CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In recent times there has been an increasing demand for alternative energy sources
as global oil reserves dwindle and concerns for the environment continue to grow.
Today, just about everyone increasingly depends on devices that require electricity,
but in Nigeria, one of the most populated nations in Africa, only 40% of the people
are connected to the energy grid; those connected experience brownouts and total
blackouts around 60% of the time. Meanwhile, it is sunny 43% of daylight hours in
Nigeria, which is an average of 1885 hours of sunlight per year, this means solar as
an alternative energy solution is very much feasible in this part of the world.
There is therefore a growing need for inverters to convert low voltage DC to high
voltage AC which are of lower cost and more efficient.

This project focuses on DC to AC power inverter whose aim is to efficiently

convert a DC power source to a high voltage AC source, similar to power that
would be available at an electrical wall outlet.

Inverters are used for many applications as in a situation where low voltage DC
sources such as batteries, solar panels or fuel cells must be converted so that
devices can run on AC power. One example of such a situation would be
converting electrical power from a car battery to run a laptop, television, lighting
or cell phone etc.

The method in which the low voltage DC power is inverted, is completed in two
steps. The first being the conversion of the low voltage DC power to a high voltage
DC source, and the second step being the conversion of the high DC source to an
AC waveform using pulse width modulation. Another method to complete the
desired outcome would be to first convert the low voltage DC power to AC, and

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then use a transformer to boost the voltage to 220 volts. This project focused on the
second method described and specifically the transformation of a high voltage DC
source into an AC output.

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Beginning from the late 19th century to the middle of the 20th century DC to AC
power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters, or Motor Generator
(MG) sets. In the early 20th century, vacuum tube and gas filled tube began to be
used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the
thyraton.

The origination of electromechanical inverters explains the source of the term

inverter. Early AC to DC converters used on conduction or synchronous AC motor
are directly connected to a generator (dynamo), so that the generators commutation
reversed its connection exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later
improvement is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator
windings are combined into one armature, with slip-rings at one end and a
commutation at the other end and only one field frame.

The result is either with AC-on, DC-out. With an M.G sets, the DC can be
considered to be separately generated from the AC with a synchronous converter,
in a certain sense, it can be considered to be mechanically rectified AC. Using the
right auxiliary and control equipment, an M.G set or rotary converter can “run
backward”, converting DC to AC. Hence, an inverter is inverter converter.

It should also be noted that early inverter did not use transistors for switching
purposes, because its voltage and current ratings were not high enough for most

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inverter applications. However, in 1975, the Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR) was
introduced as switches, hence initiating a transition to solid state inverter circuits.

Today, however due to an increased knowledge in technology, modern inverters

are less bulky, and more efficient with the use of various components such as ICs
(Integrated Circuits).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Lack of incentives to invest in the aged and inefficient national grid, transmission
and distribution infrastructures, as well as the fact that energy from decentralized,
renewable sources is not well fashioned to work on the electricity grids in the
country has led to incessant power outage all over the country. Some of the
solutions to this problem is an auxiliary AC power generator, nuclear power plants,
wind turbines, solar power etc., but the cost of fossil fuels continues to increase
rapidly and hence will not be cost effective in the future; while solar power has
some aesthetic, economic and technical drawbacks. A more effective and reliable
alternative is battery power back-up system which can be converted to AC power
using power inverters.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 5kVA inverter with
48volts supply so as to achieve the following objectives:

i. To produce pure sine wave output voltage that can be used to power
Electrical/Electronic Department.

ii. To back-up the erratic power supply by PHCN.

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1.4 IMPORTANCE

The important of an inverter is that, it has the capability to convert the DC power
into AC power making it useful to operate equipment such as household items,
computers, power tools and much more, by simply plugging typical equipment into
the inverter.

It is also important because it can deliver efficient power to run an electrical

product with high power requirement usually as electric utility heater, air
conditioners with additional batteries connected because of it high current it will
draw.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION

Designing a pure sine wave inverter with the above listed features is of great
significance for it serves to unveil the challenges and possible flaws that are
associated with modern inverters in the market and hence give insight and practical
design experience to students which will in turn encourage more researches in the
area of solar inverter power system as an alternative power supply for homes and
industries.
This project also serves to widen the horizon of students especially in the area of
modern day solar technology and hence can serve as an area for further research
and development in schools and industries.
Solar power inverter systems find application in the following areas of life:
• In homes and offices as stand-alone power supply or supplement to the
mains power supply

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 • In industries and factories as grid-tie or stand-alone system

• In camping grounds and off grid locations as a portable power supply

• In hospitals as back-up power supply in case of mains outage

• In other power critical places as emergency power supply, etc.

In our case, it serves to provide an alternative power source for the

department during the times of mains power outage.

1.6 SCOPE OF WORK

This project work covers the design and installation of a 5kVA solar inverter that
can power the loads that are within its capacity. The design's focus will be in
designing an inverter that will power the department's first floor and be dependent
on power from the mains or solar cells. The battery bank is limited to 19,200 Watt-
Hour (i.e. 48V x 400Ah) and can be charged by either the mains power or the
power from the array of solar modules. The design is capable of automatically
switching to mains or inverter mode when appropriate and features all forms of
protection techniques/schemes to guard the system and the connected appliances
against any form of danger that may arise during operation.
The design does not accommodate a high power surge beyond its stated
capacity and hence cannot be used to power high inductive loads like industrial
electric motors and high power air conditioners. It can be used to power very
sensitive and life dependent devices/equipment like medical equipment and servers
because of the near absence of harmonic content in the final power output of the
design.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The concept of renewable energy use grew over time with the advent of the
inverter which helps in the conversion of the energy from the dc form to a useable
ac form. The consistent effort of researchers in developing and increasing the
efficiency of photovoltaic arrays up to the level we have today also added a lot to
the progress of solar powered inverters. Although the inverter generally gives out
alternating current, the wave shape of the AC it produces also matters a lot.
Inductive loads generally require a pure sine wave ac supply for its functionality,
though there are different types of waves that can be produced by an inverter
which are: square wave, modified sine wave, and then the pure sine wave inverter.
40A Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller was added to the
output of the solar panels for optimization purposes and for charging the battery
cells [1].

All these components (solar panels, batteries, MPPT charge controllers, inverter,
and MPPT algorithms) together made up the core of the solar powered 5kVA
inverter designed for the department’s use. It took a gradual but consistent
progression for these components to emerge to the level at which they are today in
the world of technology.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PV SOLAR SYSTEM

PV Solar systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the
technology [2]. There are two main types of solar PV systems:
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 • Grid – connected (or grid-tied).
• Off-grid (or stand-alone or autonomous).
• Hybrid

2.2.1 GRID – CONNECTED (GRID – TIED) SYSTEM

Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to operate in parallel
with and interconnected with the electric utility grid. The primary component in
grid-connected PV systems is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU). The
PCU converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent
with the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid, and
automatically stops supplying power to the grid when the utility grid is not
energized. A bi-directional interface is made between the PV system AC output
circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-site distribution panel or
service entrance. This allows the AC power produced by the PV system to either
supply on-site electrical loads or to back-feed the grid when the PV system output
is greater than the on-site load demand. At night and during other periods when the
electrical loads are greater than the PV system output, the balance of power
required by the loads is received from the electric utility. This safety feature is
required in all grid-connected PV systems, and ensures that the PV system will not
continue to operate and feed back into the utility grid when the grid is down for
service or repair. This is shown in figure 2.1 below.

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Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of Grid-connected PV system.

2.2.2 STAND ALONE SYSTEM

Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate independent of the electric utility
grid, and are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC
electrical loads. These types of systems may be powered by a PV array only, or
may use wind, an engine-generator or utility power as an auxiliary power source in
what is called a PV-hybrid system. The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a
direct-coupled system, where the DC output of a PV module or array is directly
connected to a DC load (Figure 2.2). Since there is no electrical energy storage
(batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only operates during sunlight hours,
making these designs suitable for common applications such as ventilation fans,
water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating systems.
Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the
PV array is a critical part of designing well-performing direct-coupled system. For
certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-
DC converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT), and is used
between the array and load to help better utilize the available array maximum
power output [3],[4].

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Figure 2.2: Direct coupled PV system

In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage. Figure 2.3
shows a diagram of a typical stand-alone PV system powering DC and AC loads.

Figure 2.3: Diagram of stand-alone PV system with battery storage powering DC

and AC loads

2.2.3 HYBRID SYSTEM

Hybrid photovoltaic system combines elements of both grid-connected and stand-

alone systems. They are grid-connected and enable excess energy to be sold.
Hybrid system architectures include energy storage as well as the ability to
disconnect from the grid, but still supply energy to the home during outages.
Figure 2.4 below shows a hybrid photovoltaic system.

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Figure 2.4: Block Diagram of hybrid PV system

2.3 REVIEW OF THE EXISTING THEORY IN HYBRID PV POWER

SYSTEM
A hybrid photovoltaic system is a power system designed to source power from
both PV cells (solar energy) and the grid (PHCN). It consists of an arrangement of
several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into
electricity, the charge controller to control the amount of charge going into the
battery bank, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, the
battery bank that stores the energy from the solar panels, as well as mounting,
cabling and other electrical accessories to set up a working system [5]. It may also
use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and
include an integrated battery solution. The DC back-up power source of any
inverter can be replenished from diverse power sources like the mains power
supply, wind turbines, stand-by generators, fuel cells etc. When the back-up battery
bank is charged with solar power from an array of photo-voltaic modules, a power
regulator called charge controller is normally needed to regulate the amount of
power that goes to the battery bank to avoid battery overcharge which can destroy
the battery bank during the charging process [6].

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2.4 REVIEW OF THE THEORY OF THE SUBSYSTEMS OF A PV
SYSTEM
Basic components of grid-connected PV systems with and without batteries are:

• Solar photovoltaic modules

• Array mounting racks

• Grounding equipment

• Combiner box

• Surge protection (often part of the combiner box)

• Inverter

• Meters – system meter and kilowatt-hour meter

• Disconnects:

- Array DC disconnect

- Inverter DC disconnect

- Inverter AC disconnect

- Exterior AC disconnect

If the system includes batteries, it will also require:

• Battery bank with cabling and housing structure

• Charge controller

• Battery disconnect

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2.4.1 Solar Modules

The heart of a photovoltaic system is the solar module. Many

photovoltaic cells are wired together by the manufacturer to produce a solar
module. When installed at a site, solar modules are wired together in series
to form strings. Strings of modules are connected in parallel to form an
array as shown in fig 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Several types of solar modules

2.4.2 Array mounting racks

Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel poles set in

concrete. In certain applications, they may be mounted at ground level or on
building walls. Solar modules can also be mounted to serve as part or all of
a shade structure such as a patio cover. On roof-mounted systems, the PV
array is typically mounted on fixed racks (as shown in fig 2.6), parallel to
the roof for aesthetic reasons and stood off several inches above the roof
surface to allow airflow that will keep them as cool as practical.

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 Figure 2.6: Array mounting racks

2.4.3 Grounding equipment

Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path from

your system to the ground to protect your system from current surges
from lightning strikes or equipment malfunctions. Grounding also
stabilizes voltages and provides a common reference point. The
grounding harness is usually located on the roof [7]. This is as illustrated
in fig 2.7.

Figure 2.7: PV Grounding System

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2.4.4 Combiner box

Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner box, typically
located on the roof. These wires may be single conductor pigtails with connectors
that are pre-wired onto the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one
larger two wire conductor in conduit. A combiner box typically includes a safety
fuse or breaker for each string and may include a surge protector as shown in fig
2.8.

Figure 2.8: PV Combiner box wiring

2.4.5 Surge protection

Surge protectors (shown in fig 2.9) help to protect systems from power surges that
may occur if the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power
surge is an increase in voltage significantly above the design voltage.

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Figure 2.9: PV Surge protector

2.4.6 Inverter

Inverters take care of four basic tasks of power conditioning:

• Converting the DC power coming from the PV modules or battery bank to AC

power

• Ensuring that the frequency of the AC cycles is 50 cycles per second

• Reducing voltage fluctuations

• Ensuring that the shape of the AC wave is appropriate for the application, i.e. a
pure sine wave for grid-connected systems.

A typical PV inverter is as shown in fig 2.10.

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Figure 2.10: PV inverter

2.4.7 Meters

Essentially two types of meters are used in PV systems:

• Utility Kilowatt-hour Meter

• System Meter

Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter – The utility kilowatt-hour meter measures

energy delivered to or from the grid. On homes with solar electric systems,
utilities typically install bidirectional meters with a digital display that keeps
separate track of energy in both directions. Some utilities will allow you to
use a conventional meter that can spin in reverse. In this case, the utility
meter spins forward when you are drawing electricity from the grid and
backwards when your system is feeding or “pushing” electricity onto the
grid.

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 System Meter – The system meter (shown in fig 2.11) measures and displays
system performance and status. Monitored points may include power
production by modules, electricity used, and battery charge. It is possible to
operate a system without a system meter, though meters are strongly
recommended. Modern charge controllers incorporate system monitoring
functions and so a separate system meter may not be necessary.

Figure 2.11: PV Smart meter

2.4.8 Disconnect

Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and

components from power surges and other equipment malfunctions. They
also ensure the system can be safely shut down and system components can
be removed for maintenance and repair. For grid-connected systems, safety
disconnects ensure that the generating equipment is isolated from the grid,
which is important for the safety of utility personnel. In general, disconnect
is needed for each source of power or energy storage device in the system.

2.4.9 Battery bank

Batteries store direct current electrical energy for later use. This energy
storage comes at a cost, however, since batteries reduce the efficiency and

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 output of the PV system, typically by about 10 percent for lead-acid
batteries. Batteries also increase the complexity and cost of the system.

Types of batteries commonly used in PV systems are:

▪ Lead-acid batteries

- Flooded (a.k.a. Liquid vented)

- Sealed (a.k.a. Valve-Regulated Lead Acid)

- Absorbent glass mat

- - Gel cell

▪ Alkaline batteries

- Nickel-cadmium

- Nickel-iron

2.4.10 Charge controller

A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or battery

charger, is only necessary in systems with battery back-up. The primary function
of a charge controller is to prevent overcharging of the batteries. Most also include
a low voltage disconnect that prevents over-discharging batteries. In addition,
charge controllers prevent charge from draining back to solar modules at night.
Some modern charge controllers incorporate maximum power point tracking,
which optimizes the PV array’s output, increasing the energy it produces.

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2.5 REVIEW OF INVERTER SYSTEMS
PV systems have evolved over the years mostly due to modern discoveries in the
field of semiconductors and power electronics. Today, electronics hobbyists can
even design their own power electronic devices like power inverters/UPSs, charge
controllers etc, thanks to modern PV modules, efficient solid state components and
Integrated circuit chips that are made readily available in today’s market. In the
course of this development, many people have done some good job in developing
their own PV systems by designing their own power inverters/UPSs and charge
controllers at cheaper rate and yet fairly efficient. Hobbyists in their designs
generally make use of the components that they can lay their hands on and using
the knowledge they have acquired from school and research works. An example of
such work is a 600Watts pure sine wave inverter designed by MainaBenardMburu
from University of Nairobi, Kenya (Figure 2.12). This inverter was designed and
implemented to serve as a portable 600Watts that can convert a 12Volts Dc power
from a battery bank to a 240Volts AC output that can be used to power electrical
and electronic devices. Its sole purpose was to provide back-up power in places
where power outage is mostly encountered. MainaBenardMburu in his design used
a three level analogue PWM technique in conjunction with a microcontroller to
generate a pulse width Modulated sinusoidal

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Fig. 2.12: 600Watts Pure Sine wave Inverter

Another reputable work which was titled “DC/AC Pure Sine Wave Inverter”
shown in Figure 2.13 below was carried out by three students from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute: Jim Doucet, Dan Eggleston and Jeremy Shaw. The work was
a prototype of a DC/AC Pure Sine wave Inverter which was meant to deliver a
pure sine wave AC power at a given power rating. It was basically designed to
serve as an affordable and efficient household backup power supply for power
outage prone areas in the country.

The design was based on DC-DC converter and PWM sine wave design topology.
In their design, they tried to reduce the overall size of the entire inverter system by
making use of a DC-DC converter which allows the use of high frequency much
reduced size transformer. The design was such that the low voltage power from a
battery is first stepped up to a high voltage DC using a DC-DC converter after
which the high voltage DC is converted to AC output voltage using the three level
analog PWM technique, a H-bridge and a low pass passive filter. One thing that is

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very remarkable about their design is its reasonable simplicity, reduced cost and
much reduced size when compared to many similar designs in today’s market. The
finished work under test is shown in the picture below.

Figure 2.13: DC/AC Pure Sine Wave Inverter

In another work titled “DC-AC/DC Inverter shown in Fig. 2.14 below was carried
out by a team of five personnel; Matthew Brown, Henry Brown, John Martinez,
Dylan Paiton and Matthew Paiz. Their design, “An intelligent DCDC/AC
converter system” was designed and implemented in the spring of 2010 for New
Mexico Tech’s Junior Design Class. The intelligent converter draws power from
two energy harvesters; a 400W-12V Sunforce Wind Generator and a 60W-12V
Sunforce Solar PV kit. The power is stored in an Optima 12V sealed lead acid
battery. The inverter comprised of five major subsystems: smart battery charger,
inverter, measurement system, data logger and internet interface. Components
were selected through decision matrices and purchased. Circuits were designed in
Protel 99SE and created from etching and milling processes. Data was sent via
HTTP to the EE server on the NMT campus and displayed real time information
on a web page. Operation of each subsystem was demonstrated independently and
in whole.

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Figure 2.14: Intelligent DC/AC Converter system

Unlike the other designs, this work included an intelligent subsystem; the data
logger which is used to transmit real-time information on the voltage and current
status/values of the various parts of the entire system as well as the voltage and
current characteristics being delivered to the loads and that of the batteries and
energy harvesters over the internet to the monitoring unit.

2.6 INVERTER

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes

direct current (DC) power to alternating current (AC) power. It is simply a DC-AC
power converter that takes power from a DC power source and converts it to an
AC power source. The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall
power handling capability of an inverter depend on the design of the specific
device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is
provided to it by a DC source. A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may
be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic
circuitry. Power inverters can therefore be categorized into Rotary and Static
inverters. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process [8].

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power

source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the
system. The input voltage depends on the design and purpose of the inverter.
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Examples include: 12 VDC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that
typically run from a rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery; 24 and 48 VDC which are
common standards for home energy systems. 200 to 400 VDC, when power is
from photovoltaic solar panels. 300 to 450 VDC, when power is from electric
vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid systems. Hundreds of thousands of volts,
where the inverter is part of a high voltage direct current power transmission
system.

An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave,
pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design.
The two dominant commercialized waveform types of inverters as of 2007 are
modified sine wave and sine wave. There are two basic designs for producing
household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses
a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to
AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-
frequency transformer to create the output voltage [9].

2.6.1 Square wave

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is useful
for some applications. They can run simple appliances without problems but not
much else. Square wave voltage can be easily generated using a simple oscillator.
With the help of a transformer, the generated square wave voltage can be
transformed into a value of 230 volt AC or higher. The Graph in Fig. 2.15 below
shows a typical square waveform [10].

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Figure 2.15: Square Waveform

The oscillator of square wave inverters is very basic, and they are fairly easy to
build. Unfortunately, the ratio of peak to RMS voltage is very different from a sine
wave, and this will cause stress to some appliances. Motors and transformers in
particular will usually draw much higher current than they are designed for, so they
may run hot enough to cause premature failure. Most switch mode power supplies
don't care, and will operate quite happily from a square wave input. Interference
suppression capacitors will be stressed by the fast rise time of the square wave.

Fig 2.16 is the circuit diagram of a typical square wave inverter.

Figure 2.16: Square Wave Inverter Circuit Diagram

A sine wave has a peak to RMS ratio of 1.414 (√2), so a 230V sine wave has a
peak value of 325V and a 120V sine wave has a peak of 170V (close enough in
each case). A square wave with a peak value of 325V has an RMS voltage of
325V. Peak and RMS are the same. If the voltage is reduced so that the RMS
voltage is correct, then many electronic power supplies will see a greatly reduced
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input voltage because many filter capacitors charge to the peak of the voltage. So
where the load expects to see peaks of 325V (or 170V), it will only get 230V or
120V peaks. Some loads will not power up properly if the voltage is too low.

2.6.2 Sine wave

A power inverter device which produces a multiple step or smooth sinusoidal AC
waveform is referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the
inverters with outputs of much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three
step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave
inverter. Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave
inverter" do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output
than the square wave (one step) and modified sine wave (three step) inverters. In
this sense, the phrases "Pure sine wave" or "sine wave inverter" are misleading to
the consumer. However, this is not critical for most electronics as they deal with
the output quite well. Pure sine wave inverters are able to simulate precisely the
AC power that is delivered by a wall outlet. Usually sine wave inverters are more
expensive then modified sine wave generators due to the added circuitry. This cost,
however, is made up for in its ability to provide power to all AC electronic devices,
allow inductive loads to run faster and quieter, and reduce the audible and electric
noise in audio equipment, TV’s and fluorescent lights.

The graph in Fig. 2.17 below shows a sine a (sinusoidal) signal wave form.

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Figure 2.17: Pure Sine waveform

In cases where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine
wave output is desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work
best with a sine wave AC power source. The standard electric utility power
attempts to provide a power source that is a good approximation of a sine wave To
design a pure sine wave inverter with high efficiency and low total harmonic
distortion, the conventional old method of using a sine wave oscillator and a step-
up transformer will not suffice due to its inherent low efficiency and losses, hence
to produce the desired high efficient and low total harmonic distortion pure sine
wave inverter, a modern technique of digital signal processing called pulse width
modulation (PWM) technique is employed. Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a
powerful technique for controlling analogue with a processor’s digital outputs. It is
also known as pulse duration modulation (PDM). The leading edge of the carrier
pulse remains fixed and the occurrence of the trailing of the pulses varies. The
pattern at which the duty cycle of a PWM signal varies can be created through
simple analogue components, a digital microcontroller, or specific PWM integrated
circuits.

Analogue PWM control requires the generation of both reference and carrier
signals that feed into a comparator which creates output signals based on the
difference between the signals. The reference signal is sinusoidal and at the
frequency of the desired output signal, while the carrier signal is often either a saw

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tooth or triangular wave at a frequency significantly greater than the reference.
When the carrier signal exceeds the reference, the comparator output signal is at
one state, and when the reference is at a higher voltage, the output is at its second
state. This process is shown in Fig. 2.18 below with the triangular carrier wave in
green, sinusoidal reference wave in red, and the pulse width modulated signal in
blue.

Figure 2.18: PWM Sine wave Modulation

There are many types of PWM techniques used in sine wave inverters. The
commonly used techniques are:

Single or 2-level PWM: it’s the simplest way of producing the PWM signal. It’s
through comparison of a low-power reference sine wave with a triangle wave as
shown in figure 2.18 above. Using these two signals as input to a comparator the
output will be a 2-level PWM signal as shown in the second image of figure 2.18
above. It’s the most common and popular technique of pulse-width-modulation
(PWM).

a. Multilevel PWM: The harmonic content can be reducing significantly by

using several pulses in each half- cycle of the output voltage. There exist

27
 different levels of multiphase PWM producing an improved output with
increase of the level of the PWM used. The most common ones are: 3 levels
PWM, 5 levels PWM, 7 levels PWM and 9 levels PWM. The choice of
which PWM level to use is determined by the cost of the inverter and the
quality of the output. To balance between cost and quality of the inverter, a
3-level PWM is commonly used. Fig. 2.19 below shows a 3-level PWM.

Figure 2.19: 3-Level PWM Technique

Comparing the 3-level PWM to the 2-level PWM, the harmonics plot shows no
higher level harmonics of significant magnitude. This represents the 3Level signal
following much more closely the desired sine wave. However, the primary
frequency has a much lower voltage magnitude than that of the 2Level design. The
reason for this is the presence of other frequencies which are not harmonics of the
50Hz signal, which are caused by the switching of the signal from one polarity to
the other, and back. In PWM inverter, harmonics will be much higher frequencies

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than for a square wave, making filtering easier. Shown below in Fig. 2.20 is the
block diagram of a typical PWM pure sine wave inverter.

Figure 2.20: PWM Inverter Block Diagram

In PWM, the amplitude of the output voltage can be controlled with the
modulating waveforms. Reduced filter requirements to decrease harmonics and the
control of the output voltage amplitude are two distinct advantages of PWM.
Disadvantages include more complex control circuits for the switches and
increased losses due to more frequent switching. In designing pure sine wave
inverters using PWM techniques two different approaches or methods can be used
to achieve the same result:

1. Low Voltage PWM: here a pulse width modulated signal is generates at a low
voltage level using PWM chip or discrete components and the PWM signal used to
drive power MOSFETs which switch the primary winding of a low frequency
(50Hz/60Hz) linear transformer. The issue with this method is that the size of the
transformer is usually very large due to the low frequency of operation

2. High Voltage PWM: in this method, a DC-DC converter is used to convert the
low voltage DC power supply to a level that is equivalent to the desired AC
voltage output. The high voltage DC voltage is then converted to a pure sine wave
29
AC output voltage using the PWM technique as used in method 1 above only that
the voltage ratings of the solid state switches used in this case will be higher than
the peak voltage of the sinusoidal output unlike those used in method 1 above. The
major advantage of this method is that it enable smaller transformer to be used in
the design due to the high frequency used in design.

Shown below in Fig. 2.21 and Fig. 2.22 are two diagrams of a typical low and high
voltage PWM inverter respectively.

Fig 2.21: Low Voltage PWM Inverter Circuit Diagram

30
Figure 2.22: High Voltage PWM Inverter Circuit Diagram

2.6.3 modified sine wave:

A "modified sine wave" inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful rough
approximation of a sine wave for power translation purposes as shown in Fig. 2.23
below.

Figure 2.23: Modified Sine waveform

The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square

wave with a pause before the polarity reversal, which only needs to cycle back and
forth through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and reverse output
at the pre-determined frequency. Switching states are developed for positive,
negative and zero volts. The peak voltage to RMS voltage does not maintain the

31
same relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively
regulated or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS
value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variation.

The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while
maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called PWM. Many electrical
equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power inverter devices,
especially any load that is resistive in nature such as a traditional incandescent light
bulb. Most AC motors will run on MSW (Modified Sine Waveform) inverters with
an efficiency reduction of about 20% due to the harmonic content. However, they
may be quite noisy. A series LC filter tuned to the fundamental frequency may
help in such case.

Shown below in Fig. 2.24 is a circuit diagram of a typical modified sine wave
inverter.

Figure 2.24: Modified Sine wave Inverter Circuit Diagram

By definition there is no restriction on the type of AC waveform an inverter might

produce that would find use in a specific or special application.

32
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as
standard power line frequency, 50 or 60 hertz. If the output of the device or circuit
is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the frequency may be
much higher for good transformer efficiency.

The AC output voltage of a power inverter device is often the same as the standard
power line voltage, such as household 120 VAC or 240 VAC. This allows the
inverter to power numerous types of equipment designed to operate off the
standard line power. The designed-for output voltage is often provided as a
regulated output. That is, changes in the load the inverter is driving will not result
in an output voltage change from the inverter. In a sophisticated inverter, the
output voltage may be selectable or even continuously variable.

By definition there is no restriction on the type of AC waveform an inverter might

produce that would find use in a specific or special application.

The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as

standard power line frequency, 50 or 60 hertz. If the output of the device or circuit
is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the frequency may be
much higher for good transformer efficiency.

The AC output voltage of a power inverter device is often the same as the standard
power line voltage, such as household 120 VAC or 240 VAC. This allows the
inverter to power numerous types of equipment designed to operate off the
standard line power. The designed-for output voltage is often provided as a
regulated output. That is, changes in the load the inverter is driving will not result
in an output voltage change from the inverter. In a sophisticated inverter, the
output voltage may be selectable or even continuously variable.

33
2.6.4 AREAS OF APPLICATION

Below are some of the areas where an inverter can be useful:

i. As DC Power Source Utilization: An inverter converts the DC electricity from

sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at
any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains
operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

ii. As an Uninterruptable Power Supplies: An uninterruptable power supply

(UPS) uses batteries and inverter to supply AC power when main power is not
available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge
the batteries.

iii. As Electric Motor Speed Control: Inverter circuits designed to produce a

variable output voltage range are often used within motor speed controllers. The
DC power for the inverter section can be derived from a normal AC wall outlet or
some other source. Control and feedback circuitry is used to adjust the final output
of the inverter section which will ultimately determine the speed of the motor
operating under its mechanical load. Motor speed control needs are numerous and
include things like; industrial motor driven equipment, electric vehicles, rail
transport systems, and power tools [11].

iv. As Power Grid: Grid-tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power
distribution system. They transfer synchronously with the line and have as little
harmonic content as possible. They also need a means of detecting the presence of
utility power for safety reasons, so as not to continue to dangerously feed power to
the grid during a power outage.

v. As Induction Heating: Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to

higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this AC power is first rectified
34
to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency
AC power due to the reduction in the number of DC sources employed, the
structure becomes more reliable and the output voltage has higher resolution due to
an increase in the number of steps so that the reference sinusoidal voltage can be
better achieved.

2.6.5 STAGES OF OPERATION

This project write-up gives a step-by-step account of how the project was carried
out. This includes the design and construction with given specifications.

To obtain the AC power from the inverter, the DC power from the battery has to
pass through different units that make up the inverter.

A block diagram which shows the stage-to-stage operation that constitutes the units
is drawn in fig 2.25 below.

Figure 2.25: Block diagram of 5kVA inverter

35
2.6.5a Battery Charger Unit

This unit receives alternating current (AC) and converts it to Direct Current (DC).
It function is to automatically charging the DC battery that supply the inverter
circuit.

2.6.5b Oscillatory Unit

The oscillator is an electronic circuit which converts direct current or DC energy

into AC energy at a very high frequency. The PIC16F876A is used in the
oscillation section of the inverter. The IC also keeps the inverter output to a
constant 220V AC. It keeps producing an output signal as long as a DC power
source is connected.

2.6.5c Switching Unit

The unit has to do with cascaded IRF4110 MOSFETs connected in the proper
order for a switching operation. The two drains of the cascaded MOSFETs are
connected to the two outer coils of the primary winding, while the source is
connected to the ground of the system. The MOSFET is used for switching instead
of the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) because of its high frequency, its ability to
withstand higher peak current and its high input impedance amongst other things.

2.6.5d Transformer Unit

The alternating signal from the output of the switching unit is fed into the primary
of the transformer which raises or steps it up to the desired value or level at the
secondary end of the transformer, at a constant frequency, and then delivers it to
the load [12],[13].

36
2.7 BATTERY
A battery is a combination of several electrochemical cells either in parallel, series
or a combination of both that is capable of providing a direct current electricity
using a chemical process between two electrodes and a chemical compound. A
battery is an electrical storage device. Batteries generally do not produce
electricity; they only store and release electricity and are rated according to their
voltage (V) and capacity to store electric charge (Q = It in Amp-hours (Ah)). The
voltage rating of a battery indicates the maximum electromotive force (E.M.F in
Volts) the battery can supply whereas the capacity indicates the quantity of
electricity (in Coulombs (C)) that the battery can give out under standard
conditions. Batteries are generally classified into two types: Primary cell (non-
rechargeable) and Secondary cell (rechargeable) batteries. The chemical energy in
primary batteries cannot be replenished ones they are used up but that of secondary
batteries can be replenished after they used up by passing a direct current to the
battery (i.e. Recharging the rechargeable battery). Rechargeable batteries are
mostly used in long term applications and for flexibility: allowing the reuse of the
battery for a repeated number of times during its useful life [14], [15].

2.7.1 Classification of Batteries

Batteries can be classified in a number of ways based on:

1. Rechargeability – Primary or Secondary

2. Chemistry – Lead acid, Lithium-ion-polymer (LiPO), Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd),

Nickel-iron (NiFe), Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), Lithium-ion (Li-ion), Alkaline,
Galvanic cell, Daniel cell, Leclanché cell, Dry cell batteries, etc.

3. Application – Cranking (Starting), Marine, and Deep cycle batteries.

4. Construction – Flooded (wet), Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM), and Gel batteries.

37
5. Maintainability – Maintenance and Maintenance-free (Valve Regulated (VR))
batteries.

6. Etc.

Primary cell/batteries are mostly classified according to their chemistry and

packaging features. Shown in Fig. 2.26 below are different types of primary
cell/batteries based on their different packaging styles.

Figure 2.26: Primary Cell Types.

Nearly all large rechargeable batteries in common use are Lead-Acid type. In lead
acid batteries, the acid is typically 30% Sulphuric acid and 70% water at full
charge. Lead acid batteries are generally classified based on maintainability,
application and construction. In stand-alone PV systems, maintenance-free (valve
regulated) AGM deep cycle batteries are used.

Batteries do not make electricity; they store it, just as a water tank stores water for
future use. As chemicals in the battery change, electrical energy is stored or
released. In rechargeable batteries this process can be repeated many times.
Batteries are not 100% efficient though- some energy is lost as heat (due to the
internal resistance of the battery) and chemical reactions when charging and
discharging. If one uses 1000 watts from a battery, it might take 1050 or 1250
watts or more to fully recharge it. Part or most of the losses in charging and
discharging batteries is due to internal resistance. This is converted to heat which is
38
why batteries get warm when being charged up. The lower the internal resistance
of a battery is, the better. Slower charging and discharging rates are more efficient.
A battery rated at 180 amp-hours over 6 hours might be rated at 220 Ah at the 20-
hour rate, and 260 Ah at the 48-hour rate. Much of this loss of efficiency is due to
higher internal resistance at higher amperage rates - internal resistance is not a
constant - kind of like "the more you push, the more it pushes back". Typical
efficiency in a lead-acid battery is 85-95%, in alkaline and NiCad battery it is
about 65%. True deep cycle AGM (such as Concorde and Genus) can approach
98% under optimum conditions, but those conditions are seldom found so you
should figure as a general rule about a 10% to 20% total power loss when sizing
batteries and battery banks. Practically all batteries used in PV and all but the
smallest backup systems are Lead-Acid type batteries. Even after over a century of
use, they still offer the best price to power ratio.

2.7.2 Battery lifespan

The lifespan of a deep cycle battery will vary considerably with how it is used,
how it is maintained and charged, temperature, and other factors. In extreme cases,
it can vary to extremes.

Below are some typical (minimum - maximum) typical expectations for batteries if
used in deep cycle service. There are so many variables, such as depth of
discharge, maintenance, temperature, how often and how deep cycled, etc. that it is
almost impossible to give a fixed number.

Starting: 3-12 months

Marine: 1-6 years

Golf cart: 2-7 years

39
AGM deep cycle: 4-8 years

Gelled deep cycle: 2-5 years

Deep cycle (L-16 type etc.): 4-8 years

Rolls-Surrette premium deep cycle: 7-15 years

Industrial deep cycle (Crown and Rolls 4KS series): 10-20+ years.

NiFe (alkaline): 5-35 years

NiCad: 1-20 years

2.7.3 Starting, marine, or deep-cycle batteries

• Starting (sometimes called SLI, for starting, lighting, ignition) batteries are
commonly used to start and run engines. Engine starters need a very large
starting current for a very short time. Starting batteries have a large number
of thin plates for maximum surface area. The plates are composed of a Lead
"sponge", similar in appearance to a very fine foam sponge. This gives a
very large surface area, but if deep cycled, this sponge will quickly be
consumed and fall to the bottom of the cells. Automotive batteries will
generally fail after 30-150 deep cycles if deep cycled, while they may last
for thousands of cycles in normal starting use (2-5% discharge).
• Deep cycle batteries are designed to be discharged down as much as 80%
time after time, and have much thicker plates. The Deep Cycle battery’s
construction allows it to deliver energy for extended periods of time (deep
cycle) without sustaining the life-shortening damage such use would cause
to a standard automotive battery. It is designed to go through this cycle
repeatedly.

40
 • Marine batteries are usually a "hybrid", and fall between the starting and
deep-cycle batteries, though a few (Rolls-Surrette and Concorde, for
example) are true deep cycle. In the hybrid, the plates may be composed of
Lead sponge, but it is coarser and heavier than that used in starting batteries.

2.7.4 Amp-hours rating

All deep cycle batteries are rated in amp-hours. An amp-hour is one amp for one
hour, or 10 amps for 1/10 of an hour and so forth. It is amps x hours. If you have
something that pulls 20 amps, and you use it for 20 minutes, then the amp-hours
used would be 20 (amps) x .333 (hours), or 6.67 Ah. The generally accepted Ah
rating time period for batteries used in solar electric and backup power systems
(and for nearly all deep cycle batteries) is the "20 hour rate". (Some, such as the
Concorde AGM, use the 24 hour rate, which is probably a better real-world rating).
This means that it is discharged down to 10.5 volts over a 20 hour period while the
total actual amp-hours it supplies is measured. Sometimes ratings at the 6 hour rate
and 100 hour rate are also given for comparison and for different applications. The
6-hour rate is often used for industrial batteries, as that is a typical daily duty cycle.
Sometimes the 100 hour rate is given just to make the battery look better than it
really is, but it is also useful for figuring battery capacity for long-term backup
amp-hour requirements.

2.7.5 Amp-hours specifications

Why amp-hours are specified at a particular rate is because of something called the
Peukert Effect. The Peukert value is directly related to the internal resistance of the
battery. The higher the internal resistance, the higher the losses while charging and
discharging, especially at higher currents. This means that the faster a battery is

41
used (discharged), the LOWER the Ah capacity. Conversely, if it is drained
slower, the Ah capacity is higher. This is important because some manufacturers
and vendors have chosen to rate their batteries at the 100 hour rate - which makes
them look a lot better than they really are.

2.7.6 Peukert’s law

Battery manufacturers often use specifications known as Amp Hours and Reserve
Capacity to provide an indication of what a battery’s storage capacity is. However,
the problem with quantifying the storage capacity of a lead acid battery is that the
amount of energy stored (and hence the amount of energy it can deliver) is
dependent on the battery’s discharge rate. The greater the discharge rate, the lower
the delivered capacity. This phenomenon is well documented and is often known
as Peukert’s Law. Peukert, a German scientist, first presented this law in 1897 and
provided an equation that helps to tell us what a battery capacity is based on the
rate that it is being discharged. `

𝐶
𝑡 = 𝐻( )𝑘 …… 2.1
𝐼𝐻

Equation 2.1 is the equation for Peukert’s law

Below is what each parameter stands for:

• t – Time in hours. It is the time that the battery will last given a particular
rate of discharge (the current).

42
 • H – The discharge time in hours that the Amp Hour specification is based
on. For example, if you had a 100 Amp Hour battery at a 20 hour discharge
rate, H would equal 20.
• C – The battery capacity in Amp Hours based on the specified discharge
time. For a 100 Amp Hour battery, this would be 100.
• I – This is the current that is been solved for. For example, if one wanted to
know how long a battery would last while drawing 7.5 amps, one would
enter it here.
• k – The Peukert Exponent. Every battery has its own Peukert exponent.
Sometimes the manufacturer will provide it and other times one may need to
figure it out.

2.7.8 Peukert exponent for a particular battery

It is different from battery to battery. Worse, many manufacturers do not
readily publish a Peukert’s exponent. Nevertheless, there are some general
ranges for the different kinds of lead acid batteries that can be used for
estimation purposes.
• AGM batteries range between 1.05 and 1.15
• Gel batteries range between 1.1 and 1.25
• Flooded batteries range between 1.2 and 1.6
If more accurate estimates are required, it is possible to calculate the Peukert
exponent from most battery manufacturer specifications.

2.7.9 Peukert’s law limitations

Peukert’s law is a valuable tool for estimation. However, it has limitations. Among
them are:

43
 • The effect that temperature has on batteries is not included in the equation.
• Battery age is not considered. The Peukert exponent increases with battery
age.
• If one is calculating for a low discharge rate, the equation does not account
for the fact that each battery has a self-discharge rate.

All that said, in terms of estimation, Peukert’s law gets us much closer to
estimating real world performance of a battery than simple extrapolations of
the amp hour rating.
An important fact is that ALL of the batteries commonly used in deep cycle
applications are Lead-Acid. This includes the standard flooded (wet)
batteries, gelled, and AGM. They all use the same chemistry, although the
actual construction of the plates etc. varies. Below in Fig. 2.27 is the internal
make up of a typical lead acid battery.

Figure 2.27: Internal Make-up of Lead Acid Battery

2.7.10 Battery chemistry

Every lead acid battery no matter the type is made up of three basic
components; the sulphuric electrolyte, the anode and the cathode. The electrolyte is

44
made of sulphuric acid and water solution usually in the ratio of 30% to 70%
respectively. The anode is made of lead oxide or lead antimony while the cathode
is made of pure lead plates. Both the anode and cathode are moulded into a thin flat
grid to increase the surface area as well as to reduce the overall physical size of the
whole battery. The anode and the cathode are completely immersed in the
electrolyte and are separated with a non-conductive material that does not
deteriorate in the acidic electrolyte (Fig. 2.27).

2.7.11 Battery discharging

In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead (II)
sulphate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulphuric acid and
becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven by the conduction of
electrons from the negative plate back into the cell at the positive plate in the
external circuit. The equations below shows the chemical reactions that take place
at cathode and the anode of a lead acid battery during discharge respectively.

Negative plate reaction: Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−

Positive plate reaction: PbO2(s) + HSO4−(aq) + 3H+ (aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) +

2H2O(l)

The total reaction can be written as: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s)
+ 2H2O(l)

2.7.12 Battery charging

The charging process in rechargeable batteries simply involves the passing of

current in the opposite direction as done when discharging. Hence, during the
charging process, the reverse of the discharge reactions take place at both plates

45
(anode and cathode). The general charge and discharge equation is thus
represented as shown in the equation below:

Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by
electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell. Periodic maintenance of lead–acid
batteries requires inspection of the electrolyte level and replacement of any water
that has been lost. Due to the freezing-point depression of the electrolyte, as the
battery discharges and the concentration of sulphuric acid decreases, the electrolyte
is more likely to freeze during winter weather when discharged.

Battery charging takes place in 3 basic stages: Bulk, Absorption, and Float.

• Bulk Charge: The first stage of 3-stage battery charging. Current is sent to
batteries at the maximum safe rate they will accept until voltage rises to near
(80-90%) full charge level. Voltages at this stage typically range from 10.5
volts to 15 volts. There is no "correct" voltage for bulk charging, but there
may be limits on the maximum current that the battery and/or wiring can
take.
• Absorption Charge: The 2nd stage of 3-stage battery charging. Voltage
remains constant and current gradually tapers off as internal resistance
increases during charging. It is during this stage that the charger puts out
maximum voltage. Voltages at this stage are typically around 14.2 to 15.5
volts. (The internal resistance gradually goes up because there is less and
less to be converted back to normal full charge).

46
 • Float Charge: The 3rd stage of 3-stage battery charging. After batteries
reach full charge, charging voltage is reduced to a lower level (typically 12.8
to 13.2) to reduce gassing and prolong battery life. This is often referred to
as a maintenance or trickle charge, since its main purpose is to keep an
already charged battery from discharging. PWM, or "pulse width
modulation" accomplishes the same thing.

2.7.13 Battery aging

As batteries age their maintenance requirements change. This means longer

charging time and/or higher finish rate (higher amperage at the end of the charge).
Usually older batteries need to be watered more often (for vented maintenance
batteries). And, their capacity decreases while the self-discharge rate increases
[16].

In this project, the battery bank was designed with deep cycle rechargeable AGM
lead acid batteries so that the batteries’ energy can be replenished during the day
through the PV modules and the stored energy utilized at night and due to its
durability and maintainability.

47
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.0 METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the various components that make up this project will be carefully
examined. This project consists of a microcontroller based circuit board enclosed
in a sheath metal casing. The heart of this project is a microcontroller from the
microchip family (PIC16F8763A). It is a flash based 8-bit microcontroller with 28
pin package. It has 128 byte of EEPROM data memory, 5 channels of 10 bit analog
to digital converters, synchronous serial port serial peripheral interfaces, universal
asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART), Inter-integrated circuits (I2C). It is
ideal for automotive, industrial appliances, consumer applications.

3.1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES

i. To design an inverter that can output a pure sine waveform.

ii. To design an inverter that is affordable and reliable.

iii. To design an inverter that is efficient.

iv. To design an inverter that is safe for both the loads and the consumer.

v. To add smart functionalities to the inverter such as automatic changeover, etc.

3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

In the design of the PV system, so many factors were duly considered but the most
crucial factors that were stringently taken into consideration include but not limited
to the following:

48
i. Cost:
In every design, cost is one of the major factors to be considered especially when
the design is meant for consumers in a known market. In our design, the cost of the
materials used were closely considered and well optimized without trading off their
quality and reliability. Every component used in the design was selectively chosen
to suit the above enlisted objectives without tampering with any of the desired
feature of the system.

ii. Availability of the Required Components:

While making the choice of components to be used in the design, it is also non-
trivial to consider their availability in the market so as to ensure that the project
design meets up with the expected time frame of its delivery, because when the
needed components required for a design is readily available in the nearest market,
it reduces the lead time (i.e. the time it takes to deliver the components to the user)
and hence reduces the overall time taken to fully actualize the project.

iii. Reliability and Performance Efficiency of Components:

The use of simple but durable components was solely to avoid the complexity that
is associated with too many complex components that often lead to system losses
and inefficiency; all of which affects the system’s performance, reliability, ease of
design and implementation as well as the system’s efficiency. Having reliability
and efficiency at heart, superfluity and unnecessary redundancy was duly avoided
to keep the system design simple and affordable. The choice of 59 components
used in the design was made having the objectives and the other design
consideration in mind.

49
3.3 DESIGN SPECIFICATION
The under listed specifications were the basis of the project design. They were
used as a guide during the entire design process.
i. System Capacity (Output Power): 5000VA (5KVA)
ii. Type of output Waveform: Pure Sine wave AC power
iii. Output Voltage: 220Volts
iv. Output Frequency: 50Hz
v. Battery Bank Capacity: 48Volts/400Ampere-hour
vi. PV Modules Specification: 300Watts/24Volts/6Amperes
vii. Charge Controller Specifications: PWM charge controller rated at
48Voltage/40Amperes.

3.4 THE DESIGN OF 5KVA PURE SINE WAVE INVERTER SYSTEM

This design of a homemade inverter system was made to provide affordable and
reliable alternative power to the common man. It was necessary in other to make
power readily available where needed for any intended purpose. In the design of
the power inverter, some factors and specifications were taken into consideration
to ensure that it meets the desired goal. The power inverter was designed to supply
a maximum power of 5000watts at 220Volts AC of electricity with minimal losses.
Some of the factors that were taken into consideration in the design included but
not limited to the following:
i. The kind of loads to be powered; inductive, capacitive, resistive or a
combination of any of the three.
ii. The maximum possible surge power that can be encountered especially
from inductive loads: This helped to make provision in the design for the
maximum possible power surge that can come from any connected
inductive load/loads.
50
 iii. The sensitivity of the loads to be powered: this is one the reasons why the
power inverter was designed to supply pure sine wave AC power which
can swiftly power any type of electrical loads; even some medical and
laboratory equipment.
The power inverter comprises of several sub circuits: the oscillator circuit (the
PWM controller), MOSFET driver, output Amplifier, AC battery charger,
automatic changeover, and the transformer; these are depicted in Fig. 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of a Basic Inverter

The block diagram shown above depicts the several components/subsystems that
make up a functional PWM power inverter. Each of the subsystems is explained
below [2].
3.4.1 THE OSCILLATOR/PWM CONTROLLER (THE SIGNAL
GENERATOR)
The oscillator/PWM controller comprises of electronic circuitries that are
responsible for generating the sinusoidal control signal that is used to drive the
output amplifier stage in the inverter. The control circuit in this pure sine wave
inverter is designed using a Microcontroller. One advantage of this inverter is the

51
use of a low cost microcontroller that has built in PWM modules. In this project,
PIC16F876A was used that was able to store required commands to generate the
necessary PWM and square waveforms. In PIC16F876A there are 28 pins each
with different functions. PORT C has two outputs that produce PWM while PORT
B is driven high and low to give a square wave.
The microcontroller (Fig. 3.2) is tasked with generating the four control signals to
drive two MOSFET drivers. They are two 50Hz square waves, each at 180 0 phase
angle of each other, and two 2-level, 2 kHz pulse width modulation signals
operating at a switching frequency of 50Hz also at 1800 phase angle of each other.

Figure 3.2: PIC16f876A pin-out

The characteristics of the make-up signals of the PWM signal are listed as follows:
Carrier frequency (C) = 2 kHz, message frequency (M) = 50Hz
A delay of 305us was introduced to prevent one side of the H-Bridge switches
being on at the same time.
The following steps were taken when configuring the CCP module for PWM
operation:
• Set the PWM period by writing to the PR2 register.
• Set the PWM duty cycle by writing to the CCPR1L register and CCP1CON

52
 • Make the CCP1 and CCP2 pins an output by clearing the TRISC
• Configure the CCP1 and CCP2 modules for PWM operation.
These steps were summarized in a flow chart as shown in Fig. 3.3 below.

Figure 3.3: Flowchart of the PWM Program

A program (MIKROC PRO for PIC) was used to write the PIC code for the
flowchart in Fig. 3.3. A 12VDC from the battery was fed to the microcontroller
through a 5V constant regulator with AC filter capacitors at both input and output
side. The capacitor values were obtained from 7805 regulator datasheet.
The microcontroller was clocked with an external clock of 8MHz which was
grounded using capacitors whose values were obtained from PIC16F876A
datasheet. The High PWM and Square wave output were obtained from pins CCP1
and RB1 while Low PWM and Square wave were obtained from pin CCP2 and
RB2 respectively as fig. 3.4 shows.

53
Figure 3.4: Microcontroller Signal Generator

3.4.2 MOSFET drivers

The IR2112 High and Low Side MOSFET Driver exceed all requirements for
driving the MOSFETs in the bridge. Each of the MOSFETs used in the design is
capable of handling up to 75V at a current rating of 140A at fast switching speeds.
The MOSFET driver is required to drive the high side MOSFETS in the circuit
designated HO, due to the fact that the gate to source voltage must be higher than
the drain to source voltage, which is the highest voltage in the system. With a full
bridge configuration, two of these devices are utilized, as shown in figure 3.5
below. A typical connection of a single IRF3808 device is shown in the Fig. 3.5
below.

54
Figure 3.5: MOSFET driver connection

Operation of the IR2112 device is controlled through generated PWM and square
signals. The PWM and square signals will be fed to the HIN and LIN pins
simultaneously. If the internal logic detects a logic high, the HO pin will be driven;
if a logic low is detected, the LO pin will be driven. The SD pin controls shut down
of the device and will be unused and tied to ground. Additional pins that require
external connections are the Vss pin which will be tied to ground, the Vcc pin
which will be tied to 48V, pins requiring connections to bootstrapping components
and outputs to the MOSFETS. Bootstrapping capacitors and diodes will be
connected as designated. The values for these components are calculated from
International Rectifier’s AN978 application note.

3.4.3 The H-Bridge

Generating a sine wave centred on zero volts requires both a positive and negative
voltage across the load, for the positive and negative parts of the wave,
respectively. This can be achieved from a single source through the use of four
55
MOSFET switches arranged in an H- Bridge configuration as shown in Fig. 3.6
below.
The IR2112 MOSFET driver integrated circuit was used for level translation
between PWM and square signals and voltages required to forward bias high side

Figure 3.6: H-Bridge Configuration and Current Flow Pattern

N-Channel MOSFETS. To minimize power loss and utilize higher switching

speeds, N-Channel MOSFETs were chosen as switches in the bridge.
Driving the four MOSFETs in an H-Bridge configuration allows +48, -48, or 0
volts across the load at any time. To achieve this, the left side of the bridge is
driven by the PWM signals to determine whether the output voltage is non-zero or
zero while the right side of the bridge is driven by the square wave signals to
determine the polarity, either positive or negative. The MOSFETs used in the
56
design are IRF3808 Power MOSFETs rated for 75V at 140A with power handling
capability of 330W. A diagram of the H-Bridge circuit with MOSFETS and drivers
is shown in Figure 3 below.

3.4.4 Output filter

The final component necessary to output a pure sine wave signal is an output filter.
For our circuit, a basic LC low pass filter with the following setup below in Fig.
3.7 is needed.

Figure 3.7: LC Low Pass Filter

This will filter out all the excess noise above the critical frequency. The goal for
this was to bring the critical frequency as close as possible to the desired frequency
of 50 Hz, removing other harmonics that crop up within the system. The slower the
cut-off frequency, the greater the capacitance and inductance required to properly
create the filter. Therefore, filter design becomes a trade-off between the
effectiveness of the filter and the cost and size of the component. The output of the
H-bridge was ideally a 50Hz sine wave. Because it was encoded using a 2 kHz
PWM signal it was to be filtered. Due to the high current expected to be sourced
((20*600w)/(240) = 50A by the load of our output, the only option Fig. 3.7: LC
Low Pass Filter was a passive low pass filter, which is an inductor and capacitor in

57
series, with the load connected across the capacitor designed for passing all signals
under 50Hz.
1
𝐹𝑐 = ...... 3.1
2(𝐿𝐶)

Using an inductor of 2.07H requires a capacitor of 4.5μFto obtain the required cut-
off frequency. The closest capacitor value was 1uF was used. The selected inductor
was to be able to handle at least 50A current and the capacitor at least 50V. A
48V/220V step up transformer was used to boost 48 volts to 220 volts. A capacitor
of 1uF was placed at the output of the secondary coil to filter harmonic distortions.

3.4.5 MOSFET drivers and full H-bridge

The microcontroller outputs were used to control the MOSFETs Full H-Bridge
through MOSFET drivers U1 and U2 whose pins connection was done as shown in
Fig. 3.8 below as gotten from the IR2112 datasheet. C6 and C8 are stabilizing
capacitors which filter all the ac currents. Their values were obtained from the
datasheet. C1 and C7 are bootstrap capacitors whose values were calculated in the
design. They are charged through diodes D1 and D2. The outputs of the MOSFET
drivers were fed to the MOSFET gates through resistors R1, R2, R5 and R6 which
controlled the MOSFET switching speed. Their values were obtained from the
IR2112 datasheet. Resister R7, R8, R9 and R10 were used for discharging the
MOSFETs’ gate-source capacitance CGS to allow for proper MOSFET switching.
The H-Bridge was powered by a 48V dc from the battery and the output was
obtained between the outputs PWM and SQR.

Circuit Diagram Simulation:

58
Figure 3.8: MOSFET Driver and Full H-Bridge Connection

3.4.6 Filter and boost transformer

The H-Bridge output was fed to a RL Passive Filter. The values of the inductor L1
and Capacitor C9 were as calculated in the design and was connected with the
output transformer as shown in Fig. 3.9 below.

Figure 3.9: Low Pass Filter and Transformer Connection

59
The idea behind realizing digital-to-analog (D/A) output from a PWM signal is to
analog low-pass filter the PWM output to remove most of the high frequency
components, ideally leaving only the D.C. component.
This is depicted in Fig. 3.10 below. The bandwidth of the low-pass filter will
essentially determine the bandwidth of the digital-to-analog converter.

Figure 3.10: Low Pass Filter Description

The output of the Filter was boosted using a Step-up Transformer with a
transformation ratio of 18.3. A capacitor C10 was placed at the output to filter the
harmonics. Its value was obtained from a range given in the general transformer
output stabilizers.

60
3.4.7 The complete sine wave inverter circuit
Shown in Fig. 3.11 below is the complete circuit diagram of the microcontroller
based power inverter. The microcontroller generates the PWM and square wave
signals used to drive the MOSFET drivers that directly drive the H-bridge
MOSFET channel. Through a 48V/220V step-up transformer, the pulse width
modulated power form the 48V battery bank is transformed to 220V AC output as
shown in the circuit diagram below [3].

Figure 3.11: Complete Circuit Diagram for the Microcontroller-based PWM

Inverter

61
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF INVERTER COMPONENTS
The hardware design comprises of all the necessary design procedure, block
diagram(s), theory, and design calculations of the basic components that make up
the inverter system.

3.5.1 Transformer
A transformer is an electronic device which reduces or increases the voltage of an
electric power supply. It consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but magnetically linked through a path of flow reluctance. The two coils
posses high mutual inductance if one coil is connected to a source of alternating fix
is set in the laminated core, most of which it produces. If the second coil circuit
flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil in which electric
energy is fed from AC supply mains is called primary winding and the other from
which supply is drawn off is called secondary winding.
Transformer design
A = √P
Where:
A = cross-section of the core
P = power of the transformer required
P = 5000W (given)
A = √5000 = 70.7 cm2
We use the transformer of (8.4 x 9) cm2
Therefore Area = 8.4 x 9 = 75.6 cm2 which is a good match for the transformer.
Turns calculations for a sine wave voltage supply, the fundamental of all the
transformer equations is:
E = 4.44NFABmaxx10-8
Where:
62
E = applied voltage at the primary side
N = number of turns
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic core
Bmax = maximum flux density of the core (in gauge)
From core manufacturer data sheet,
The Bmax ranges from 1200 – 1800 gauge
For best performance, 1200 gauge has been chosen for this design.
To calculate the voltage per turns of the primary of the transformer, the above
EMF equation can be modified.
E = 4.44NFABmaxx10-8
Dividing both sides by N,
E/N = 4.44FABmaxx10-8

Where:
E/N = voltage per turn
For this transformer, the input parameters include,
Frequency = 50Hz
Power = 5000W
Area = 70.7cm2
Primary voltage = 48V
Secondary voltage = 220V
Maximum flux density of the iron core = 1200 gauge (from core data sheet)
E/N = 4.44x50x70.7x1200x10-8 = 1.88V/T
Therefore, voltage per turn = 1.88V/T

63
Primary turns calculation:
Number of turns of the primary to give 48V can be calculated from the voltage per
turn.
If the voltage per turn = 1.88
That is, 1 turn = 1.88V
Number of turns to give 48V = 48/1.88 = 25.5 = 26 turns

Secondary turns calculation

The secondary turns can be calculated from the equation below:
Ep/Es = Np/Ns
48/220 = 26/Ns
Ns = 26x220/48 = 5720/48 = 119 turns

3.5.2 Capacitors
The capacitors used in this circuit are numerous, but only perform two functions:
1. For stray inductance cancellation at the primary to prevent MOSFET
destruction by spike.
2. For filtration of the secondary, that is recovering of the spurn of the
secondary of the transformer
The capacitor used at the secondary help in the removal of carrier frequency and
noise from the output voltage allowing a pure 50Hz sine voltage to be outputted.
The capacitor is rated 2.2µF, 400V.

3.5.3 Resistors
A large number of resistors were used in this circuit, but the major functions are:
1. For current limiting to some fragile components (microcontroller and
LM7805 regulators)
64
 2. As potential divider for voltage referencing and sensing at the ADC inputs
of the microcontroller

3.5.4 Relay
The function of the relay in this project is to carry out the following functions:
Automatic change over from mains to inverter and from inverter to mains based on
the decision taken by the microcontroller. For instance,
a. When mains is present and the value is within the specified window (>140
and <255) the microcontroller sends a change over signal to the relay to
accept the mains and start charging the battery.
When the mains is higher than 255V, the inverter protect the loads and itself by
changing from mains to inverter mode.

3.6 Theory, Design Procedure and Calculation on the Photovoltaic System

The design of the 5KVA photovoltaic system followed some specified projected,
backed with validated theory of operation and meticulous calculations. These
theories, procedure and calculation are described with respect to the system
component.

3.6.1 Array Mounting Racks

Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel poles set in concrete. In
certain applications, they may be mounted at ground level or on building walls.
Solar modules can also be mounted to serve as part or all of a shade structure such
as a patio cover. On roof-mounted systems, the PV array is typically mounted on
fixed racks, parallel to the roof for aesthetic reasons and stood off several inches
above the roof surface to allow airflow that will keep them as cool as practical.

65
In the design, we used roof-mounted procedure. The solar panel is design to be
mounted on the roof of the target building to ensure maximum exposure to
sunlight.

3.6.2 Grounding Equipment

Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path from your

system to the ground to protect your system from current surges from lightning
strikes or equipment malfunctions. Grounding also stabilizes voltages and provides
a common reference point. The grounding harness is usually located on the roof.
All system components and any exposed metal, including equipment boxes,
receptacles, appliance frames and PV mounting equipment, should be grounded.

3.6.3 System Grounding

System grounding requires taking one conductor from a two-wire system and
connecting it to ground. In a DC system, this means bonding the negative
conductor to ground at one single point in the system. This must be accomplished
inside the inverter, not at the PV array.

3.6.4 Combiner

Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner box, typically
located on the roof. These wires may be single conductor pigtails with connectors
that are pre-wired onto the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one
larger two wire conductor in conduit. A combiner box typically includes a safety
fuse or breaker for each string and may include a surge protector.

66
3.6.5 Surge Protection

Surge protectors help to protect your system from power surges that may occur if
the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power surge is an
increase in voltage significantly above the design voltage.

3.6.6 Battery Bank

To make practical use of the solar-generated energy batteries are used to store the
energy that is not needed immediately. Charge input from solar arrays (when they
get incorporated) is insufficient to keep the batteries fully charged. During sun-less
days, batteries are discharged but not charged. These conditions result in battery
operating in Partial State of Charge (PSOC), Cycling and Deep cycling. Also, solar
systems are installed in open atmosphere exposing the batteries to extreme
Temperatures. Lead acid batteries fail in such conditions due to sulphation,
stratification, corrosion and plate shedding. This is why GENUS VRLA battery
was chosen and connected up as shown in fig. 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Block Diagram of Battery connection.

67
To meet such rigors of usage, Tubular Gel VRLA battery is a perfect fit for solar
applications. VRLA stands for valve regulated lead acid and is the designation for
low maintenance lead-acid batteries.

8 pieces of GENUS VRLA battery of 12V and 200A each was used. Two (2) set of
4 batteries, connected in series to meet the 48V demand of the system, are
connected in parallel to ensure supply of 48V for a longer time.

3.6.7 Charge Controller

A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or battery

charger, is only necessary in systems with battery back-up. The primary function
of a charge controller is to prevent overcharging of the batteries. Most also include
a low voltage disconnect that prevents over-discharging batteries. In addition,
charge controllers prevent charge from draining back to solar modules at night.
Some modern charge controllers incorporate maximum power point tracking,
which optimizes the PV array’s output, increasing the energy it produces.

Types of Charge Controllers

There are essentially two types of controllers: shunt and series.

1. A shunt controller bypasses current around fully charged batteries and

through a power transistor or resistance heater where excess power is
converted into heat. Shunt controllers are simple and inexpensive, but are
only designed for very small systems.
2. Series controllers stop the flow of current by opening the circuit between the
battery and the PV array. Series controllers may be single-stage or pulse

68
 type. Single-stage controllers are small and inexpensive and have a greater
load-handling capacity than shunt-type controllers. Pulse controllers and a
type of shunt controller referred to as ‘a multistage controller’ (e.g., three-
stage controller) have routines that optimize battery charging rates to extend
battery life. Most charge controllers are now three-stage controllers. These
chargers have dramatically improved battery life.

Selection of Charge Controller

Charge controllers are selected based on:

• PV array voltage – The controller’s DC voltage input must match the

nominal voltage of the solar array.
• PV array current – The controller must be sized to handle the maximum
current produced by the PV array.
Interaction with Inverter

Since the majority of charge controllers have been installed in the off-grid systems,
their default settings may not be appropriate for a grid-connected system. The
charge controller must be set up such that it does not interfere with the proper
operation of the inverter. In particular, the controller must be set up such that
charging the batteries from the PV array takes precedence over charging from the
grid.

Interaction with Batteries

The charge controller must be selected to deliver the charging current appropriate
for the type of batteries used in the system. For example, on a 12V system, flooded
lead-acid batteries have a voltage of 14.6V to 15.0V when fully charged, while
sealed lead-acid batteries are fully charged at 14.1 V.

69
Since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells produce, the
excessive voltage could damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to
maintain the proper charging voltage on the batteries. As the input voltage from the
solar array rises, the charge controller regulates the charge to the batteries
preventing any overcharging. Modern multi-stage charge controllers

The stages are:

• Bulk: During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises
to the Bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw
maximum current. When Bulk level voltage is reached the absorption stage
begins.
• Absorption: During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage
level for a specified time (usually an hour), while the current gradually
tapers off as the batteries charge up.
• Float: After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level
(usually 13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance
current until the next cycle.
Fig 3.13 illustrates the multi-stage charging.

70
Figure 3.13: Multi-stage charging

Specification of charge controller

Based on this understanding, our charge controller is a multi-stage type with 48V
and 45A specification.

3.6.8 Disconnects

Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and components from
power surges and other equipment malfunctions. They also ensure the system can
be safely shut down and system components can be removed for maintenance and
repair. For grid connected systems, safety disconnects ensure that the generating
equipment is isolated from the grid, which is important for the safety of utility

71
personnel. In general, a disconnect is needed for each source of power or energy
storage device in the system.

For each of the functions listed below, it is not always necessary to provide a
separate disconnect. For example, if an inverter is located outdoors, a single DC
disconnect can serve the function of both the array DC disconnect and the inverter
DC disconnect.

Before omitting a separate disconnect, however, consider if this will ever result in
an unsafe condition when performing maintenance on any component. Also
consider the convenience of the disconnect location. An inconveniently located
disconnect may lead to the tendency to leave the power on during maintenance,
resulting in a safety hazard.

Array DC Disconnect – The array DC disconnect, also called the PV disconnect,

is used to safely interrupt the flow of electricity from the PV array for maintenance
or troubleshooting. The array DC disconnect may also have integrated circuit
breakers or fuses to protect against power surges.

Inverter DC Disconnect – Along with the inverter AC disconnect, the inverter DC

disconnect is used to safely disconnect the inverter from the rest of the system. In
many cases, the inverter DC disconnect will also serve as the array DC disconnect.

Inverter AC Disconnect – The inverter AC disconnect disconnects the PV system

from both the building’s electrical wiring and the grid. Frequently, the AC
disconnect is installed inside the building’s main electrical panel. However, if the
inverter is not located near the electrical panel, an additional AC disconnect should
be installed near the inverter.

Exterior AC Disconnect – Utilities commonly require an exterior AC disconnect

that is lockable, has visible blades and is mounted next to the utility meter so that it
72
is accessible to utility personnel. An AC disconnect located inside the electrical
panel or integral to the inverter would not satisfy these requirements. One
alternative that is as acceptable to some utilities as an accessible AC disconnect is
the removal of the meter itself, but this is not the norm. Prior to purchasing
equipment, consult the electric utility to determine their requirements for
interconnection.

Battery DC Disconnect – In a battery-based system, the battery DC disconnect is

used to safely disconnect the battery bank from the rest of the system.

3.6.9. PROJECT CALCULATION ANALYSIS

With estimated daily peak sunlight of 6hours and a daily load requirement of
5000W, the following calculation analysis was made:

• We chose a 5KVA inverter to suite the load requirement.

• Inverter input: 48V dc, output voltage: 240V ac.
• Assuming an average efficiency of 75%.
• Ratio of output voltage to input: 240/48 = 5; this means that we need to
generate 5times as many direct current as we need to generate alternating
current. 5000W/240V = 20.8 A (ac), therefore the direct current input = 5 x
20.8 = 104.2 (ac).
• Since we are figuring a 25% loss, we must divide this figure by 0.75 =
138.9A, this is the ampere demand that must be generated by dc.
• Considering 5days of possible sunlight, we have; total dc input = 0.714 x
138.9A = 99.2A. in A/hr we have; 99.2A x 7hrs = 694.2 Ah.
• Incorporating a 10% loss in wire and voltage regulator (I 2R), the above
figure becomes 694.2/0.9 = 771.33Ah. This resultant figure represents the
73
 ‘Ah’ average daily charging current requirement from we are designing to
satisfy the load.
• Current from array = 771.33/6 = 128.56A (required charging current from
the battery)
• With a 6A output panel; no of parallel panels = 128.6/6 = 22 panels; with
two panels in series, we have the total no panels as 2 x 22 = 44 panels.
We therefore would need three 45A charge controllers to cater for this.

74
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

This chapter presents the test results of the design works that were carried out in
this project. At the end of the design and construction, the system was tested to
ensure that it meets the desired stated objectives and specifications that guided the
entire project work. The results of the test carried out are as below;

4.1.1 THE OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT TEST RESULTS

The oscillator circuit was designed and simulated with Proteus ISIS circuit
simulation (CAD) software; this is due to its versatility and simplicity of use, and
because it is one of the best and latest electronic circuit simulation software as at
the time of this project.
After the design of the microcontroller based signals generator (oscillator), the
output signal was tested to ensure that it conforms to the expected Sine Pulse
Width Modulation (SPWM) scheme and the equivalent square wave signals that
would be used to control the MOSFET drivers for each H-bridge channel. When
the test was carried out the first time, the resulting output signal was not fully
replicating the expected sinusoidal waveform but after several observation and
adjustments, the final test resulted to the expected Sine Pulse Width Modulated
(SPWM) signal.

Below in Figure 4.1is the resulting output signals of the oscillator circuit (signal
generator).

75
Figure 4.1: The result output signals of the oscillator circuit

4.1.2 TESTING THE COMPLETE INVERTER CIRCUIT

The H-Bridge circuit was also tested with a multimeter to ensure that each of the
MOSFETs are in good working condition before connecting them to the output
transformer and the MOSFET drivers for the final test. When the signal generator
circuit had been tested and confirmed working, its output was fed to the MOSFET
drivers and the output of the drivers fed into the four MOSFETs. The final output
signal of the whole PWM inverter circuit is shown in Figure 4.2 below.

76
Figure 4.2: The modulated and final output signals

The tables 4.2 and 4.3 below give the specifications of the input parameters and the
corresponding output parameters respectively.

Table 4.1: Input specification parameters

Input parameters Specification Realised?
Voltage 48VDC YES
Current 400AH YES

Table 4.2: Quality Test Report of our 5kVA Static UPS Inverter, 48VDC

S/No Testing Parameter Required Observed

At Battery Mode

1. Max. Battery No Load Current 3.0A 2.5A

77
 2. No Load Output Voltage 225-230V 226.4V

3. Output Frequency 49.5-50.5V 50.1Hz

4. Full Load Battery Voltage at 100-104A 103A

48V

5. Full Load Output Voltage at 48V 195-215V 191V

6. Overload Protection Should be OK OK

7. Fan at Full Load Should be OK OK

8. Short Circuit Protection Should be OK Ok

Mains Mode

9. UPS to Main Synchronisation Should be OK Ok

10. UPS High Cut 260-270V 268V

11. Mains High Cut 270 - 310V 276V

12. Max. Charging Voltage 14 - 15A 14.1A

13. Boost Charging Voltage 56.8 – 58.4V 57V

14. Float Charging Voltage 53.6 – 54.8V 54V

15. Mains MCB Trip Buzzer ON OK

Continue

16. Max. Output Voltage As Input Voltage OK

17. Low Battery Cut 40.8V –42.4V 40V

18. Rotary Switch Function Ok / not Ok Ok

78
19. Seal No. of Top Front Corner 55338786 Ok

20. Seal No. of Back Corner 55338787 OK

21. Seal No. of left Side 55338788 Ok

22. Seal No. of Right Side 55338788 Ok

4.2 DISCUSSION
The results of the tests that were carried out throughout the whole design were all
gotten through systematic checks and observations, and using the appropriate test
tools and equipment where necessary. The major tests that were carried out all met
the expected specifications with negligible deviation or tolerance. One thing was
peculiar about the results; each of the tests that were carried out in each of the
subsystems that make up the inverter system was done in relation to the next
subsystem that was connected to it.
The outputs from the inverter system were all as expected as shown by the final
results. When the final installation was made, the system was tested by gradually
loading it to see that it responds to the load increase as expected; and after the load
test we observed that batteries voltage dropped slightly due to the loading effect
and that was normal.
Before final assembling, the different sections that make the whole system were
tested individually. This pattern was adopted to make troubleshooting, analysis and
testing easy and reliable. It is expected that all the results of the tests that were
carried out continuously conform to the specified standards as long as the system is
used within its capacity and under the standard test conditions. Based on the
pattern of tests and observations used in this project, it is expected that the system

79
performs its intended duty throughout its useful life as long as it is used as
prescribed, and this is because of the fact that the system was designed under
standard operating conditions of the immediate environment.

4.2.1 THE FINAL OUTPUT SIGNAL OF THE 5kVA PURE SINE WAVE
INVERTER
The microcontroller basically performs two functions: serves as a sine pulse width
modulation generator as well as providing the square wave control signal that is
used to drive the MOSFET driver which in turn drives the MOSFET as shown in
the Figure 4.1. The resulting signals from the H-bridge channels were fed to a low
pass LC filter to filter out the high frequency modulating signal leaving only the
fundamental signal of 50Hz which was then fed to the primary of the step up
transformer to yield a 220Volt AC sinusoidal output voltage and current as shown
in the oscilloscope result in Figure 4.2 above.
The two square waveforms in figure 4.1 above show the simulation result of the
two output signals from the microcontroller. The first one with yellow trace
indicates the Q output while the second one indicates its compliment. When Q is
HIGH, the PWM signal from the opposite half of the MOSFET channel is allowed
to flow in one direction while the compliment of Q remains OFF during that
period. Likewise, when Q is LOW the reverse process happens and current flows
through the transformer in the opposite direction. These process is what yields the
three level PWM from the two level PWM coming from the microcontroller, and
from figure 4.2, the green sinusoidal waveform shows the final simulation result
from the filtered output of the transformer.
Based on the results gotten from the final design work, it was apparent that this
design was able to meet most the requirements and it will also go a long way in
providing a better and affordable alternative power supply for any intended use; in
80
homes on in the industries. The design conforms to most of the recent similar
works that have been done by different people in different places. In as much as
this design cannot meet up to the latest state of the art technologies used in the
factory/custom made pure sine wave inverters like the Genus inverter/UPS due to
the sophisticated technological equipment and techniques that are not readily
available to the common man, this design goes a long way in providing a clean,
affordable, readily available and reliable power that can fully be used in most
applications that are not very critical like in medical and sensitive laboratory
equipment.
This project work provides some additional features and not only serves to provide
the intended power needs, but also provided us with the new knowledge of the fact
that the seemingly sophisticated technology of modern SPWM inverters can be
achieved with some basic electronic components like microcontrollers and some
other analogue devices like op-amps and logic gates. The most interesting part of it
all is the simplicity and affordability of the whole design work when compared to
the highly sophisticated factory/custom made equivalents and this homemade
design of ours serves as a cheaper alternative to the off-the-shelf inverters/UPS.

81
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The application of our knowledge of engineering in solving our local problem is

one thing desperately needed in our country today. That is the opportunity this
project offered us; by the implementation of this project, we have successfully
made the department less reliant on grid supplied energy which would boost
productivity.

After the implementation of the 5kVA inverter installed for the department, the
following were achieved:

• We successfully did a proper load sizing of the department

• We successfully learnt and practiced the load and panel analysis necessary
for the installation of solar panels and inverters in buildings.
• We successfully designed and constructed 5kVA pure sine wave inverter we
installed in the department.
• We as well gained great entrepreneurial skill through this project. This is of
immense benefit as it would reduce our dependence on the job market for
survival after school.
• The end product of the project is the availability of a reliable and consistent
power supply for the department.

5.2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

Every successful project has some challenges encountered, and ours was not an
exception. In the course of the project, some difficulties were encountered while
trying to meet the expected results and specifications.

82
 • One major difficulty that was encountered in this project was majorly
financial constraints, due to the present economic condition of the country.
• Another challenge encountered was purchasing the various components
needed for the fabrication, seeing that the required components were not
readily available in our location.
• Another major challenge we encountered was time constraint, we had very
limited time to implement this project, this warranted us working under
pressure and overtime most of the time to actualize the project.
• The major hiccup in the design of the homemade pure sine wave inverter
was the trouble of generating the appropriate microcontroller code that
produces the SPWM and square wave signals used in controlling the
MOSFET drivers. The problem was due to components modelling issues
with Proteus ISIS. This was a very big challenge at first, but it was finally
surmounted.

5.2.1 LIMITATIONS OF PROJECT

1. The PV power system can only power regular household loads and hence cannot
be used to drive heavy industrial loads like electric motors and pneumatic
machines.

2. The capacity of the system in limited only to 5000VA at 220VAC (Maximum

safe level of loading is about 80% of the inverter capacity).

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. A maintenance check (e.g. periodic maintenance) should be carried out on the

photovoltaic components (the solar panels, the power inverter, the charge

83
controller, the batteries, the wires and cables, the monitors and meters) probably
once a month. This will ensure that any fault is discovered and looked into on time.
The components should not be tampered with in case any fault is discovered,
experienced technicians should be contacted to check on the problem and proffer
solutions.

2. We would recommend that close attention be paid to the loading of the inverter.
For the best interest of the life span of the inverter, it should not be run at the peak
load. Members of staff should ensure that heavy duty loads are not connected to
the inverter during the usage of the inverter.

3. We recommend that students be issued their projects early enough to enable

them learn in details what the project entails and projects like this (solar energy
based) should be encouraged by the government to ensure optimal solutions to
major issues like power failure problems.

84
 REFERENCES

[1] A. Musa, G.S.M. Galadanci, “5KVA power inverter design and simulation
based on boost converter and H-bridge inverter topology”, Bajopas, vol. 2,June
2009.

[2] Roberto Faranda, Sonia Leva, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, “renewable energy
resources for households”, WSEAS transactions on power systems, issue 6, Vol. 3,
June 2008.

[3] Steven L. Brunton, Clarence W. Rowley, Sanjorv R. Kulkarni, “Maximum

power point tracking for photovoltaic optimization using ripple-based extreme
seeking control”, Princeton University, NJ. 08544.

[4] Mazen Abdel-Salam, Adel Ahmed, MAhmoud Amery, “Design and

Implementation of Stand-alone Residential PV System,” IEEE Jordan Conference
on Applied Engineering and Computing Technologies (AEECT), Pg. 1050-1062,
2011.

[5] Rasheed, M. (1992). Power Electronics, Circuits, Device and Application

(Second Edition). Prentice Hall Inc.

[6] Cheng-Wei Chen, Kun-Hung Chen, Yaow-Ming Chen, “Modeling and

Controller Design of an Autonomous PV Module for DMPPT PV systems”, IEEE
Transaction on power electronics, Vol. 29, No. 9, September 2014, pg. 4723-4732.

[7] Oni, J.O.(2005). Fundamentals of Power Systems Protection.

[8] AmmarMunir. “Inverter Technology for the Solar Industry Inverter Technology
and Inverters in Solar Power Systems.” Internet:
www.academia.edu/6165051/Inverter Technology for the Solar Industry/ Inverter
Technology and Inverters in Solar Power Systems. 2009. [21st May 2015]
85
[9] Mgottlieb, I. (1985). Power switching Regulator Inverters and Converters (1st
Edition). Tab Book Inc.

[10] Forrest, M. (2000) .Getting Started In Electronics (2nd Edition).

[11] Juan M. Galvez, Martin Ordinez, “Swinging Bus Operation of Inverters for
Fuel Cell Applications with Small DC-Link Capacitances,” IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, Vol. 30, No.2, February. 2015.

[12] Lander, C.W. (1999). Power Electronics (Second Edition). S Chad &
Company.

[13] Boylestad, R.L. and Nashelsky, L. (1999). Electronics Devices and Circuit
Theory (Seventh Edition). Prentices Hall Inc.

[14] R.C.N Pilawa-Podguski, D.J Foreault, “Submodule integrated distributed

maximum power point tracking for solar photovoltaic applications,” IEEE Trans.
Power electron, Vol. 28, no. 6, June 2013, Pg. 2957-2967.

[15] N. Femia, G. Lisi, G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, M. Vitelli, “Distributed

maximum point tracking of photovoltaic arrays: Novel approach and system
analysis,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, Vol. 55, No. 7, Pg. 2610-2621, Jul. 2008.

[16] Ali RessaReissi, Mohammed Hassan MaradiJamab, “Classification and

comparison of maximum power point tracking techniques for photovoltaic
systems; a review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, Vol. 19, Pg. 433-
443.

86
 APPENDIX A

LIST OF COMPONENTS IN 5kVA INVERTER DESIGN

S/N COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. TRANSFORMER 1

2. SETS OF HEAT SINK

3. 1RF4110 (MOSFET) 20

4. 1RF2110 (MOSFET 2
DRIVER)

5. 12V ZEN. (ZENER 4

DIODE)

6. 5V ZEN. (ZENER DIODE) 1

7. 68R (5W) (RESISTOR) 1

8. 100R (10W) (RESISTOR) 1

9. 180K (1W) (RESISTOR) 1

10. 220K (1W) (RESISTOR) 1

11. 470R 4

12. 47R 1

13. 47K 1

14. 0.47µF, 275V 1

87
15. 22R 24

16. 4.7K 12

17. 2.2K 11

18. 2K 2

19. 1K 2

20. 10R 6

21. 100K 1

22. BUZZER 1

23. 4700µF, 100V 4

24. C547 (CAPACITOR) 4

25. D882 OR C945 1

26. TIP 41 (TRANSISTOR) 1

27. 1
LM 317 (12V
REGULATOR)

28. 1
LM 7805 (5V
REGULATOR)

29. 1
LM 358 (OP-AMP)

30. 1
PC 817 (OPTO-
COUPLER)

88
31. 1
P 521 (OPTO-COUPLER)

32. 14
IN4007 (DIODE)

33. 4
IN4148

34. 2
10µF 25V

35. 3
47µF 50V

36. 5
100µF 50V

37. 1
470µF 25V

38. 2
0.1µF, 250V

39. 6
104J (MICA
CAPACITOR)

40. 2
103J OR 123

41. 2
8 PIN IC SOCKET

42. 1
28 PIN IC SOCKET

43. 2
14 PIN IC SOCKET

44. 5
2 PIN WIRE

89
 CONNECTOR

45. 1
8 PIN WIRE
CONNECTOR

46. 1
16 X 2 LCD

47. 1
20MHZ

48. 1
10K THERMISTOR

49. 1
12V FAN

50.
PCB &
PREPROGRAMMED
MICROCONTROLLER

51. 1
CAST

52. 1
FEEDBACK SENSE
TRANSFORMER

53. 1
AC FAN (220VAC)

54. 3
SMALL PRESS BUTTON

55. 1
560R

90
56. 1
1K

57. 1
10R

58. 1
90A RELAY

91
 APPENDIX B

BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

S/N COMPONENT COMPONENT QUANTITY UNIT TOTAL

NAME DESCRIPTION PRICE PRICE
(Naira) (Naira)

1 Batteries 12V Lead acid 8 110,000 880,000

battery

2 Solar panels 300 watts, 24V 16 80,000 640,000

panels

3 Charge 60 amps MPPT 1 60,000 60,000

controller charge controller

4 Cables 4mm2 copper 2 21,000 42,000

cables

5 Battery rack 1 15,000 15,000

6 Transportation 20,000 20,000

Total 1,657,000

92