Permutation and

Combination

 Course Content  Learning Outcomes

 Basic principle of counting, Permutation of (a) set On completion of this unit, students will be able to:
of objects all different (b) set of objects not all  solve the problems related to permutation and
different (c) circular arrangement (d) repeated combinations.
use of the same objects. Combination of things all
different, Properties of combination

1.1 Introduction
In our daily life, we face many situations where we have to make selection or arrangement of some
objects taken from a collection. Thus we need to know how to find the number of ways a set of
objects is grouped or arranged. Mathematically this can be done with the help of permutation and
combination. Permutation is used for listing where the order matters whereas combination is for
grouping where the order does not matter.
Permutations and combinations are needed in various branches of mathematics such as statistics,
probability, binomial expansion to name just a few. Moreover, they are also used in many other
fields of science such as computer science, quantum physics and biology.
In this chapter, we will focus primarily on permutation and combination. In order to understand
permutation, one needs the concept of counting. We first begin with the discussion of fundamental
principle of counting.

1.2 Fundamental Principles of Counting

Suppose that four teams are involved in a volleyball tournament in which first, second, third, and
fourth places will be determined. For identification purposes, we label the teams as A, B, C and D.
Let us find the number of different ways that first and second places can be decided. It is convenient
to use a tree diagram as shown in Fig. 1. Beginning at the word 'start', the four possibilities for first
places are listed. From each of these an arrow points to a possible second place finisher. The final
standing lists the possible outcomes, from left to right. They are found by branches of the tree that
 2 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

lead from the word 'start' to the second place team. The total number of outcomes is 12, which is the
product of the number of 4 choices for first place and the number of 3 choices for second place.
First Place Second Place Final Standing

B A B

A C A C

D A D

A B A

B C B C

D B D

Start

A C A
C B C B

D C D

A D A

D B D B

C D C
Fig. 1

Let us now find the total number of ways that first, second, third, and fourth positions can be
occupied. To sketch a tree diagram we begin by drawing arrows from the word "start" to each
possible first-place finisher A, B, C or D. Then we draw arrows from those to possible second place
indicating the possible third place. Finally, we draw arrows to the fourth place team. If we consider
only the case in which team A finishes in first place, as shown in Fig. 2, we have six possible final
standing in which term A occupies first place. In a complete tree diagram there would also be three
other branches of this type corresponding to first place for B, C and D respectively.
First Second Third Fourth Final

A B C D
C D
B
D C A B D C

A C B D
B D
Start A C
D B A C D B

B C A D B C
D
C B A D C B

Fig. 2

A complete tree diagram which displays the following 24 possibilities for the final standings;
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 3

ABCD, ABDC, ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, ADCB, BACD, BADC, BCAD, BCDA, BDAC, BDCA,
CABD, CADB, CBAD, CBDA, CDAB, CDBA, DABC, DACB, DBAC, DBCA, DCAB, DCBA.
Note that the number 24 is the product of the 4 number of ways that first place may occur, the
number of 3 ways that second place may occur, the 2 number of possible outcomes for third place
and single number of ways that fourth place can occur. The above discussion illustrates the general
rule which we accept as a basic axiom (principle) of counting. We now formally define these
principles.
Basic principle of multiplication: If an event E1 can occur in the m1 number of ways, another event
E2 following the first can occur in m2 number of ways and so on. Then, the total number of ways the
events E1, E2,   , Ek can occur is m1,  m2  m3      mk.
Example 1. In a college, there are 3 entrance doors and 4 exit doors. In how many ways can a
student enter the college and exit?
Solution
A student can enter the college through any of the 3 entrance doors, so there are 3 ways
of entering the college. After entering the college, the student can come out through
any of the 4 exit doors, so there are 4 ways of coming out. Hence the number of ways
in which a student can enter and exit the college = 3 × 4 = 12.
Basic principle of addition: If an event E1 can occur in the m1 number of ways, another event E2
following the first can occur in m2 number of ways and so on. Then, either of these events
E1, E2,   , Ek can occur in m1 + m2 + m3 +    + mk number of ways.
Example 2. There are 5 bus routes and 6 train routes between two cities X and Y. In how many
ways can a person go from X to Y?
Solution
A person can go from X to Y by any one of the 5 bus routes or any one of the 6 train
routes. Thus, there are 5 + 6 = 11 ways by which the person can travel from X to Y.
Returning to the Figure 1, we let E1 represent the determination of the first place team, so that
m1 = 4. If E2 denotes the determination of the second place team, then m2 = 3. Hence, the number of
outcomes for the sequence E1 and E2 is 4 × 3 = 12, which is the same as that found by means of the
tree diagram. If we proceed to E3, the determination of the third place team, then m3 = 2, and hence
m1  m2  m3 = 24. Finally, if E1, E2 and E3 have occurred, there is only one possible outcome for E4.
Thus, m4 = 1 and m1  m2  m3  m4 = 24.

 Illustrative Examples
Example 1. Let P, Q, R and S be four cities. There are five roads from P to Q, three roads from Q
to R and four roads from R to S. In how many ways can a driver drive from P to S via
Q and R?
Solution
Since there are five roads from P to Q, the driver can drive from P to Q in 5 different
ways. Then he can drive from Q to R in 3 different ways and then from R to S in 4
different ways.
By the basic principle of counting, the driver can drive from P to S in 5 × 3 × 4 = 60 ways.
 4 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

Example 2. How many two digit numbers can be formed with the digits 0, 1, 2,   , 9, if no digit is
repeated?
Solution
The tenth place can be filled up by any of the 9 digits 1, 2, 3,   , 9 (excluding 0)
which can be done in 9 ways.
The unit place can be filled up by any of the 9 digits (including 0 and other remaining 8
digits) which can be done in 9 ways.
 The two digit numbers (without repetition of digits) = 9 × 9 = 81.
Note: If repetition is allowed, the total number of two digit numbers = 9 × 10 = 90.

Example 3. A class consists of 60 girls and 40 boys. In how many ways can a president, vice-
president, treasurer and secretary be chosen if the treasurer must be a girl, the secretary
must be a boy, and a student may not hold more than one post ?
Solution
Let E1 represent the choice of treasurer and E2 represent the choice of secretary. Next
we let E3 and E4 denote the choices for president and vice-present, respectively. As in
the fundamental principle of counting, let mi denote the number of different ways Ei
can occur, for i = 1, 2, 3 and 4. It follows that m1 = 60, m2 = 40, m3 = 98, and m4 = 97.
Therefore by the fundamental principle of counting, the total number of possibilities
= 60 × 40 × 98 × 97 = 22814400 ways.
Note: If an event is specialized in some special way (for example, the treasurer must be
a girl), then that event should be performed before any non-specialized events.
Example 4. a. How many numbers are there between 99 and 1000 such that 7 is in the unit's
place?
b. How many numbers are there between 99 and 1000 such that at least one of their
digits is 7?
Solution
a. First note that all these numbers between 99 and 1000 have three digits. Since 7 is
in the unit's place, there is only one choice for unit place. The digit in tenth's place
can be any one of the 10 digits from 0 to 9. The digit in hundred's place can be
any one of the 9 digits from 1 to 9. Therefore by the fundamental principle of
counting, the total numbers between 99 and 1000 = 1 × 10 × 9 = 90, where 7 is in
the unit's place.
b. Total number of 3 digit numbers having at least one of their digits as 7
= Total number of 3 digit numbers – Total number of 3 digit numbers in which 7
does not appear at all
= 9 × 10 × 10 – 8 × 9 × 9
= 900 – 648
= 252.
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 5

Example 5. How many numbers of three different digits less than 500 can be formed from the
integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6?
Solution
Here, number of given digits = 6
Since the numbers are less than 500, then the hundred digits be either 1 or 2 or 3 or 4
The hundred's place digits can be chosen in 4 ways
The ten's place digit can be chosen in (6 – 1) = 5 ways
The unit's place digit can be chosen in (6 – 2) = 4 ways
Therefore the total required numbers can be formed in = 4 × 5 × 4 ways = 80 ways.
Example 6. How many numbers are there between 100 and 1000 such that every digit is either 2 or
9?
Solution
Any number between 100 and 1000 is of three digits. The unit's place can be filled by 2
or 9. So the units place can be filled in two ways.
Similarly, each of ten's and hundred's place can be filled in two ways.
Therefore the total required numbers = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
Example 7. In how many ways can the adjoining figure be coloured subject to
the following two conditions?
a. Each of the smaller triangle is to be painted with one of the
three colours: red, blue or green and
b. No two adjacent regions received the same colour.
Solution
a. Each of the four triangle can be painted in three different ways
By the basic principle of counting, total number of required ways = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81.
b. Firstly paint the central triangle in any one of the 3 colours. Next paint the
remaining 3 triangles, with any one of the remaining 2 colours
By the fundamental principle of counting this can be done in 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24 ways.
Example 8. How many numbers of at most three different digits can be formed using inters 1, 2, 3,
4?
Solution
From the condition, we note that the numbers can be one digit or two digits or three
digits.
So, there are 4 one digit numbers
Similarly, there are 4 × 3 = 12 two digits numbers
Again, there are 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 three digits numbers. Hence, by the basic principle of
addition, at most three different digits numbers are 4 + 12 + 24 = 40.
 6 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

 Exercise 1.1
1. There are 6 bus routes and 7 train routes between the two cities X and Y. In how many ways
can a person go from X to Y?
2. There are five doors in the school assembly hall. In how many ways can a student enter the hall
and leave it through a different door?
3. There are seven buses running between Jamal and Budhanilkantha. In how many ways can a
man go from Jamal to Budhanilkantha and return by a different bus?
4. How many numbers of 3 digits can be formed out of the digits 2, 4, 5 and 6, no digit being
repeated in same number?
5. How many two-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 when
(a) repetition of digits is not allowed (b) repetition of digits is allowed?
6. How many three digit numbers can be formed without using the digits 0, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6?
7. How many odd numbers less than 1000 can be formed by using the digits 0, 3, 6, 9?
8. How many numbers of at least three different digits can be formed from the integers 1, 2, 3, 4,
5?
9. How many numbers of at most three different digits can be formed from the integers 5, 6, 7, 8,
9?
10. There are 6 multiple choice questions in an examination. How many sequence of answers are
possible if the first three questions have 4 choices each and the next three have 5 each?
11. In how many ways can 5 women draw water from 5 taps, if no tap remains unused?
12. Each section in the grade 12 class has exactly 40 students. If there are 4 sections, in how many
ways can a set of 4 student representatives be selected, one from each section?
13. In a city, telephone numbers consists of 6 digits and none of them begin with 0. How many
telephone numbers could be possible in that city?

Answers
1. 13 2. 20 3. 42 4. 24 5. (a) 12 (b) 15
6. 64 7. 32 8. 300 9. 85 10. 8000
11. 120 12. 2560000 13. 900000

 Multiple Choice Questions

1. 10 buses run between Kathmandu and Butwal. In how many ways a man travel from
Kathmandu to Butwal and return by a different bus?
a. 63 b. 90
c. 72 d. 100
2. How many numbers of two digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5?
a. 25 b. 20
c. 16 d. 24
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 7

3. How many numbers of two different digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5?
a. 25 b. 20
c. 16 d. 24
4. In a certain election, there are four candidates for president, six for secretary and only two for
treasurer. In how many ways the election may turn out?
a. 12 b. 24
c. 48 d. 60
5. How many numbers of three different digits less than 500 can be formed from the integers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6?
a. 60 b. 70
c. 72 d. 80
6. How many even numbers of different digits can be formed using all the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6?
a. 48 b. 24
c. 120 d. 72
7. How many number of 5 digits can be formed from the numbers 2, 0, 4, 3, 8 when repetition of
digits is not allowed?
a. 96 b. 120
c. 144 d. 14

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b a b c d d a

1.3 Factorial Notation

Factorial notation is used to store a large number in a compact form. They are just products,
indicated by an exclamation sign (!). For instance, five factorial is written as 5! and means
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
Consider the products
1
12
123
1234
1  2  3  4  5, etc.
The products are respectively denoted by 1!, 2!, 3!, 4!, 5!, etc.
In general, n! denotes continued product of the first n natural numbers. That is,
n! = 1  2  3  4      n
This n! is read as "n factorial". Thus
5! = 1  2  3  4  5 = 120
4! = 1  2  3  4 = 24
3! = 1  2  3 = 6
 8 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

NOTE 1. The notation n is also used sometimes in place of n!.

2. We define 0! to be equal to 1.
We have n! = n  (n – 1)!
In particular, 4! = 4  3!
3! = 3  2!
2! = 2  1!
1! = 1  0!
This means 0! = 1
Hence, we define 0! as equal to 1, though 0! does not carry any meaning from the definition of
factorial.
3. Factorial of a negative integer does not exist.

1.4 Permutation
A permutation is an act of arranging the objects or numbers into some sequence or order. In other
words, if the set is already ordered, then the rearranging of its elements is called the process of
permuting. They often arise in mathematics when different ordering on certain finite sets are
considered.
For example, 2 and 3 are two digits and with these digits, the numbers 23 and 32 are formed.
Although both the numbers 23 and 32 consists of the digits 2 and 3, the order of the digits is
different. Each of the arrangement of digits is called a permutation.
Thus the number of permutations or arrangements of the two distinct digits 2 and 3 is 2.
Again, if there are three objects A, B, C then the permutations or arrangements of these objects,
taking two at a time are: AB, BA, BC, CB, AC, CA.
Hence the number of permutations of three different things or objects, taking two at a time is 6.
Similarly, the number of permutation of three different letters A, B, C, taking all of them at a time,
are ABC, ACB, BCA, BAC, CAB, CBA.
Therefore the permutations of three distinct letters, taking all the three at a time is 6.
Likewise, each of the different order of arrangements of a given set of different objects, by taking
some or all of them, is called a permutation of those objects.
The number of permutations of n different elements taken r at [0  r  n] a time is usually denoted
by the symbol nPr or nPr or P(n, r).
Set of Objects all Different
Theorem: The total number of permutations of n different elements taken r at a time (r  n) is
n!
n
Pr = n(n – 1) (n – 2)    (n – r + 1) = .
(n – r)!
Proof: Obviously, the number of permutations of n different elements taken r at a time is the same
as the number of ways of filling up r positions by r elements taken from n elements. The first
position can be filled up by any of the n objects, and this can be done in n ways. After filling up the
first place, the second position can be filled up by any of the remaining (n – 1) elements, and this can
be done in (n – 1) ways.
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 9

Likewise, the third positions can be filled up by (n – 2) ways, and so on. The rth position can be
filled up in n – (r – 1), i.e. n – r + 1 ways. Therefore, by the fundamental principle of counting, the
number of ways of filling up the r positions is n(n – 1) (n – 2)    (n – r + 1).
Therefore
n
Pr = n(n – 1) (n – 2)    (n – r + 1)
n(n – 1) (n – 2)    (n – r + 1) (n – r) !
=
(n – r) !
n!
=
(n – r)!
n!
 n
Pr = P(n, r) = .
(n – r)!
Corollary: For r = n, we have
n n! n! n!
Pn = = =
(n – n)! 0! 1
 n
Pn = P(n, n) = n!
Again
n n!
Pn – 1 = = n!
(n – n + 1)!
We have
n
Pn = nPn – 1.
Also it is obvious that the greatest value of nPr is nPn or n Pn – 1.
Example 1. Find the value of P(4, 3).
Solution
We have
n!
P(n, r) =
(n – r)!
Here, n = 4 and r = 3
4!
 P(4, 3) =
(4 – 3)!
4!
=
1!
= 4  3  2 = 24.
Permutations of Things (Objects) not all Different
The number of permutations of n objects, of which m are of one kind and (n – m) of another kind,
taken all at a time, is
n!
.
m! (n – m)!
The number of permutations of n objects, taken all at a time, when p of them are one kind, q of them
n!
are second kind, r of them are third kind such that p + q + r = n, is .
p! q! r!
 10 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

Proof: Let n objects be denoted by n letters. Let m of them be a and (n – m) be b. Let the required
permutations be x. Take any one of these permutations and replace m alike letters a by m unlike
letters a1, a2, a3,   , am which are different from any one of the remaining letters. These new letters
can be arranged among themselves in m! ways. One such permutation will give rise to m! ways.
Therefore, if such a change is made in all the x permutations, then the total number of ways in which
arrangements can be made will become x  m!.
Let us now take any one of such x  m! permutations and replace (n – m) alike letters b by (n – m)
unlike letters b1, b2, b3,   , bn – m which are different from any of the rest of the letters. These new
(n – m) letters can be arranged among themselves in (n – m)! ways. One such permutation will give
rise to (n – m)! arrangements. Therefore, if such a change is made in all xm! permutations, then the
total number of permutations will become x  m!(n – m)!. But now at this stage all the n letters are
different and number of permutations taken all at a time is n!. Hence we must have
x  m! (n – m)! = n! 
n!
 x=
m!(n – m)!
Hence, the number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time where p objects are of one kind, q
objects are of the second kind, r objects are of the third kind and all the others are different is given
by the expression
n!
.
p! q! r!
Example 2. Find the number of arrangements that can be made out of the letters of the word
'MISSISSIPPI'.
Solution
The word "MISSISSIPPI" contains 11 letters. In the word, I occurs 4 times, S occurs 4
times and P occurs 2 times, and rest all are different, then putting n = 11, p = 4, q = 4
and r = 2, we have
n! 11!
The total number of permutations = = = 34650.
p! q! r! 4! 4! 2!
Permutations of things which may be repeated.
Theorem: The number of permutations of n different objects, taken r at a time, when repetition are
allowed, is nr.
Proof: The first place can be filled up by any one of the n objects. There are n ways to do so. The
second place can be filled up by any one of the n objects because repetition is allowed. There are n
ways to do the same. Thus, there are n × n = n2 ways to fill the first two positions. Continuing the
process r times, one can conclude that there are nr ways to fill up the first r positions.
Example 3. There are 10 letter boxes in a post office. In how many ways can a man post 5 distinct
letters?
Solution
Each letter can be posted in 10 ways. Hence, the number of permutations (required
number) of ways = 105 = 100,000.
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 11

Circular Permutations
Let us consider arrangements of objects in the form of a circle, instead of a line. Then we called
circular permutations. (Note that the usual permutations are sometimes called linear permutations.)
Suppose four letters a, b, c, d are to be arranged in the form of a circle. One
b
such arrangement is shown in the figure. This arrangement is read in the 
anticlockwise direction starting from any point. So, it may be read as abcd or c
bcda or cdab or dabc. Thus these four usual permutations correspond to one   a
circular permutation.
Obviously, the number of circular permutations are less than the number of 
usual (linear) permutations in all non trivial cases. d

Theorem: The number of circular permutations of n different objects is (n – 1)!.

Proof: Each circular permutation corresponds to n linear permutations depending on where out of n
n!
positions we start. Since there are exactly n! linear permutations, these are exactly circular
n
permutations. This number is the same as (n – 1)!.
NOTE It may be noted that in the case of circular permutations, there is neither a beginning, nor an end. Therefore,
in order to find the number of permutations of n objects in circular arrangements, we fix one of the n objects
in one position and then consider the arrangements of remaining (n – 1) objects which can be done in
(n – 1)! ways.

If there is no distinction between clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements, then the number of
1
ways will be (n – 1)! as in the case of forming a necklace or bracelet out of n differently coloured
2
beads.
Example 4. In how many ways can eight students be seated in a circle and a line?
Solution
The 8 students can be seated in a circle in (8 – 1)! = 7! = 5040 ways
They can be arranged in a line in 8! = 40320 ways

 Illustrative Examples
Example 1. If nP5 = 20 × nP3, then find the value of n.
Solution
Here
n
P5 = 20 × nP3
n! n!
or, = 20 ×
(n – 5)! (n – 3)!
or, (n – 3)! = 20 (n – 5)!
or, (n – 3) (n – 4) (n – 5)! = 20(n – 5)!
or, (n – 4) (n – 3) = 20
or, n2 – 7n + 12 – 20 = 0
or, n2 – 7n – 8 = 0
or, n2 – 8n + n – 8 = 0
 12 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

or, n(n – 8) + 1(n – 8) = 0

or, (n – 8) (n + 1) = 0
 n = 8, – 1
Since the number of things must be a natural number, n  – 1, we must have
n = 8.
Example 2. Prove that nPr = n – 1Pr + r n – 1Pr – 1.
Solution
We have
n n!
Pr =
(n – r)!
Now
n–1 (n – 1)! (n – 1)!
Pr + rn – 1Pr – 1 = +r
(n – r – 1)! (n – 1 – r + 1)!
(n – 1)!  r 
= 1+
(n – r – 1)!  n – r
n (n – 1)!
=
(n – r) (n – r – 1)!
n!
=
(n – r)!
= nPr .
Example 3. In how many different ways the letters of the word "HEXAGON" be permuted? In how
many words the vowels will be together?
Solution
There are seven different letters in the word "HEXAGON".
Number of permutations possible among the letters is 7P7 = P(7, 7) = 7! = 5040 ways
There are three vowels A, E, O. If these are grouped together, these can be treated as
one letter
Now, the five letters (AEO), H, X, G, N, can be arranged among themselves in 5! ways
Again, 3 vowels can be arranged among themselves in 3! ways. Thus by the principle
of associations, the number of words having vowels together is
5! × 3! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720.
Example 4. In how many ways can 5 members of a committee form a ring?
Solution
Let m1, m2, m3, m4 and m5 be the 5 members of a committee. Let us fix one of them say
m1 and then find the number of arrangements of the remaining 4 taken all together
which is equal to 4P4 i.e. 4! or 24. Hence, the required number of ways in which 5
members can form a ring is 24.
Example 5. There are 8 students appearing in an examination of which 3 have to appear in
mathematics and remaining in 5 other different subjects. In how many ways can they
be made to sit in a row if the candidates in mathematics can't be seated next to each
other?
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 13

Solution
We first make 5 candidates in different subjects to sit according as
XDXDXDXDXDX
Where D stands for different subjects and X for the choice of 3 students from
mathematics. 5 students from different subjects can be arranged in 5! ways.
There are six places in between and on the extremes. The arrangement for the 3
students from mathematics can be done in
6!
P(6, 3) = 6P3 = = 120 ways
(6 – 3)!
The required number of ways is 5! × 120 = 120 × 120 = 14400.
Example 6. Find the number of different 8 letters words formed from the letters of the word
'EQUATION', if each word is to start with a vowel.
Solution
The word EQUATION has 8 letters of which 5 are vowels. They are A, E, I, O, U. For
the words to start with a vowel, the first one has to be any one of these 5 vowels. It can
be done in 5 ways. Out of the remaining 7 we can arrange them in 7! ways.
By the principle of counting, the required number of words is 7! × 5 = 25200.
Example 7. How many 7 digit numbers can be formed, using the digits 1, 2, 0, 2, 4, 2, and 4?
Solution
The given digits are 1, 2, 0, 2, 4, 2 and 4. Hence, 2 appears thrice, 4 twice, others are
different.
7!
Number of permutations =
3! 2!
These arrangements also include those numbers having 0 in the starting left positions
which are meaningless here and consequently we exclude them. In such cases, the
6!
remaining six digits can be arranged in ways.
3! 2!
7! 6! 1
The required number of ways = – = (7! – 6!)
3! 2! 3! 2! 3! 2!
6! (7 – 1)
=
3! 2!
6543216
=
32121
= 360.
Example 8. How many different words can be formed of the letters of the word 'ARRANGE'? In
how many words two R's do not come together?
Solution
Number of letters in the word 'ARRANGE' = 7
In the word, A comes 2 times, R comes 2 times
 14 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

7!
The total number of words can be formed = = 1260
2! 2!
If two R's come together and take them as one letter, then the number of letters can be
considered as 6
6!
Number of words of 6 letters when two R's come together = = 360
2!
The total number of words in which two R's do not come together = 1260 – 360 = 900.
Example 9. There are 5 gentlemen and 4 ladies to dine at a round table. In how many ways can
they seat themselves so that no two ladies are together?
L G
Solution L
G
There are five gentlemen, they can seat in (5 – 1)! = 4! = 24
ways in a round table L G
The four ladies will occupy places marked by L in the figure G
so that no two ladies sit together. They can sit in L L
5! G
5P = = 120 ways
4
(5 – 4)!
The total required number of ways is 24 × 120 = 2880 ways.
Example 10. In how many ways can the letters of the word "INTERMEDIATE" be arranged so that
a. the vowels always occupy even places?
b. the relative order of vowels and consonants do not change?
c. the order of vowels do not change?
Solution
6!
a. Six vowels in six even places can be arranged in = = 60 ways
2! 3!
6!
Number of arrangements of 6 consonants in the remaining 6 places = = 360
2!
The required number of arrangements of 12 letters = 60 × 360 = 21,600.
b. The relative order of vowels and consonants will not change if the 6 vowels are
arranged in their six places
6! 6!
So as in (a), number of arrangements = × = 21600
2! 3! 2!
c. The order of vowels in the word is I, E, E, I, A, E. As this order is not changed,
the arrangements of vowels remains unchanged. So we consider the vowels as one
unit.
12!
The total number of words = = 332640.
6! 2!
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 15

 Exercise 1.2
1. Find the number of permutations of the five letters P, Q, R, S, T taken all at a time.
2. How many license plates consisting of 3 different digits can be made out of given integers 1, 2, 3,
4, 5?
3. Find the numbers of permutations of the letters of the following words:
a. COMMITTEE b. CALCULUS
c. TENNESSE d. INDEPENDENCE
4. Find the value of r in the following:
a. 22Pr + 1 : 20Pr + 2 = 11 : 52 b. 10P = 5040
r c. 5Pr = 6Pr – 1
5. How many three-digit numbers are there, with no digit repeated?
6. Find the number of ways of numbers, greater than a million, that can be formed with the digits
2, 3, 0, 3, 4, 2, 3.
7. If three persons enter a hall in which there are 10 vacant seats, find in how many ways they can
sit?
8. In how many ways can the letters of the word "CALCULUS" be arranged so that the two C's do
not come together?
9. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word 'EINSTEIN' taken altogether. How
many of these begin and end with N?
10. Find the total number of ways in which the letters of the word "KATHMANDU" be arranged
so that the consonants may never be separated.
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word "MONDAY" be arranged? How many of these
arrangements do not begin with M? How many begin with M and do not end with Y?
12. Find how many words can be formed from the letters in the word "FAILURE", the four vowels
always coming together.
13. In how many ways can eight people be seated in a row of eight seats if two people insist on
sitting next to each other?
14. In how many ways can 6 boys and 4 girls be arranged in a straight line so that no two girls are
ever together?
15. 20 persons were invited for a party. In how many ways can they and the host be seated at a
circular table? In how many of these ways will two particular persons be seated on either side
of the host?
16. In how many ways can 7 different coloured beads be made into a bracelet?
17. In how many ways can 4 arts students and 4 science students be arranged alternative at a round
table?
18. A person has to post 5 letters and there are 4 letter boxes in the locality, in how many ways can
he post the letters?
19. There are 3 prizes to be distributed among 5 students. In how many ways can it be done if:
a. no students gets more than one prize?
b. a student may get any number of prizes?
c. no students get all the prizes?
 16 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

20. How many permutations of 10 things taken 4 at a time are there so that one particular thing
a. always occur?
b. never occur?
21. In how many ways can the letters of the word 'INTERVAL' be arranged so that:
a. all vowels are always together?
b. the relative positions of the vowels and consonants are not changed?
c. the vowels may occupy only the odd positions?
Answers
1. 120 2. 60
3. a. 45,360 b. 5,040 c. 1,680 d. 16,63,200
4. a. 7 b. 4 c. 4
5. 648 6. 360 7. 720 8. 3,780 9. 5040; 180
10. 8,640 11. 720; 600; 96 12. 576 13. 10,080 14. 604,800
15. 20!, 2 × 18! 16. 360 17. 144 18. 1,024
19. a. 60 b. 125 c. 120
20. a. 2016 b. 3024
21. a. 4320 b. 720 c. 2880

 Multiple Choice Questions

1. How many license plates of 4 different digits can be made from the integers 5, 6, 7, 8, 9?
a. 100 b. 120
c. 240 d. 60
2. In how many ways the letters of the word "ALGEBRA" be arranged?
a. 5040 b. 4200
c. 2520 d. 1260
3. The value of P(n, n – 1) is
a. n! b. (n – 1)!
c. (n + 1)! d. 1
4. In how many ways 6 person can be arranged in a row so that two particular persons are always
together?
a. 60 b. 120
c. 240 d. 300
5. In how many ways 3 letters can be posted in 4 letter boxes?
a. 12 b. 24
c. 48 d. 64
6. In how many ways can 5 different coloured beads be strung on a necklace?
a. 72 b. 120
c. 24 d. 12
7. In how many ways the letters of word COLLEGE be arranged so that two E's always come
together?
a. 360 b. 720
c. 2520 d. 5040
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 17

8. If (n + 2)! = 210(n – 1)!, then the value of n satisfying the condition is

a. 5 b. 7
c. 6 d. 8
9. The number of ways in which 6 different prizes can be distributed among 5 students is
a. 5×6 b. 65
c. 56 d. None
10. How many words can be formed with the letters of the word MATHEMATICS by rearranging
the letters?
11! 11!
a. b.
2! 2! 2! 2!
11!
c. 11! d.
2! 2!

11. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls sit on a circle so that no two boys sit together
a. 5! × 5! b. 4! × 5!
5! × 5!
c. d. 4! × 4!
2
12. The number of words that can be formed out of the letter of word ARTICLE so that vowels
occupy, even places is
a. 36 b. 574
c. 144 d. 754
13. The number of ways that 8 beeds of different colors be string as a neckless is
a. 2520 b. 2880
c. 5040 d. 4320
14. In how many different ways can 9 people and a host be seated in a circular table of a party?
a. 8! b. 9!
c. 10! d. 11!

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b c a c d d a a c b
11 12 13 14
b c a b

1.5 Combination
On many programs we are not interested in arranging, but only in selecting r objects from n objects.
Moreover, we do not want to specify the ordering of these selected objects. For example, a football
player may want to choose three footballs from the stock at a time, a college management may want
to recruit 5 of the 12 applicants for a post of lecturer, a committee may want to select 15 out of 60
students for awarding scholarships and so on. In this section, we study the methods of counting the
number of ways of such selections.
For instance, consider the question: In how many ways can two persons be selected out of four
persons? Let A, B, C, D be the four persons. We want to choose two of them. We may choose either
 18 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

AB or AC or AD or BC or BD or DC. Note that we do not list BA separately here because it is the

same as the choice AB. Thus, there are six ways of selecting two persons out of four person.
Definition: A group or a selection which can be formed by taking some or all of the objects
irrespective of the order of their arrangements is called a combination. In other words, the
combination is a way of selecting items from a collection such that the order of selection does not
matter. Combination refers to the combination of n things take r at a time.

Notation: C(n, r) or nCr or nCr or  r  denotes the number of combinations of n objects, taken r (r  n)
n

at a time. The combination of 3 letters A, B, C taken two at a time are AB, BC, CA. Thus C(3, 2) = 3.
The combinations of 4 letters A, B, C, D taken two at a time are
AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD.
Thus, C(4, 2) = 6.

Difference between a Permutation and a Combination

In a combination, only a group is made and the order in which the objects are arranged is immaterial.
In case of a permutation, not only group is formed, but also an arrangement in a definite order is
considered. For example, AB and BA are two different permutations, but each represents the same
combination. Similarly, ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA are six different permutations but each
of them represents the same combination, namely a group of three objects A, B and C.
NOTE Usually, the word 'arrangements' for permutations and 'selections' for combinations is used.

Theorem: The number of all combination of n distinct objects, taken r at a time, is given by
n n!
Cr = C(n, r) = .
(n – r)! r!
Proof: Let x be the total number of combinations. Since each combination has r objects, each
combination will produce r! arrangements or permutations when arrange among themselves.
Therefore, x combination will produce x  r! permutations, which is the same as the total number of
permutations of n objects taken r at a time.
 x  r! = nPr
n
Pr n!
or, x = = .
r! (n – r)! r!
Since nCr denotes the total number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time, we have
n!
x = nCr = .
(n – r)! r!
n!
 n
Cr = C(n, r) = . . . (1)
(n – r)! r!
Corollary 1: Putting r = 0 in (1), we get
n n! n!
C0 = = = 1.
(n – 0)! 0! n!
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 19

Corollary 2: Putting r = 1 in (1), we get

n n! n(n – 1)!
C1 = = = n.
(n – 1)! 1! (n – 1)!
Corollary 3: Putting r = n in (1), we get
n n! n!
Cn = = = 1.
(n – n)! n! n!
Corollary 4: Complementary combinations:
n!
n
Cn – r = (n – r)! r! = nCr
 n
Cn – r = nCr
Corollary 5: n
Cr + nCr – 1 = n + 1Cr
Proof: We have
n n! n!
Cr + nCr – 1 = +
(n – r)! r! [n – (r – 1)]! (r – 1)!

=
n! 1 + 1 
(n – r)! (r – 1)!  r n – r + 1

=
n! n – r + 1 + r
(n – r)! (r – 1)!  r(n – r + 1) 

=
n!  n+1 
(n – r)! (r – 1)! r(n – r + 1)
(n + 1)!
=
(n + 1 – r)! r!
= n + 1C r
This relation of combination is called Pascal's Rule.
Corollary 6: If C(n, r) = C(n, r '), then either r = r ' or r + r ' = n.
Proof: If C(n, r) = C(n, r '), then r = r '
Also, if C(n, r) = C(n, r ')
i.e., C(n, n – r) = C(n, r ')
then n – r = r '
 r + r ' = n.
Restricted Combinations
i. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time in which p particular objects always
occurs is n – pCr – p.
ii. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time in which p particular objects never
occur is n – pCr.
 20 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

 Illustrative Examples
Example 1. If 2nC3 : nC2 = 44 : 3, find the value of n.
Solution
Here
2n
C3 44
n =
C2 3
2n!
(2n – 3)! 3! 44
or, =
n! 3
(n – 2)! 2!
2n! (n – 2)! 2! 44
or, × =
(2n – 3)! 3! n! 3
(2n) (2n – 1) (2n – 2) (2n – 3)! (n – 2)! 2! 44
or, × =
(2n – 3)! 3 × 2! n (n – 1) (n – 2)! 3
2n(2n – 1) (2n – 2) 44
or, =
3n(n – 1) 3
4(2n – 1) 44
or, =
3 3
or, 2n – 1 = 11
 n = 6.
Example 2. How many committees of 5 members each can be formed from 8 officials and 4 non-
official members in the following cases:
a. each consists of 3 officials and 2 non-official members?
b. each contains at least two non-official members?
Solution
a. In this question we have only to form committees; we are not concerned with the
arrangement of official or non official members.
Out of 8 official members, 3 can be selected in 8C3 ways and out of 4 non official
members 2 can be chosen in 4C2 ways
Hence the total number of committees = 8C3 × 4C2
8! 4!
= ×
(8 – 3)! 3! (4 – 2)! 2!
876 43
= ×
321 22
= 56 × 3 = 168.
b. Since at least two non-official members must be included, so the committees of 5
can be formed as;
2 non-official, 3 official; 3 non-official, 2 official; 4 non-official, 1 official
Hence the total number of committees = 8C3 × 4C2 + 8C2 × 4C3 + 8C1 × 4C4
= 56 × 6 + 28 × 4 + 8 × 1
= 336 + 112 + 8
= 456.
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 21

Example 3. From 6 gentlemen and 4 ladies a committee of 5 is to be formed. In how many ways
can this be done so as to include at least one lady?
Solution
The selection can be made as follows:
Gentlemen (6) Ladies (4) No. of selection
6
4 1 C4 × 4C1 = 60
6
3 2 C3 × 4C2 = 120
6
2 3 C2 × 4C3 = 60
6
1 4 C1 × 4C4 = 6
Then by basic principle of addition, the total number of ways
= 60 + 120 + 60 + 6
= 246.
Example 4. If there are 12 persons in a party, and if each two of them shake hands with each other,
how many hand shakes happen in the party?
Solution
The total number of handshakes is the same as the number of ways of selecting 2
persons from among 12 persons.
Therefore, the number of ways = 12C2
12!
=
(12 – 2)! 2!
12 × 11
=
2
= 66.
Note: When two persons shake hands, it is counted as one handshake, not two.
Therefore this is a problem of combination, not permutations.
Example 5. A student has to answer 10 questions, choosing at least 4 from each of group A and
group B. If there are 6 questions in group A and 7 in group B, in how many ways can
the student choose 10 questions?
Solution
The possibilities of choosing the questions are :
4 from group A and 6 from group B or 5 from group A and 5 from group B or 6 from
group A and 4 from group B.
Therefore the required number of ways = 6C4 × 7C6 + 6C5 × 7C5 + 6C6 × 7C4
6! 7! 6! 7! 6! 7!
= × + × + ×
2! 4! 1! 6! 1! 5! 2! 5! 6! 3! 4!
= 105 + 126 + 35
= 266.
 22 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

Example 6. In a certain election, there are 3 candidates for president, 5 for secretary and only 2 for
the treasurer. Find how many ways the election may turn out.
Solution
3!
The number of choices for the president = 3C1 = =3
(3 – 1)! 1!
5!
The number of choices for secretary = 5C1 = =5
4! 1!
2!
and the number of choices for treasurer is 2C1 = = 2
1!
Therefore, the total number of ways is 3 × 5 × 2 = 30.
Example 7. Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words can be formed, each containing 3
consonants and 2 vowels?
Solution
3 consonants can be chosen from 7 in 7C3 ways
2 vowels can be chosen from 4 in 4C2 ways
7C
The total number of groups of 5 letters that can be formed in × 4C2 3
7×6×5 4×3
= ×
1×2×3 1×2
= 210 ways
But 5 letters in each group can be arranged among themselves giving 5! different
words
The total number of words that can be formed are 210 × 5! = 210 × 120
= 25200.
Example 8. In how many ways 3 letters can be selected from the letters of the word PROPORTION
such that
a. all three letters are different?
b. two letters are alike and one is different?
c. all three letters are alike?
Solution
In the PROPORTION, we have the letters PP, RR, OOO, T, I, N.
6!
a. The number of ways of selection of 3 different letters = 6C3 = = 20
3! 3!
b. The number of ways of selection of 2 alike letters = 3C1 [PP or RR or OO]
The number of ways of selection of 1 different letter = 5C1
Total number of selection of 2 alike and 1 different letters = 3C1 × 5C1 = 15
c. The number of ways of selection of 3 alike letters = 1C1 [OOO]
=1
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 23

 Exercise 1.3
1. a. Find the value of rC4, if 16Cr = 16Cr + 2.

n n
b. If C8 = C4, find the value of n.
c. If nPr = 336 and nCr = 56, find n and r.
d. If nCr – 1 : nCr : nCr + 1 = 2 : 3 : 4; find n and r.
2. In an examination paper containing 10 questions, a candidate has to answer 7 questions only, in
how many ways can he choose the questions?
3. A committee is to be chosen from 12 men and 8 women and is to consist of 3 men and 2
women. How many committees can be formed?
4. A person has got 12 acquaintances of whom 8 are relatives. In how many ways can he invite 7
guests so that 5 of them are relatives?
5. In a group of 15 boys, there are 6 boy scouts. In how many ways can 12 boys be selected so as
to include at least 4 boy scouts?
6. From 10 persons in how many ways can a selection of 4 be made (a) when one particular
person is always included and (b) when 2 particular persons are always excluded.
7. In how many ways can a football team of 11 players be selected from 16 players? How many of
these will
a. include 2 particular players?
b. exclude 2 particular players?
8. A committee of 5 is to be selected from amongst 6 boys and 5 girls. Determine the number of
ways of selecting the committee if it is to consists of at least one boy and one girl.
9. An examination paper containing 12 questions consists of two parts, A and B. Part A contains 7
questions and part B contains 5 questions. A candidate is required to attempt 8 questions,
selecting at least 3 from each part. In how many ways can the candidate select the questions?
10. A man has 6 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more to a party?
11. In an examination, a candidate has to pass in each of the 5 subjects. In how many ways can he
fail?
12. A committee of 5 is to be formed out of 6 gents and 4 ladies. In how many ways this can be
done when
a. at least two ladies are included?
b. at most two ladies are included?
13. A man has 7 relatives, 4 of them are ladies and 3 gentlemen, his wife has 7 relatives and 3 of
them are ladies and 4 gentlemen. In how many ways can they invite a dinner party of 3 ladies
and 3 gentlemen so that there are 3 of man's relatives and 3 of wife's relatives?
 24 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

Hint:
i. 3 gents from husband's sides and 3 ladies from wife's side 3C3 × 3C3 = 1
ii. 3 ladies from husbands sides and 3 gents from wife's side 4C3 × 4C3 = 16
iii. One lady and 2 gents from husband's side and 3 ladies and one gent from wife side
(4C1 × 3C2) × (3C2 × 4C2) = 144
iv. 2 ladies and 1 gent from husband's side and one lady and 2 gents from wife's side
4
C2 × 3C1 × 3C1 × 4C2 = 324
 Required no. = 1 + 16 + 144 + 324 = 485
14. From 6 students and 2 teachers, a committee of 5 is to be formed. In how many ways can this
be done so as to include (a) at least one teacher (b) at most one teacher?
15. In how many ways 4 letters from the word COLLEGE be selected such that
a. all 4 letters are distinct?
b. 2 letters are alike and 2 letters are distinct?

Answers
1. a. 35 b. 12 c. 8, 3 d. 34, 14
2. 120 3. 6160 4. 336 5. 435
6. a. 84 b. 70
7. 4386 a. 2002 b. 364
8. 455 9. 420 10. 63 11. 31
12. a. 186 b. 186
13. 485
14. a. 50 b. 36
15. a. 5 b. 12

 Multiple Choice Questions

1. If C(18, r) = C(18, r + 2), then the value of r is
a. 2 b. 4
c. 8 d. 18
2. How many committees of 3 men and 2 women can be formed from 12 mean and 8 women?
a. 6160 b. 220
c. 28 d. 3080
3. A college has 10 basketball players. A 5 members team and a captain will be selected out of
these 10 players. How many different selections can be made?
a. 210 b. 1260
c. C(10, 6)  6! d. C(10, 5)  6
 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 25

4. In a football championship, every team played a match with other. If 18 teams are participating
in the championship, how many match will be played?
a. 170 b. 36
c. 153 d. 306
5. A person has 4 friends. In how many ways can he invited one or more friends for a party?
a. 4 b. 8
c. 12 d. 15
6. If P(n, r) = 360 and C(n, r) = 15. What is the value of r?
a. 2 b. 4
c. 8 d. 12
7. The number of combination of n objects taken r at a time in which p particular objects never
occur is
a. C(n – p, r) b. C(n, r)
c. C(n, p – r) d. C(n – p, r – p)
8. There are 10 true-false questions. The number of ways in which they can be answered is:
a. 10! b. 10
c. 102 d. 210
9. Everybody in a room shakes hand with every body else. The total number of hand-shakes is 66.
The number of persons in the room is
a. 11 b. 12
c. 13 d. 14
10. How many committees of 5 members can be formed from 6 gentlemen and 4 ladies?
a. C(6, 5) b. P(10, 5)
c. 252 d. 120
11. The number of ways in which a student can choose 5 courses out of 8 courses, when two
courses are compulsory is
a. P(6, 3) b. 63
c. 36 d. C(6, 3)
12. If C(n, r – 1) = 10, C(n, r) = 45, and C(n, r + 1) = 120, then r is equal to
a. 1 b. 2
c. 3 d. 4
13. If a polygon has 44 diagonals, then the number of its sides are:
a. 7 b. 8
c. 10 d. 11
14. A student is to answer 10 out of 13 questions in an examination such that he must choose at
least 4 from the first five questions. The number of choices available to him is
a. 140 b. 196
c. 280 d. 346
 26 FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS

15. If P(n, r) = C(n, r), then

a. n=r b. r = 0 or 1
c. r = 1 or n d. r = 0 or n

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c a b c d b a d b c
11 12 13 14 15
d b d b b

 Miscellaneous Exercise
1. In how many ways can the letters of the word 'NEPAL' be arranged in a row, if repetition is
allowed?
2. It has been decided that the flag of a newly formed club will be in the form of three blocks,
each coloured differently. If there are six different colours on the whole to choose from, how
many designs are possible?
3. Show that
a. n
Pr = n  n – 1Pr – 1 = (n – r + 1) nPr – 1
b. 1P
1 + 2  2P2 + 3  3P3 +    + n  nPn = n + 1Pn + 1 – 1
c. (2n)! = n! 2n {1  3  5    (2n – 1)}
4. Prove the following
a. n C (n – 1, r – 1) = (n – r + 1) C(n, r – 1) for all 1  r  n.
n
b. Cr + 2n Cr – 1 + nCr – 2 = n + 2Cr.

Answers
1. 3125 2. 120



 Permutation and Combination UNIT 1 27


1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Fundamental Principles of Counting ........................................................... 1
 Illustrative Examples ................................................................................ 3
 Exercise 1.1 .............................................................................................. 6
 Multiple Choice Questions ....................................................................... 6
1.3 Factorial Notation ........................................................................................ 7
1.4 Permutation ................................................................................................. 8
 Illustrative Examples .............................................................................. 11
 Exercise 1.2 ............................................................................................ 15
 Multiple Choice Questions ..................................................................... 16
1.5 Combination .............................................................................................. 17
 Illustrative Examples .............................................................................. 20
 Exercise 1.3 ............................................................................................ 23
 Multiple Choice Questions ..................................................................... 24
 Miscellaneous Exercise .......................................................................... 26