Optical Mineralogy in a Nutshell

Use of the petrographic microscope

in three easy lessons

Part I

Slides borrowed/adapted from Jane Selverstone (University of New Mexico) and John Winter (Whitman College)
Why use the microscope??
• Identify minerals (no guessing!)
• Determine rock type
• Determine crystallization sequence
• Document deformation history
• Observe frozen-in reactions
• Constrain P-T history
• Note weathering/alteration
• Fun, powerful, and cheap!
 PLM Fundamentals:               
The Polarized Light Microscope  

The PLM is a basic tool of the geologist. It exploits the fact

that most minerals are transluscent (i.e., if the mineral
grain is thin enough then the light will pass through).
 When using a polarized light microscope an analyst
examines light that passes through a given sample and has
interacted with the internal structure of the mineral grains.
When the light emerges from the sample it has been
altered due to interactions within the mineral grains. Each
mineral is unique in its composition and/or structure so each
mineral has a unique affect on light when it passes through
it. Thus interpreting the emergent light allows a geologist
to identify minerals with great accuracy.
 The petrographic microscope
Also called a
polarizing
microscope

In order to use the scope, we need to understand a little about

the physics of light, and then learn some tools and tricks…
 Your First Look at the PLM

• The Polarized Light Microscope (or petrographic microscope) is a

complex piece of machinery.

• It allows the operator (petrologist) to manipulate light in several

different ways and observe the results after the light has
interacted with the mineral sample on the stage.

• Below are two pictures of a polarized light microscope, complete with

labels on the critical components with respect to this course. It is
important that you familiarize yourself with these parts and where
they occur with respect to each other.
 Difference between polarized
microscope and biological
microscope
• A polarizer and analyzer
• A circular rotating stage
• Special plates placed between the object and
light path.
• Bertrand lens (if necessary)
• Besides us Polarizing Microscope can also
be used in medicine, chemistry, biology and
some times in metallurgy. it is the best
choice to study materials like minerals,
polymers, ceramics, wood, urea, substances
of natural and synthetic fibers with those
birefringent properties, cellophane, and also
botanical and insect specimens and fish
scales.
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e/about_plm/PLM_parts.htm
What happens as light moves through the scope?
your eye

amplitude, A light travels

as waves
wavelength, λ
light ray

waves travel from

source to eye

light source
What happens as light moves through the scope?

Microscope light is white light,

i.e. it’s made up of lots of different wavelengths;
Each wavelength of light corresponds to a different color

Can prove this with a prism,

which separates white light into its
constituent wavelengths/colors
What happens as light moves through the scope?

propagation
direction

plane of light vibrates in

vibration all planes that contain
the light ray
(i.e., all planes
vibration perpendicular to
direction the propagation
direction

Polarized Light Unpolarized Light

1) Light passes through the lower polarizer
west
(left)

Unpolarized light Plane polarized light

“PPL”
east
(right)

Only the component of light vibrating in E-W

direction can pass through lower polarizer –
light intensity decreases
2) Insert the upper polarizer
west (left)
north
(back)

south
(front)
east (right) Black!
XPL “extinct”
(crossed nicols or
crossed polars)

Now what happens?

What reaches your eye?
Why would anyone design a microscope that
prevents light from reaching your eye?
 3) Now insert a thin section of a rock
west (left)

Unpolarized light
east (right)

Light and colors

Light vibrating E-W
reach eye!
Light vibrating in
many planes and with
many wavelengths

How does this work?

 Conclusion has to be that minerals somehow
reorient the planes in which light is vibrating;
some light passes through the upper polarizer

plag

olivine

PPL XPL
Minerals act
as magicians!

But, note that some minerals are better magicians than others
(i.e., some grains stay dark and thus can’t be reorienting light)
 Nature of Light
• Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation,
which can be characterized as pulses or waves of
electrical energy
• Travels in straight lines with a transverse wave motion

Unpolarized light
Polarized light
Electromagnetic Spectrum

From Bloss, 1961

Transverse wave and
Longitudinal wave?
Light as an electromagnetic wave
Light is a transverse wave,
an electromagnetic wave

*Vibration is perpendicular to propogation of wave

**Vibration has a characteristic frequency and
wavelength
 Attributes of Light
Wavelength (λ) − distance between wave peaks; measured in angstroms (Å); defines color
of visible light
Amplitude (A) − height of light waves; corresponds to the intensity/brightness of light
Frequency (ƒ) − number of light waves passing a fixed point per second; measured in
cycles/second
Velocity (v = ƒ·λ); speed of light in a vacuum = 3·1018 Å/sec = c
e.g. for orange light in a vacuum, λ = 6000Å, ƒ = 5·1014 /sec

Light slows down as it passes through denser substances. Because the frequency of
light never changes as it passes through different substances, a decrease in light
velocity reflects a proportional decrease in its wavelength.
 Reflection and Refraction of Light
• When light passes from a low density medium (e.g. air) into a higher
density non-opaque medium (e.g. a mineral), part will be reflected and
part will be pass through, but be bent and slowed – refracted.
• Angle of reflection (θr’) equals the incident angle (θi)
• Angle of refraction (θr) will differ from the incident angle depending
on the change in velocity between the two substances
• The sport made its debut on
the Olympic program at the Sydney Games in
2000 over the Olympic Distance (swim: 1,500
m [1,650 yd] – bike: 40 km [24.9 mi] – run: 10
km [6.2 mi]).
 Becke Line Method
• When the mineral grains in a grain mount are
slightly out of focus, a band or rim of light called
the Becke line should be visible along the grain
boundaries in plane light.
• The rim of light may be either on the inside or the
outside of the grain boundaries depending on
exactly how the microscope is focused
• The Becke line is usually most distinct if the
aperture diaphragm is stopped down
somewhat and the intermediate power
objective (e. g., 10X) is used.
• If the focus is raised so that the distance
between the sample and objective lens is
increased, the Becke line appears to move
into the material with the higher index of
refraction.
• The production of the Becke line involves the
lens effect and the internai reflection effect
• The lens effect depends
on the observation that
most mineral fragments
are thinner on the edges
than in the middle, so
they act as crude lenses
• The internal reflection effect
depends on the requirement that the
edges of the grains must be vertical
at some point. Moderately
converging light from the
condensor impinging on the
vertical grain boundary is either
refracted or internally reflected,
depending on the angles of
incidence and the índices of
tefraction. As can be seen in Figure
3.5, the result of the refraction and
internai reflection is to concentrate
light into a thin band in the material
with the higher index of refraction.
• If the microscope is crisply focused on the grain
then the Becke line is coincident with the edge of
the grain or it may disappear.
• If the stage is lowered so that light near the top or
above the grain is brought into focus, the Becke
line appears in the mineral if n-mincral> n oil, or
in the oil if nmincral < n oil· Hence, as the stage is
lowered, the Becke line moves toward the material
with the higher index of refraction. The reverse is
true if the stage is raised
isotropic
crystal anisotropic
(sodium crystal
chloride) (calcite)
 Dichroism
• The property some minerals have of absorbing
more light in one vibration direction than in
another, and consequently of giving different
colors in two different vibration directions. It
is a form of Pleochroism and is expressed by
giving the colors for each of the two vibration
directions.
 Polarization of Light
• Light emanating from a point
source vibrates in all
directions normal to the
propagation direction

• Light can be polarized (made

to vibrate in one plane) by
selective absorption or by
reflectance
Three types of polarization are possible.
• Plane Polarization/Linear polarization: the
electric field of light is confined to a
single plane along the direction of
propagation
• Circular Polarization
• Elliptical Polarization
Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization

• Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization

• In the petrographic microscope plane polarized
light is used. For plane polarized light the electric
vector of the light ray is allowed to vibrate in a
single plane, producing a simple sine wave with a
vibration direction lying in the plane of
polarization - this is termed plane light or plane
polarized light.
• Plane polarized light may be produced by
reflection, selective absorption, double refraction
and scattering.
Wide-grid polarizers
[dichroism]
 Dichroic crystals
[dichroism]

Dichroic crystals absorb one

polarization state over the other
one.
Example: tourmaline.
 Polaroids
[dichroism]
Made by heating and stretching a sheet of (polyvinyl
alcohol) PVA laminated to a supporting sheet of cellulose
acetate treated with iodine solution (H-type polaroid).
Invented in 1928.
 Anisotropy
Indices of refraction can vary in all minerals (except
those in the isometric system) depending on the
orientation of light ray. Such minerals are said to
be anisotropic.
Isometric minerals, glass, liquids and gasses have a
single refraction index value regardless of the
orientation of light rays. Such substances are said
to be isotropic.
 Color and pleochroism
• Color is observed only in PPL
• Not an inherent property - changes with light type/intensity
• Results from selective absorption of certain λ of light
• Pleochroism results when different λ are absorbed
differently by different crystallographic directions -
rotate stage to observe

hbl
hbl

plag
plag

-Plagioclase is colorless
-Hornblende is pleochroic in olive greens
Color and pleochroism
Biotite
 Why Does Pleochroism
Occur?
• The color of a material results from the absorption of
certain wavelengths of light. For example a blue mineral is
one that absorbs red and yellow wavelengths of light,
leaving only blue wavelengths to pass through the sample
on the microscope stage and eventually reach our eyes.In
pleochroic minerals, the absorption of light is dependent
upon the direction in which it travels through the crystal.
• For example, in a mineral that is pleochroic from yellow to
green, light traveling through the mineral in one direction
has the red and blue light absorbed (leaving only yellow)
whereas light traveling through the other direction has
only the red light absorbed (leaving blue and yellow light
that mix to form green light).
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alyze/pleochroism/pleochroism.htm
 Mineral properties: relief
• Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
• Relief is determined visually, in PPL
• Relief is used to estimate n

Garnet has high relief

Quartz has low relief

garnet: n = 1.72-1.89
quartz: n = 1.54-1.55
epoxy: n = 1.54
 Mineral properties: Index of refraction (R.I. or n)
Light is refracted when it passes from one
substance to another; refraction is
accompanied by a change in velocity

n1 n2
n2 n1

n2>n1 n2<n1
• n is a function of crystallographic orientation in anisotropic minerals
⇨ isotropic minerals: characterized by one RI
⇨ uniaxial minerals: characterized by two RI
⇨ biaxial minerals: characterized by three RI
• n gives rise to 2 easily measured parameters: relief & birefringence
 Mineral properties: relief
• Relief is a measure of the relative difference in n
between a mineral grain and its surroundings
• Relief is determined visually, in PPL
• Relief is used to estimate n

- Olivine has high relief

- Plag has low relief
plag

olivine
olivine: n=1.64-1.88
plag: n=1.53-1.57
epoxy: n=1.54
 What causes relief?
Difference in speed of light (n) in different materials causes
refraction of light rays, which can lead to focusing or
defocusing of grain edges relative to their surroundings

Hi relief (+) Lo relief (+) Hi relief (-)

nxtl > nepoxy nxtl = nepoxy nxtl < nepoxy

Cleavage

Most easily observed in PPL (upper polarizer out),

but visible in XN as well
• No cleavages: quartz, olivine
• 1 good cleavage: micas
• 2 good cleavages: pyroxenes, amphiboles
Cleavage
Cleavage

2 cleavages
intersecting
at ~90°
pyroxene

120°
2 cleavages 60°
intersecting
at 60°/120°:
amphibole
Cleavage

random fractures,
no cleavage:
olivine
Crystal habit or form

acicular

anhedral/irregular

bladed

blocky

elongate

euhedral

fibrous

prismatic

rounded

tabular
Habit or form

acicular

anhedral/irregular

bladed

blocky

elongate

euhedral

fibrous

prismatic

rounded

tabular
 Mineral properties: interference colors/birefringence
• Colors one observes when polars are crossed (XPL)
• Color can be quantified numerically: δ = nhigh - nlow
 Birefringence/interference colors
Observation:
Δ=retardation
frequency of light
fast ray
(low n) remains unchanged
slow ray
during splitting,
(high n) regardless of material

d F= V/λ if light
mineral speed changes, λ must
grain
also change
plane polarized
light
λ is related to color; if λ
changes, color also changes

lower polarizer
Violet (400 nm) → Red (700 nm)
 Anisotropic crystals
Calcite experiment and double refraction

O E Double images
Ray → 2 rays with
different propagation
and vibration directions
Each is polarized ( ⊥
each other)

Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical

Crystallography, MSA
 Anisotropic crystals
Calcite experiment and double refraction

O E O-ray (Ordinary)
Obeys Snell's Law and goes
straight
Vibrates ⊥ plane containing
ray and c-axis (“optic axis”)
E-ray (Extraordinary)
Deflected
Vibrates in plane containing
ray and c-axis

Fig 6-7 Bloss, Optical

Crystallography, MSA
 Interference phenomena

• Light waves may be in phase or out of phase when they

exit xtl

• When out of phase, some component of light gets

through upper polarizer and displays an
interference color

• When one of the vibration directions is parallel to the

lower polarizer, no light gets through the upper
polarizer and the grain is “at extinction” (=black)

See Nesse p. 41, 46-48…

 At time t, when slow ray 1st exits xtl:
Slow ray has traveled distance d
Fast ray has traveled distance d+Δ

Δ=retardation time = distance/rate

fast ray
(low n)
Slow ray: t = d/Vslow
slow ray
(high n) Fast ray: t= d/Vfast + Δ/Vair

d
What is Δ?
mineral
grain

plane polarized
light

lower polarizer
Slow ray: t = d/Vslow

Fast ray: t= d/Vfast + Δ/Vair

Therefore: d/Vslow = d/Vfast + Δ/Vair

Δ = d(Vair/Vslow - Vair/Vfast)

Δ = d(nslow - nfast)

Δ=dδ

Δ = thickness of t.s. x birefringence

 Birefringence/interference colors

birefringence
Thickness in microns

Retardation in nanometers
 Color chart
Shows the relationship between retardation, crystal
thickness, and interference color
550 μm → red violet
800 μm → green
1100 μm → red-violet again (note repeat ↑)
0-550 μm = “1st order” 550-1100 μm = 2nd order
1100-1650 μm = 3rd order...
Higher orders are more pastel
Example: Quartz ω = 1.544 ε = 1.553

1.544 ω

1.553
ε

Data from Deer et al

Rock Forming Minerals
John Wiley & Sons
 Example: Quartz ω = 1.544 ε = 1.553

δ = ε - ω = 0.009 called the birefringence (δ) =

maximum interference color (when seen?)
What color is this? Use your chart.

For other orientations get ε' - ω → progressively lower color

Rotation of the stage changes the intensity, but not the hue
Extinct when either privileged direction N-S (every 90o) and
maximum interference color brightness at 45o
360o rotation → 4 extinction positions exactly 90o apart

Now do question 6
 Estimating birefringence
1) Find the crystal of interest showing the highest order
colors (Δ depends on orientation)
2) Go to color chart
• Find the thickness = 30 microns
• Use 30 micron line + color, follow radial line through
intersection to margin & read birefringence

Suppose you have a mineral with second-order green

What about third order yellow?

Now do question 7
 4) Note the rotating stage
Most mineral grains change color as the stage is
rotated; these grains go black 4 times in 360°
rotation-exactly every 90o

These minerals are

anisotropic
Glass, a few isotropic minerals,
liquids (fluid inclusions),
and gases (air bubbles)
stay black in all orientations

These minerals
are isotropic

Now do question 8
Extinction angle
Extinction behavior is a function of the relationship
between indicatrix orientation and crystallographic
orientation

parallel extinction inclined extinction

 Extinction angle – parallel extinction

• All uniaxial minerals show parallel extinction

• Orthorhombic minerals show parallel extinction

(this is because xtl axes and indicatrix axes coincide)

orthopyroxene

PPL XN
Extinction angle - inclined extinction

Monoclinic and triclinic minerals:

indicatrix axes do not coincide with crystallographic axes
These minerals have inclined extinction
(and extinction angle helps to identify them)

extinction
angle

clinopyroxene
Now do question 9
 So far, all of this has been orthoscopic (the normal way)
All light rays are ~ parallel and vertical as they pass through the crystal

• xtal has particular interference color =

Orthoscopic f(birefringence, thickness, orientation)
viewing
Fig 7-11 Bloss, Optical • Points of equal thickness will have the
Crystallography, MSA
same color
• isochromes = lines connecting points
of equal interference color
• At thinner spots and toward edges will
show a lower color
• Count isochromes (inward from thin
edge) to determine order
 What interference color is this?

If this were the maximum interference color seen, what

is the birefringence of the mineral?