Data and their Representations MODULE - 6

Statistics

24 Notes

DATA AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

Statistics is a special and an important branch of mathematics which deals mainly with data
and their representations. In this lesson, we shall make a beginning of this study of this
branch of mathematics with collection, classification, presentation and analysis of data.
We shall study how to classify the given data into ungrouped as well as grouped frequency
distributions. We shall also learn about cumulative frequency of a class and cumulative
frequency table.
Further we shall learn graphical representation of data in the form of bar charts, histograms
and frequency polygons.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• know meaning of ‘statistics’ in singular and plural form;
• differentiate between primary and secondary data;
• understand the meaning of a class, class mark, class limits, discrete and
continuous data, frequency of a class, class size or class width through examples;
• condense and represent data into a frequency table;
• form a cumulative frequency table of a frequency distribution;
• draw a bar chart or bar graph of a frequency distribution;
• draw a bar chart or bar graph for the given data;
• draw a histogram and frequency polygon for a given continuous data;
• read and interpret given bar graphs, histograms.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Writing of numbers in increasing/decreasing order.

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• Finding average of two numbers.
• Plotting of points in a plane with respect to two perpendicular axes

Notes • Idea of ratio and proportion.

24.1 STATISTICS AND STATISTICAL DATA

In our day to day life, we come across statements such as:

1. This year the results of the school will be better.

2. The price of petrol/diesel may go up next month.
3. There is likelihood of heavy rains in the evening.
4. The patient may recover soon from illness, etc.
Concentrate on the above statements:
• The first statement can be from a teacher or the head of an institution. It shows that he/
she has observed the performance of the present batch of students in comparison with
the earlier ones.
• The second statement may be from a person who has seen the trend of increasing of
oil prices from a newspaper.
• The third statement can be from a person who has been observing the weather reports
in meteorological department. If so, then one can expect that it is based on some
sound observations and analysis of the weather reports.
• The last statement can be from a doctor which is based on his/her observations and
analysis.
The reliability of the statements such as given above, depends upon the individual’s capacity
for observation and analysis based on some numerical data. Statistics is the science
which deals with the collection, organisation, analysis and interpretation of the
numerical data.
Collection and analysis of numerical data is essential in studying many problems such as
the problem of economic development of the country, educational development, the problem
of health and population, the problem of agricultural development etc.
The word ‘statistics’has different meanings in different contexts. Obseve the following
sentences:

1. May I have the latest copy of “Educational Statistics of India”.

2. I like to study statistics. It is an interesting subject.

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In the first sentence, statistics is used in a plural sense, meaning numerical data. These
may include a number of schools/colleges/institutions in India, literacy rates of states etc.
In the second sentence, the word ‘statistics’ is used as a singular noun, meaning the
subject which deals with classification, tabulation/organisation, analysis of data as well as Notes
drawing of meaningful conclusions from the data.

24.2 COLLECTION OF DATA

In any field of investigation, the first step is to collect the data. It is these data that will be
analysed by the investigator or the statistician to draw inferences. It is, therefore, of utmost
importance that these data be reliable and relevant and collected according to a plan or
design which must be laid out in advance.
Data are said to be primary if the investigator himself is responsible for the collection of
data. Some examples of primary data are: voters’lists, data collected in census-questionnaire
etc.
It is not always possible for an investigator to collect data due to lack of time and resources.
In that case, he/her may use data collected by other governmental or private agency in the
form of published reports. They are called secondary data. Data may be primary for one
individual or agency but it becomes secondary for other using the same data.
Since these data are collected for a purpose other than that of the original investigators, the
user may lose some details or the data may not be all that relevant to his/her study. Therefore,
such data must be used with great care.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.1

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable word(s) so that the following sentences give the proper
meaning:

(a) Statistics, in singular sense, means the subject which deals with _______, _____,
analysis of data as well as drawing of meaningful _______ from the data.

(b) Statistics is used, in a plural sense, meaning _______________.

(c) The data are said to be __________ if the investigator himself is responsible for
its collection.

(d) Data taken from governmental or private agencies in the form of published reports
are called __________ data.

(e) Statistics is the science which deals with collection, organisation, analysis and
interpretation of the ____________.

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2. Javed wanted to know the size of shoes worn by the maximum number of persons in
a locality. So, he goes to each and every house and notes down the information on a
sheet. The data so collected is an example of ___________ data.
Notes
3. To find the number of absentees in each day of each class from I to XII, you collect the
information from the school records. The data so collected is an example of _______
data.

24.3 PRESENTATION OF DATA

When the work of collection of data is over, the next step to the investigator is to find ways
to condense and organise them in order to study their salient features. Such an arrangement
of data is called presentation of data.
Suppose there are 20 students in a class. The marks obtained by the students in a
mathematics test (out of 100) are as follows:
45, 56, 61, 56, 31, 33, 70, 61, 76, 56,
36, 59, 64, 56, 88, 28, 56, 70, 64, 74
The data in this form is called raw data. Each entry such as 45, 56 etc. is called a value
or observation. By looking at it in this form, can you find the highest and the lowest
marks? What more information do you get?
Let us arrange these numbers in ascending order:
28, 31, 33, 36, 45, 56, 56, 56, 56, 56,
59, 61, 61, 64, 64, 70, 70, 74, 76, 88 ...(1)
Now you can get the following information:

(a) Highest marks obtained : 88

(b) Lowest marks obtained : 28

(c) Number of students who got 56 marks: 5

(d) Number of students who got marks more than 60 : 9

The data arranged in the form (1) above, are called arrayed data.
Presentation of data in this form is time cousuming, when the number of observations is
large. To make the data more informative we can present these in a tabular form as shown
below:

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Marks in Mathematics of 20 students
Marks Number of Students
28 1
31 1 Notes
33 1
36 1
45 1
56 5
59 1
61 2
64 2
70 2
74 1
76 1
88 1
Total 20
This presentation of the data in the form of a table is an improvement over the arrangement
of numbers (marks) in an array, as it presents a clear idea of the data. From the table, we
can easily see that 1 student has secured 28 marks, 5 students have secured 56 marks, 2
students have secured 70 marks, and so on. Number 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 2, ....are called
respective frequencies of the observations (also called variate or variable) 28, 31, 33,
36, 45, 56, 70, ...
Such a table is claled a frequency distribution table for ungrouped data or simply
ungrouped frequency table.
Note: When the number of observations is large, it may not be convenient to find the
frequencies by simple counting. In such cases, we make use of bars (1), called tally
marks) which are quite helpful in finding the frequencies.
In order to get a further condensed form of the data (when the number of observation is
large), we classify the data into classes or groups or class intervals as below:
Step 1: We determine the range of the raw data i.e. the differenece between the maximum
and minimum observations (values) occurring in the data. In the above example
range is 88 – 28 = 60.
Step 2: We decide upon the number of classes or groups into which the raw data are to
be grouped. There is no hard and fast rule for determining the number of classes,
but generally there should not be less than 5 and not more than 15.
Step 3: We divide the range (it is 60 here) by the desired number of classes to determine
the approximate size (or width) of a class-interval.In the above example, suppose

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60
we decide to have 9 classes. Than the size of each class is ≈7.
9
Step 4: Next, we set up the class limits using the size of the interval determined in
Notes Step 3. We make sure that we have a class to include the minimum as well as a
class to include the maximum value occurring in the data. The classes should be
non-overlapping, no gaps between the classes, and classes should be of the
same size.
Step 5: We take each item (observation) from the data, one at a time, and put a tally
mark (|) against the class to which it belongs. For the sake of convenience, we
record the tally marks in bunches of five, the fifth one crossing the other four
diagonally as ||||.
Step 6: By counting tally marks in each class, we get the frequency of that class. (obviously,
the total of all frequencies should be equal to the total number of observations in
the data)
Step 7: The frequency table should be given a proper title so as to convey exactly what
the table is about.
Using the above steps, we obtain the following table for the marks obtained by 20 students.
Frequency Table of the marks obtained by 20 students in a mathematics test
Class Interval Tally Marks Frequency
(Marks out of 100)
28-34 ||| 3
35-41 | 1
42-48 | 1
49-55 – 0
56-62 |||| ||| 8
63-69 || 2
70-76 |||| 4
77-83 – 0
84-90 | 1
Total 20
The above table is called a frequency distribution table for grouped data or briefly, a
grouped frequency table. The data in the above form are called grouped data.
In the above table, the class 28-34 includes the observations 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 and
34; class 35-41 includes 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41 and so on. So, there is no
overlapping.

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For the class 28-34, 28 is called the lower class limit and 34, the upper class limit, and
so on.
From this type of presentation, we can draw better conclusions about the data. Some of
these are. Notes

(i) The number of students getting marks from 28 to 34 is 3.

(ii) No students has got marks in the class 49-55, i.e., no students has got marks 49, 50,
51, 52, 53, 54 and 55.
(iii) Maximum number of students have got marks from 56 to 62 etc.
We can also group the same 20 observations into 9 groups 28-35, 35-42, 42-49, 49-56,
56-63, 63-70, 70-77, 77-84, 84-91 as shown in the following table.
It appears from classes 28-35 and 35-42, etc. that the observation 35 may belong to both
those classes. But as you know, no observation could belong simultaneously to two classes.
To avoid this, we adopt the convention that the common observation 35 belongs to the
higher class, i.e. 35-42 (and not to 28-35). Similarly 42 belogs to 42-49 and so on. Thus,
class 28-35 contains all observations which are greater than or equal to 28 but less than
35, etc.
Frequency Table of the marks obtained by 20 students in a mathematics test
Class Interval Tally Marks Frequency
(Marks out of 100)
28-35 ||| 3
35-42 | 1
42-49 | 1
49-56 – 0
56-63 |||| ||| 8
63-70 || 2
70-77 |||| 4
77-84 – 0
84-91 | 1
Total 20
Why do we prepare frequency distribution as given in the above table, it will be clear to
you from the next example.
Now let us consider the following frequency distribution table which gives the weight of 50
students of a class:

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Weight (in kg) Number of Students

31-35 10
Notes 36-40 7
41-45 15
45-50 4
51-55 2
56-60 3
61-65 4
66-70 3
71-75 2
Total 50

Suppose two students of weights 35.5 kg and 50.54 kg are admitted in this class. In which
class (interval) will we include them? Can we include 35.5 in class 31-35? In class 36-40?
No! The class 31-35 includes numbers upto 35 and the class 36-40, includes numbers
from 36 onwards. So, there are gaps in between the upper and lower limits of two
consecutive classes. To overcome this difficulty, we divide the intervals in such a way that
the upper and lower limits of consecutive classes are the same. For this, we find the
difference between the upper limit of a class and the lower limit of its succeeding class. We
than add half of this difference to each of the upper limits and subtract the same from each
of the lower limits. For example
Consider the classes 31-35 and 36-40
The lower limit of 36-40 is 36
The upper limit of 31-35 is 35
The difference = 36 – 35 = 1

1
So, half the difference = = 0.5
2
So, the new class interval formed from 31-35 is (31 – 0.5) – (35 + 0.5), i.e., 30.5 – 35.5.
Similarly, class 36-40 will be (36 – 0.5) – (40 + 0.5), i.e., 35.5 – 40.5 and so on.
This way, the new classes will be
30.5-35.5, 35.5-40.5, 40.5-45.5, 45.5-50.5, 50.5-55.5, 55.5-60.5, 60.5-65.5,
65.5-70.5 and 70.5-75.5. These are now continuous classes.
Note that the width of the class is again the same, i.e., 5. These changed limits are called

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true class limits. Thus, for the class 30.5-35.5, 30.5 is the true lower class limit and
35.5 is the true upper class limit.
Can we now include the weight of the new students? In which classes?
Obviously, 35.5 will be included in the class 35.5-40.5 and 50.54 in the class 50.5-55.5 Notes
(Can you explain why?).
So, the new frequency distribution will be as follows:
Weight (in kg) Number of Students

30.5-35.5 10

35.5-40.5 8 35.5 included in the class

40.5-45.5 15

45.5-50.5 4

50.5-55.5 3 50.54 included in the class

55.5-60.5 3

60.5-65.5 4

65.5-70.5 3

70.5-75.5 2

Total 52

Note: Here, in the above case, we could have also taken the classes as 30-35, 35-40,
40-45, ..., 65-70 and 70-75.
Example 24.1: Construct a frequency table for the following data which give the daily
wages (in rupees) of 32 persons. Use class intervals of size 10.

110 184 129 141 105 134 136 176 155

145 150 160 160 152 201 159 203 146

177 139 105 140 190 158 203 108 129

118 112 169 140 185

Solution: Range of data = 205 - 105 = 98

It is convenient, therefore, to have 10 classes each of size 10.

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Frequency distribution table of the above data is given below:
Frequency table showing the daily wages of 32 persons

Notes Daily wages Tally Marks Number of persons

(in Rs.) or frequency
105-115 |||| 5
115-125 | 1
125-135 ||| 3
135-145 |||| 5
145-155 |||| 4
155-165 |||| 5
165-175 | 1
175-185 ||| 3
185-195 || 2
195-205 ||| 3
Total 32
Example 24.2: The heights of 30 students, (in centimetres) have been found to be as follows:
161 151 153 165 167 154
162 163 170 165 157 156
153 160 160 170 161 167
154 151 152 156 157 160
161 160 163 167 168 158
(i) Represent the data by a grouped frequency distribution table, taking the classes as
161-165, 166-170, etc.
(ii) What can you conclude about their heights from the table?
Solution:
(i) Frequency distribution table showing heights of 30 students
Height (in cm) Tally Marks Frequency
151-155 |||| || 7
156-160 |||| |||| 9
161-165 |||| ||| 8
166-170 |||| | 6
Total 30
(ii) One conclusion that we can draw from the above table is that more than 50% of the
students (i.e., 16) are shorter than 160 cm.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.2

1. Give an example of a raw data and an arrayed data.
Notes
2. Heights (in cm) of 30 girls in Class IX are given below:
140 140 160 139 153 146 151 150 150 154
148 158 151 160 150 149 148 140 148 153
140 139 150 152 149 142 152 140 146 148
Determine the range of the data.
3. Differentiate between a primary data and secondary data.
4. 30 students of Class IX appeared for mathematics olympiad. The marks obtained by
them are given as follows:
46 31 74 68 42 54 14 93 72 53
59 38 16 88 27 44 63 43 81 64
77 62 53 40 71 60 8 68 50 58
Construct a grouped frequency distribution of the data using the classes 0-9, 10-19
etc. Also, find the number of students who secured marks more than 49.
5. Construct a frequency table with class intervals of equal sizes using 250-270 (270 not
included) as one of the class interval for the following data:
268 230 368 248 242 310 272 342
310 300 300 320 315 304 402 316
406 292 355 248 210 240 330 316
406 215 262 238
6. Following is the frequency distribution of ages (in years) of 40 teachers in a school:
Age (in years) Number of teachers
25-31 12
31-37 15
37-43 7
43-49 5
49-55 1
Total 40
(i) What is the class size?
(ii) What is the upper class limit of class 37-43?
(iii) What is the lower class limit of class 49-55?

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24.4 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY TABLE

Consider the frequency distribution table:
Notes
Weight (in kg) Number of Students
30-35 10
35-40 7
40-45 15
45-50 4
50-55 2
55-60 3
60-65 4
65-70 3
70-75 2
Total 50
Now try to answer the following questions:
(i) How many students have their weights less than 35 kg?
(ii) How many students have their weights less than 50 kg?
(iii) How many students have their weights less than 60 kg?
(iv) How many students have their weights less than 70 kg?
Let us put the answers in the following way:
Number of students with weight:
Less than 35 kg : 10
Less than 40 kg : (10) + 7 = 17
Less than 45 kg : (10 + 7 ) + 15 =32
Less than 50 kg : (10 + 7 + 15) + 4 = 36
Less than 55 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4) + 2 = 38
Less than 60 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2) + 3 = 41
Less than 65 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3) + 4 = 45
Less than 70 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3 + 4) + 3 = 48
Less than 75 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3) + 2 = 50
From the above, it is easy to see that answers to questions (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are 10, 36,
41 and 48 respectively.
The frequencies 10, 17, 32, 36, 38, 41, 48, 50 are called the cumulative frequencies of
the respective classes. Obviously, the cumulative frequency of the last class, i.e., 70-75 is
50 which is the total number of observations (Here it is total number of students).

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In the table under consideration, if we insert a column showing the cumulative frequency of
each class, we get what we call cumulative frequency distribution or simply cumulative
frequency table of the data.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution Table Notes
Weight (in kg) Number of students (frequency) Cumulative frequency
0-35 10 10
35-40 7 17
40-45 15 32
45-50 4 36
50-55 2 38
55-60 3 41
60-65 4 45
65-70 3 48
70-75 2 50
Total 50
Example 24.3: The following table gives the distribution of employees residig in a locality
into different income groups
Income (per week) (in `) Number of Employees
0-1000 12
1000-2000 35
2000-3000 75
3000-4000 225
4000-5000 295
5000-6000 163
6000-7000 140
7000-8000 55
Total 1000
Form a cumulative frequency table for the data above and answer the question
given below.
How many employees earn less than
(i) ` 2000? (ii) ` 5000? (iii) ` 8000 (per week)?
Solution: Cumulative frequency table of the given distribution is given below:

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Cumulative Frequency Table
Income (per week) Number of Employees Cumulative
(in `) (frequency) frequency
Notes
0-1000 12 12
1000-2000 35 47
2000-3000 75 122
3000-4000 225 347
4000-5000 295 642
5000-6000 163 805
6000-7000 140 945
7000-8000 55 1000
Total 1000
From the above table, we see that:

(i) Number of employees earning less than ` 2000 = 47

(ii) Number of employees earning less than ` 5000 = 642
(iii) Number of employees earning less than ` 8000 = 1000

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.3

1. Construct a cumulative frequency distribution for each of the following distributions:
(i) Classes Frequency (ii) Classes Frequency
1-5 4 0-10 3
6-10 6 10-20 10
11-15 10 20-30 24
16-20 13 30-40 32
21-25 6 40-50 9
26-30 2 50-60 7
2. Construct a cumulative frequency distribution from the following data:
Heights (in cm) 110-120 120-130 130-140 140-150 150-160 Total
Number of 14 30 60 42 14 160
students
How many students have their heights less than 150 cm?

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24.5 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

24.5.1 Bar Charts (Graphs)

Earlier, we have discussed presentation of data by tables. There is another way to present Notes
the data called graphical representation which is more convenient for the purpose of
comparison among the individual items. Bar chart (graph) is one of the graphical
representation of numerical data. For example Fig 24.1 represents the data given in the
table regarding blood groups.
Blood groups of 35 students in a class
Blood Group Number of students
A 13
B 9
AB 6
O 7
Total 35
We can represent this data by Fig. 24.1

14
13
12
11
10
Number of Students

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
A B AB O
B l oo d G r ou p

Fig. 24.1
This is called a bar chart or bar graph.
Bars (rectangles) of unifoirm width are drawn with equal spaces in between them, on the
horizontal axis-called x-axis. The heights of the rectangles are shown along the vertical
axis-called y-axis and are proportional to their respective frequencies (number of students).

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The width of the rectangle has no special meaning except to make it pictorially more
attractive. If you are given the bar chart as Fig. 24.1 what can you conclude from it?
You can conclude that
Notes
(i) The number of students in the class having blood group A is the maximum.
(ii) The number of students in the class having blood group AB is the minimum.
Bar graphs are used by economists, businessmen, medical journals, government departments
for representing data.
Another form of the bar graph shown in Fig. 24.2, is the following where blood groups of
the students are represented along y-axis and their frequencies along x-axis.

O
Blood Group

AB

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Students

Fig. 24.2
There is not much difference between the bar graphs in Fig. 24.1 and Fig. 24.2 except that
it depends upon the person’s liking to represent data with vertical bars or with horizontal
bars. Generally vertical bar graphs are preferred.
Example 24.4: Given below (Fig. 24.3) is the bar graph of the number of students in
Class IX during academic years 2001-02 to 2005-06. Read the bar graph and answer the
following questions:
(i) What is the information given by the bar graph?
(ii) In which year is the number of students in the class, 250?
(iii) State whether true or false:
The enrolment during 2002-03 is twice that of 2001-02.

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350

300
Notes
Number of Students

250

200

150

100

50

0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Academic Year

Fig. 24.3
Solution:
(i) The bar graph represents the number of students in class IX of a school during academic
year 2001-02 to 2005-06.
(ii) In 2003-04, the number of students in the class was 250.
(iii) Enrolment in 2002-03 = 200
Enrolment in 2001-02 = 150

200 4 1
= =1 < 2
150 3 3
Therefore, the given statement is false.
Example 24.5: The bar graph given in Fig. 24.4 represents the circulation of newspapers
in six languages in a town (the figures are in hundreds). Read the bar graph and answer the
following questions:
(i) Find the total number of newspapers read in Hindi, English and Punjabi.
(ii) Find the excess of the number of newspapers read in Hindi over those of Urdu, Marathi
and Tamil together.
(iii) In which language is the number of newspapers read the least?
(iv) Write, in increasing order, the number of newspapers read in different languages.

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800

700
Notes
600

Students
hundred’s)
500
(inof
400
Number
Newspapers

300

200

100

0
English Hindi Punjabi Urdu Marathi Tamil
Language

Fig. 24.4
Solution:
(i) Number of newspapers (in hundreds) read in Hindi, English and
Punjabi = 800 + 700 + 400 = 1900
(ii) Number of newspapers (in hundreds) read in Hindi = 800
Number of newspapers (in hundreds) in Urdu,
Marathi and Tamil = 200 + 300 +100 = 600
So, difference (in hundreds) = 800 – 600) = 200
(iii) In Tamil, the number of newspapers read is the least.
(iv) Tamil, Urdu, Marathi, Punjabi, English, Hindi
Construction of Bar Graphs

We now explain the construction of bar graphs through examples:

Example 24.6: The following data give the amount of loans (in crores of rupees) given by
a bank during the years 2000 to 2004:
Year Loan (in crores of rupees)
2000 25
2001 30
2002 40
2003 55
2004 60

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Construction a bar graph representing the above information.

Solution:

Step 1: Take a graph paper and draw two perpendicular lines and call them horizontal Notes
and vertical axes (Fig. 24.5)

Step 2: Along the horizontal axis, represent the information ‘years’ and along the vertical
axis, represent the corresponding ‘loans (in crores of rupees)’.

Step 3: Along the horizontal axis, choose a uniform (equal) width of bars and a uniform
gap between them, according to the space available.

Step 4: Choose a suitable scale along the vertical axis in view of the data given to us.

Let us choose the scale:

1 unit of graph paper = 10 crore of rupees for the present data.

Step 5: Calculate the heights of the bars for different years as given below:

1
2000 : × 25 = 2.5 units
10

1
2001 : × 30 = 3 units
10

1
2002 : × 40 = 4 units
10

1
2003 : × 55 = 5.5 units
10

1
2004 : × 60 = 6 units
10

Step 6: Draw five bars of equal width and heights obtained in Step 5 above, the
corresponding years marked on the horizontal axis, with equal spacing between
them as shown in Fig. 24.5.

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Bar graph of loans (in crores of rupees) given by a bank during the
years 2000 to 2004

70
Notes
60

Loan(in crores of rupees)

50

40

30

20

10

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Years

Fig. 24.5
Thus, Fig. 24.5 gives the required bar graph.
Example 24.7: The data below shows the number of students present in different classes
on a particular day.
Class VI VII VIII IX X
Number of students present 40 45 35 40 50
Represent the above data by a bar graph.
Solution: The bar graph for the above data is shown in Fig. 24.6.

60
Number of students present

50

40

30

20

10

0
VI VII VIII IX X
Classes

Fig. 24.6

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Example 24.8: A survey of 200 students of a school was done to find which activity they
prefer to do in their free time and the information thus collected is recorded in the following
table:
Preferred activity Number of students Notes
Playing 60
Reading story books 45
Watching TV 40
Listening to music 25
Painting 30
Draw a bar graph for this data.
Solution: The bar graph representing the above data is shown in Fig. 24.7 below:

60
55
50
45
Number of students

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Playing Reading story Watching T V List ening to Paint ing
books music
Pre ferred activity

Fig. 24.7

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.4

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) A bar graph is a graphical representation of numerical data using _______ of
equal width.
(ii) In a bar graph, bars are drawn with _________ spaces in between them.
(iii) In a bar graph, heights of rectangles are _________ to their respective frequencies.
2. The following bar graph shows how the members of the staff of a school come to
school.
Mathematics Secondary Course 613
MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
Mode of transport of school staff

6
Notes
5

Number of staff members

4

0
Bus Car Bicycle Foot
Mode of transport

Fig. 24.8
Study the bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) How many members of staff come to school on bicycle?
(ii) How many member of staff come to school by bus?
(iii) What is the most common mode of transfport of the members of staff?
3. The bar graph given below shows the number of players in each team of 4 given
games:

Volleyball

T able T ennis
Games

Football

Basket ball

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Number of players

Fig. 24.9

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
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Read the bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) How many players play in the volley ball team?
(ii) Which game is played by the maximum number of players?
Notes
(iii) Which game is played by only 3 players?
4. The following bar graph shows the number of trees planted by an agency in different
years:

1600

1400

1200
Number of trees planted

1000

800

600

400

200

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Years

Fig. 24. 10
Study the above bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) What is the total number of trees planted by the agency from 2003 to 2008?
(ii) In which year is the number of trees planted the maximum?
(iii) In which year is the number of trees planted the minimum?
(iv) In which year, the number of trees planted is less than the number of trees planted in
the year preceding it?
5. The expenditure of a company under different heads (in lakh of rupees) for a year is
given below:
Head Expenditure (in lakhs of rupees)
Salary of employees 200
Travelling allowances 100
Electricity and water 50
Rent 125
Others 150
Construct a bar chart to represent this data.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

24.5.2 Histograms and Frequency Polygons

Earlier, we have learnt to represent a given information by means of a bar graph. Now, we
will learn how to represent a continuous grouped frequency distribution graphically. A
Notes continuous grouped frequency distribution can be represented graphically by a histogram.
A histogram is a vertical bar graph with no space between the bars.
(i) The classes of the grouped data are taken along the horizontal axis and
(ii) the respective class frequencies on the vertical axis, using a suitable scale on each axis.
(iii) For each class a rectangle is constructed with base as the width of the class and height
determined from the class frequencies. The areas of rectangles are proportional to the
frequencies of their respective classes.
Let us illustrate this with the help of examples.
Example 24.9: The following is the frequency distribution of marks obtained by 20 students
in a class test.
Marks obtained 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
Number of students 1 3 1 6 4 5
Draw a histogram for the above data.
Solution: We go through the following steps for drawing a histogram.
Step 1: On a graph paper, draw two perpendicular lines and call them as horizontal and
vertical axes.
Step 2: Along the horizontal axis, we take classes (marks) 20-30, 30-40, ... (Here each is
of equal width 10)
Step 3: Choose a suitable scale on the vertical axis to represent the frequencies (number
of students) of classes.
Step 4: Draw the rectangles as shown in Fig. 24.11.

20 30 40 50 80 70 80

Fig. 24.11

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Fig. 24.11 shows the histogram for the frequency distribution of marks obtained by 20
students in a class test.
Example 24.10: Draw a histogram for the following data:
Notes
Height 125-130 130-135 135-140 140-145 145-150 150-155 155-160
(in cm)
Number of 1 2 3 5 4 3 2
students
Solution: Following the steps as suggested in the above example, the histogram representing
the given data is given below:

125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160

Fig. 24.12
Frequency Polygon
There is yet another way of representing a grouped frequency distribution graphically. This
is called frequency polygen. To see what we mean, consider the histogram in Fig. 24.13.
E

B
A
20 30 40 50 80 70 80
H

Fig. 24.13

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
Let B, C, D, E, F and G be the mid points of the tops of the adjacent rectangles
(Fig. 24.13). Join B to C, C to D, D to E, E to F and F to G by means of line segments (dotted).
To complete the polygon, join B to A (the mid point of class 10-20) and join G to H (the
Notes mid point of the class 80-90).
Thus, A B C D E F G H is the frequency polygon representing the data given in Example 24.9
Note: Although, there exists no class preceding the lowest class and no class succeeding
the highest class, we add the two classes each with zero frequency so that we can make
the area of the frequency polygon the same as the area of the histogram.
Example 24.11: Draw a frequency polygon for the data in Example 24.12.
Solution: Histogram representing the given data is shown in Fig. 24.12. For frequency
polygon, we follow the procedure as given above. The frequency polygen ABCDEFGHI
representing the given data is given below:

D G

C H

A I

125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165

Fig. 24.14
Example 24.12: Marks (out of 50) obtained by 30 students of Class IX in a mathematics
test are given in the following table:
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Number of students 5 8 6 7 4
Draw a frequency polygon for this data.
Solution: Let us first draw a histogram for this data (Fig. 24.15)
Mark the mid points B, C, D, E and F of the tops of the rectangles as shown in Fig. 24.15.
Here, the first class is 0-10. So, to find the class preceding 0-10, we extend the horizontal
axis in the negative direction and find the mid point of the imaginary class (–10)-0. Let us

618 Mathematics Secondary Course

Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

C
E

D
Notes
B F

A
I

H G
O 10 20 30 40 50 60

Fig. 24.15

join B to the mid point of the class (015010)-0. Let A be the mid point where this line
segment meets the vertial axis. Let G be the mid point of the class 50-60 (succeeding the
last class). Let the line segment FG intersects the length of the last rectangle at I (Fig.
24.15). Then OABCDEFIH is the required frequency polygen representing the given
data.
Note: Why have we not taken the points before O and G? This is so because marks
obtained by the students cannot go below 0 and beyond maximum marks 50. In the figure,
extreme line segments are only partly drawn and then brought down vertically to 0 and 50.
Frequency polygon can also be drawn independently without drawing histogram. We will
illustrate it through the following example.
Example 24.13: Draw a frequency polygon for the data given in Example 24.9, without
drawing a histogram for the data.
Solution: To draw a frequency polygon without drawing a histogram, we go through the
following steps.
Step 1: Draw two lines perpendicualar to each other.
Step 2: Find the class marks of the classes.
20 + 30 30 + 40 40 + 50 50 + 60 60 + 70 70 + 80
Here they are: , , , , and
2 2 2 2 2 2
i.e. the class marks are 25, 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75 respectively.
Step 3: Plot the points B (25, 1), C(35, 3), D(45, 1), E(55, 6), F(65, 4) and G(75, 5),
i.e., (class mark, frequency)
Step 4: Join the points B, C, D, E, F and G by line segments and complete the polygon
as explained earlier.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
The frequency polygon (ABCDEFGH) is given below:

E (55, 6)
Notes
G (75, 5)

F (65, 4)
Frequency

C (35, 3)

B (25, 1) D (45, 1)
A
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
H

Fig. 24.16
Reading a Histogram
Consider the following example:
Example 24.14: Study the histogram given below and answer the following questions:

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Fig. 24.17

(i) What is the number of teachers in the oldest and the youngest group in the school?
(ii) In which age group is the number of teachers maximum?

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

(iii) In which age group is the number of teachers 4?

(iv) In which two age groups, the number of teachers is the same?
Solution:
Notes
(i) Number of teachers in oldest and youngest group = 3 + 2 = 5
(ii) Number of teachers is the maximum in the age group 35-40.
(iii) In the age group 30-35, the number of teachers is 4.
(iv) Number of teachers is the same in the age groups 25-35 and 40-45. It is 4 in each group.
In age groups 20-25 and 50-55, the number of teachers is same i.e., 2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.5

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) In a histogram, the class intervals are generally taken along ________.
(ii) In a histogram, the class frequencies are generally taken along _______.
(iii) In a histogram, the areas of rectangles are proportional to the _______ of the
respective classes.
(iv) A histogram is a graphical representation of a __________.
2. The daily earnings of 26 workers are given below:
Daily earnings 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400
(in `)
Number of 4 8 5 6 3
workers
Draw a histogram to represent the data.
3. Draw a frequency polygon for the data in Question 2 above by
(i) drawing a histogram
(ii) without drawing a histogram
4. Observe the histogram given below and answer the following questions:
(i) What information is given by the histogram?
(ii) In which class (group) is the number of students maximum?
(iii) How many students have the height of 145 cm and above?
(iv) How many students have the height less than 140 cm?

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(v) How many students have the height more than or equal to 140 but less than 155?

Notes

130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 177

Fig. 24.18

LET US SUM UP
• Statistics is that branch of mathematics which deals with collection, organisation, analysis
and interpretation of data.
• Statistics is used in both plural and singular sense.
• The data collected from the respondents “as it is” is called raw data.
• Data are said to be primary if the investigator himself collects it through his/her own
designed tools.
• Data taken from other sources such as printed reports, and not collected by the
experimenter himself, is called secondary data.
• The raw data arranged in ascending or decending order is called “arrayed data”.
• When the arrayed data are arranged with frequencies, they are said to form a frequency
table for ungrouped data or a ungrouped frequency distribution table.
• When the data are divided into groups/classes, they are called grouped data.
• The difference between the maximum and minimum observations occuring in the data
is called the range of the raw data.
• The number of classes have to be decided according to the range of the data and size
of class.

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics
• In a class say 10-15, 10 is called the lower limit and 15 is called the upper limit of the
class.
• The number of observations in a particualr class is called its frequency and the table
showing classes with frequencies is called a frequency table. Notes
• Sometimes, the classes have to be changed to make them continuous. In such case,
the class limits are called true class limits.
• The total of frequency of a particular class and frequencies of all other classes preceding
that class is called the cumulative frequency of that class.
• The table showing cumulative frequencies is called cumulative frequency table.
• A bar graph is a graphical representation of the numerical data by a number of bars
(rectangles) of uniform width, erected horizontally or vertically with equal space between
them.
• A histogram is a graphical representation of a grouped frequency distribution with
continuous classes. In a histogram, the area of the rectangles are proportional to the
corresponding frequencies.
• A frequency polygon is obtianed by first joining the mid points of the tops of the
adjacent rectangles in the histogram and then joining the mid point of first rectangle to
the mid point of the class preceding the lowest class and the the last mid point to the
mid point of the class succeeding the highest class.
• A frequency polygon can also be drawn independently without drawing a histogram
by using the class marks of the classes and respective frequencies of the classes.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks by appropriate words/phrases to make each of the following statements
true:
(i) When the data are condensed in classes of equal size with frequencies, they are
called ________ data and the table is called _______ table.
(ii) When the class limits are adjusted to make them continuous, the class limits are
renamed as ________.
(iii) The number of observations falling in a particular class is called its _______.
(iv) The difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a class is called
_________.
(v) The sum of frequencies of a class and all classes prior to that class is called
________ frequency of that class.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(vi) Class size = Difference between ________ and _____ of the class.
(vii) The raw data arranged in ascending or descending order is called an _______
data.
Notes
(viii) The difference between the maximum and minimum observations occuring in the
data is called the _________ of the raw data.
2. The number of TV sets in each of 30 households are given below:
1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 3
1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 3, 1, 2, 1, ,1 0, 1, 1
Construct a frequency table for the data.
3. The number of vehicles owned by each of 50 families are listed below:
2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1,
2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1
3, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2
Construct a frequency distribution table for the data.
4. The weight (in grams) of 40 New Year’s cards were found as:
10.4 6.3 8.7 7.3 8.8 9.1 6.7 11.1 14.0 12.2
11.3 9.4 8.6 7.1 8.4 10.0 9.1 8.8 10.3 10.2
7.3 8.6 9.7 10.9 13.6 9.8 8.9 9.2 10.8 9.4
6.2 8.8 9.4 9.9 10.1 11.4 11.8 11.2 10.1 8.3

Prepare a grouped frequency distribution using the class 5.5-7.5, 7.5-9.5 etc.
5. The lengths, in centimetres, to the nearest centimeter of 30 carrots are given below:
15 21 20 10 18 18 16 18 20 20
18 16 13 15 15 16 13 14 14 16
12 15 17 12 14 15 13 11 14 17

Construct a frequency table for the data using equal class sizes and taking one class as
10-12 (12 excluded).
6. The following is the distribution of weights (in kg) of 40 persons:

624 Mathematics Secondary Course

Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

Weight Number of persons

40-45 4
45-50 5 Notes
50-55 10
55-60 7
60-65 6
65-70 8
Total 40
(i) Determine the class marks of the classes 40-45, 45-50 etc.
(ii) Construct a cumulative frequency table.
7. The class marks of a distribution and the corresponding frequencies are given below:
Class marks 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Frequency 2 6 10 15 12 8 5 2
Determine the frequency table and construct the cumulative frequency table.
8. For the following frequency table
Classes Frequency
15-20 2
20-25 3
25-30 5
30-35 7
35-40 4
40-45 3
45-50 1
Total 25
(i) Write the lower limit of the class 15-20.
(ii) Write the class limits of the class 25-30.
(iii) Find the class mark of the class 35-40.
(iv) Determine the class size.
(v) Form a cumulative frequency table.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
9. Given below is a cumulative frequency distribution table showing marks obtained by
50 students of a class.
Marks Number of students
Notes
Below 20 15
Below 40 24
Below 60 29
Below 80 34
Below 100 50
Form a frequency table from the above data.
10. Draw a bar graph to represent the following data of sales of a shopkeeper:
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Sales (in `) 16000 18000 17500 9000 85000 16500
11. Study the following bar graph and answer the following questions:

Fig. 24.19
(i) What is the information given by the bar graph?
(ii) On which day is number of students born the maximum?
(iii) How many more students were born on Thursday than that on Tuesday.
(iv) What is the total number of students in the class?

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics
12. The times (in minutes) taken to complete a crossword at a competition were noted
for 50 competitors are recorded in the following table:
Time (in minutes) Number of competitors
Notes
20-25 8
25-30 10
30-35 9
35-40 12
40-45 6
45-50 5
(i) Construct a histogram for the data.
(ii) Construct a frequency polygon.
13. Construct a frequency polygon for tha data in question 12 without drawing a histogram.
14. The following histogram shows the number of literate females in the age group 10 to
40 (in years) in a town:

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Fig. 24.20
Study the above histogram and answer the following questions:
(i) What was the total number of literate females in the town in the age group 10 to 40?
(ii) In which age group, the number of literate females was the highest?
(iii) In which two age groups was the number of literate females the same?

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
(iv) State true or false:
The number of literate females in the age group 25-30 is the sum of the numbers of
literate females in the age groups 20-25 and 35-40.
Notes
Write the correct option:
15. The sum of the class marks of the classes 90-120 and 120-150 is
(A) 210 (B) 220 (C) 240 (D) 270
16. The range of the data
28, 17, 20, 16, 19, 12, 30, 32, 10 is
(A) 22 (B) 28 (C) 30 (D) 32
17. In a frequency distribution, the mid-value of a class is 12 and its width is 6. The lower
limit of the class is:
(A) 6 (B) 9 (C) 12 (D) 18
18. The width of each of five continuous classes in a frequency distribution is 5 and the
lower limit of the lowest (first) class is 10. The upper limit of the highest (last) class is
(A) 15 (B) 20 (C) 30 (D) 35
19. The class marks (in order) of a frequency distribution are 10, 15, 20, .... The class
corresponding to the class mark 15 is
(A) 11.5-18.5 (B) 17.5-22.5
(C) 12.5-17.5 (D) 13.5-16.5
20. For drawing a frequency polygon of a continuous frequency distribution, we plot the
points whose ordinates are the frequencies of the respective classes and abcissae are
respectively:
(A) class marks of the classes (B) lower limits of the classes
(C) upper limits of the classes (D) upper limits of preceding classes

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

24.1 Notes
1. (a) Classification, organisation, inferences (b) numerical data
(c) primary (d) secondary
(e) numerical data
2. Primary 3. Secondary
24.2
2. 21 cm
4 Marks Number of students 5. Class interval Frequency
0-10 1 210-230 2
10-19 2 230-250 5
20-29 1 250-270 2
30-39 2 270-290 2
40-49 5 290-310 4
50-59 6 310-330 6
60-69 6 330-350 2
70-79 4 350-370 2
80-89 2 370-390 0
90-99 1 390-410 3
Total 30 Total 25
19 students secured more than 49 marks.
6. (a) 6 (b) 43 (c) 49
24.3
1. (i) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency
1-5 4 4
6-10 6 10
11-15 10 20
16-20 13 33
21-25 6 39
26-30 2 41
Total 41

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(ii) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency

0-10 3 3
10-20 10 13
Notes
20-30 24 37
30-40 32 69
40-50 9 78
50-60 7 85
Total 85

2. Heights (in cm) Number of students Cumulative frequency

110-120 14 14
120-130 30 44
13-140 60 104
140-150 42 146
150-160 14 160
Total 160
140 students have heights less than 150.
24.4
1. (i) bars (ii) equal (iii) proportional
2. (i) 2 (ii) 6 (iii) Bus
3. (i) 6 (ii) Football (iii) Table tennis
4. (i) 5900 (ii) 2007 (iii) 2003 (iv) 2008
24.5
1. (i) Horizontal axis
(ii) Vertical axis
(iii) Frequency
(iv) Continuous grouped frequency distribution
2. (i) Heights (in cm) of students
(ii) 145-150
(iii) 15
(iv) 4
(v) 13

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) group, frequency table (ii) true limits
(iii) frequency (iv) class size Notes

(v) cumulative frequency (vi) upper limt, lower limit

(vii) arrayed (vii) range
2. Number of Number of 3. Numbre of Number of
TV sets hours vehicles families
0 2 0 2
1 15 1 27
2 8 2 16
3 4 3 4
4 1 4 1
Total 30 Total 50

4. Weights Number of 5. Length Number of

(in grams) cards (in cm) carrots
5.5-7.5 6 10-12 2
7.5-9.5 15 12-14 5
9.5-11.5 15 14-16 9
11.5-13.5 2 16-18 6
13.5-15.5 2 18-20 4
Total 40 20-22 4
Total 30
6. (i) 42.5
(ii) Weight (in kg) Number of persons Cumulative frequency
40-45 4 4
45-50 5 9
50-55 10 19
55-60 7 26
60-65 6 32
65-70 8 40
Total 40

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

7. Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency

0-10 2 2
Notes 10-20 6 8
20-30 10 18
30-40 15 33
40-50 12 45
50-60 8 53
60-70 5 58
70-80 2 60
Total 60

8. (i) 15 (ii) Lower limit : 25, Upper limit: 30

(iii) 37.5 (iv) 5
(iv) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency
15-20 2 2
20-25 3 5
25-30 5 10
30-35 7 17
35-40 4 21
40-45 3 24
45-50 1 25
Total 25

9. Marks No. of students (frequency)

0-20 15
20-40 9
40-60 5
60-80 5
80-100 16

10. (i) Days of birth of the students in a class

(ii) Saturday

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics
(iii) 1
(iv) 31
11. (i) 2250 (ii) 25-30
Notes
(iii) 10-15 and 30-35 (iv) True
12. (C)
13. (A)
14. (B)
15. (D)
16. (C)
17. (A)

Mathematics Secondary Course 633