist of a three- Basin, Wyoming, in Balch, A. H., and Lee, M. W., Eds., Vertical
axis geophone array, an internal device for determining orien- seismic profiling: Techniques, applications, and case histories: In-
ternational Human Resources Dev. Corp., 289-305.
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tween the tool and the borehole wall (Wuenschel, 1984). At subsurface fractures and permeable zones by analysis of tube
waves: Presented at the 53rd Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot.
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et al., 1984; Sriram et al., 1983) and of source radiation pat- well seismic measurements: Geophysics, 37,471-480.
Carswell. A.. Tane. R.. Dilliston. C.. and Moon. W.. 1984. A new
terns (Robertson and Corrigan, 1983; Keho et al., 1984) have methoh of wave”held’separation in VSP data processing: Presented
been made with three-component tools, where the orientation at the 54th Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot. Explor. Geophys.,
was determined by the polarization of the first arrivals. Three- Atlanta; expanded abstracts, 4&42.
Cassell, B. R., Alam, M. A., and Millahn, K. O., 1984, Interactive
component tools and shear-wave sources have also been used VSP-CDP mapping in complex media: Presented at the 54th Ann.
to record shear-wave VSPs for the calibration of surface Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot. Explor. Geophys. Atlanta; ex-
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many years and are discussed by Gal’perin (1974, 1984).
Christie. P. A. F., Hughes, V. J., and Kennett, B. L. N., 1983, Velocity
In addition to better downhole tools, a better theoretical filtering of seismic reflection data: First Break, 1, 9-24.
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Ll-23.
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sources for “inverted” VSPs and full-waveform well-to-well Dillon. P. B.. and Thomson, R. C., 1984, OlTset source VSP surveys
and their image reconstruction: Geophys. Prosp., 32, 79&811.
measurements (Lee et al., 1984; Baker and Harris, 1984), be- Fitch. A. A., and Dillon, P. B., 1983, The track filter: Great Britain
cause the tube waves excited by the downhole source reradiate Patent.
 Vertical Seismic Profiles 2479

Gaiser, J. E., Ward, R. W., and DiSiena, J. P., 1984, Three-component compressional waves in Pierre shale: Geophysics, 23, 421439.
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Gaiser, J. E., DiSiena, J. P., and McCoole, K. J., 1983, Deviated Miller, D., Oristaglio: M., and Beylkin, G., 1984, A new formalism
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53rd Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot. Explor. Geophys., Las Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Sot. Explor. Geophys., Atlanta;
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