Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37

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Review

Harmonics in rotating machines

George J. Wakileh
College of Science and Engineering, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101, USA

Abstract

This paper provides a discussion of harmonics in rotating machines. The impacts of harmonics on rotating machines are
examined. Formulae for the induced emf, pitch factor and distribution factor are extended to include the effect of harmonics, thus
allowing the computation of voltage total harmonic distortion. Methods for reducing harmonics in rotating machines are discussed.
Numerical examples are provided to show the effect of winding distribution and chording on the phase voltage waveform. The
advantage of using distributed and chorded windings to reduce harmonics is demonstrated.
# 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Harmonic distortion; Power systems; Rotating machines; Chorded (fractional-pitch) windings; Distributed windings; Damper windings;
Resonance; Negative sequence currents

1. Introduction 2. Thermal losses in a harmonic environment

Rotating machines are considered sources of harmo- Harmonics have the effect of increasing equipment
nics because [1,2] the windings are embedded in slots copper, iron and dielectric losses and thus the thermal
which can never be exactly sinusoidally distributed so stress. Equipment derating [1] becomes a preventive
that the mmf is distorted. However, and as will be seen requirement in this case.
later, coil spanning in three-phase machines is used to
reduce fifth and seventh harmonics. Moreover, large 2.1. Copper losses
generators are usually connected to power grids through
delta-connected transformers thus blocking the flow of If skin effect is neglected, the pu increase in copper
third harmonic currents. Generally, harmonics pro- losses due to harmonics is determined by the current
duced by rotating machines are considered negligible distortion factor, alternatively the voltage distortion
compared with those produced by other sources [1]. factor; the two being equal for a pure resistance.
This paper provides a quantitative discussion of DPR PR  PR1 2
harmonics in rotating machines. The impacts are DPR pu


PR pu 1
THDI
PR1 PR1
examined. Equations for the pitch factor, distribution
factor and induced emf in the presence of harmonics are
THD2V (1)
derived. The advantages of coil/winding pitching and
distribution in reducing harmonics are discussed. Nu-
merical examples are provided. 2.2. Iron (core) losses

Iron losses are those losses taking place in an iron

core which is being magnetised by an applied excitation
or is rotating in a magnetic field. These losses consist of
hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss and result in
reducing the effciency and raising the core temperature
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.J. Wakileh). thus limiting the output.
0378-7796/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0378-7796(03)00069-5
32 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37


Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation Pe X Eh 2 X 2
Pepu


Ehpu (5c)
of an iron core, and depends on the volume and quality Pe1 h
1 E1 h
1
of the used magnetic material, maximum value of the
Nomenclature used for the hysteresis loss applies here
flux density and frequency of electric current. For
correspondingly.
normal flux densities of up to 1.5 Wb/m2, and extending
Eq. (5c) shows that the increase in eddy-current loss
on [3] the hysteresis loss at the fundamental frequency is
due to harmonics exceeds that of hysteresis loss as
given by:
depicted in Eq. (3c).
Ph1
jfo Bnm1
Kh fo1n E1n (2) The total iron loss is:

where j is a constant dependent on the volume and Pi
Ph Pe (6)

material of the core; fo is the fundamental frequency of To be conservative, one should mention that the
electric current, fo
/50/60 Hz; Bm1 is the maximum above formulae for total hysteresis and eddy-current
value of rated flux density; n is an exponent dependent loss are considered approximate since they neglect
on the core material, usually 1.6; Kh is a constant; E1 is magnetic saturation [2], assuming a linear magnetic
the fundamental component of the rms generated circuit that accepts the application of superposition.
voltage per phase.
When harmonics are involved, one can, with the aid
of Eq. (2), write:

n
n
P B E 3. Effects of harmonics on rotating machines
Phh
h h
h mh
h1n h (3a)
pu
Ph1 B m1 E1
X X
n The effects of harmonics on rotating machines can be
E
Ph
Phh
Ph1 h1n h (3b) summarised as follows:
h
1 h
1 E1

 . Copper and iron losses are increased resulting in
Ph X 1n Eh n X 1n n
Phpu

h
h Ehpu (3c) heating [1,2]. Calculation of losses proceeds as in
Ph1 h
1 E1 h
1 Section 2.
. Pulsating torques [2] are produced due to the inter-
where Phh is the h th harmonic pu hysteresis loss, Phh / action of the harmonics-generated magnetic fields
pu

/Phh /Ph1; Phh is h th harmonic hysteresis loss; h is the
pu
and the fundamental. These result in a higher audible
harmonic order, h
/1 corresponds to the fundamental; noise.
Bmh is the hth harmonic maximum flux density; Eh is the
Positive sequence hth
f harmonic currents in the stator
h th harmonic rms generated voltage per phase; Ph is the
create a magnetic field rotating forward at a frequency
total hysteresis loss; Phpu is the total pu hysteresis loss,
of hf fo with respect to space. Also, negative sequence hth b
Phpu
/Ph /Ph1; Ehpu is the hth harmonic rms generated
harmonic stator currents produce a magnetic field
voltage in pu, Ehpu
/Eh /E1.
rotating backward at a frequency of hb fo in space.
Eddy-current loss is the power loss associated with the
These fields are pulsating1, which when resolved give
flow of eddy currents [4] induced in the armature core of
forward and backward components. As such, additional
a rotating machine as a result of its rotation in the
harmonics are generated. Moreover, positive (fourth,
magnetic field or in the core of a transformer as a result
seventh, tenth, thirteenth, . . .) and negative sequence
of ac excitation. Extending on the work presented in [3],
(second, fifth, eighth, eleventh, . . .) harmonic pairs give
eddy-current loss at the fundamental frequency is found
rise to pulsating fields of frequencies 3fo , 6fo , 9fo , 12fo ,
to be:
. . ., respectively. Should the natural frequency of the
Pe1
kfo2 B2m1
Ke E12 (4) generator be close to one of these frequencies, super-
synchronous resonance would prevail accompanied by
where k is a constant that depends on the core material, torsional oscillation and bending of the turbine shaft
volume and thickness of laminations, and Ke is a and rotating elements.
constant.
In the presence of harmonics, Eq. (4) can be re-
1
expressed as: A pulsating field is a standing field with an amplitude varying

2
2 with time. Any pulsating field can be resolved into two */rotating in
P eh 2 Bmh E opposite directions */fields, the amplitude of each being half of the
Peh

h
h
Eh2pu (5a) pulsating one, and which coincide in space when the pulsating field
pu
P e1 Bm1 E1
gets its maximum value. With Ff (x , t )
/Fm sin(vt/kx ) and Fb (x ,
X X
E 2 t )
/ F m sin(/ vt/ kx ), we have F (x , t )
/ Ff (x , t )/ Fb (x , t )
/
h
Pe
Peh
Pe1 (5b) 2F m sin(/ kx ) cos(vt ). At vt
/ 1808, F f (x , t )
/ F b (x , t )
/
h
1 h
1 E 1 Fm sin(kx ) and F (x , t )
/2Fm sin(kx ).
 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37 33

harmonic induced emf is:

Eh
4:44fh Nfh kwh
4:44fo NHh f1 kwh (8)
where Eh is the hth harmonic rms generated voltage per
phase; fh is the h th harmonic frequency, fh
/hfo ; fh is
the hth harmonic flux per pole per phase, fh
/Hh f1/h;
Hh is the h th harmonic flux density content in pu of the
fundamental, Hh
/Bh /B1; Bh is the h th harmonic
magnetic flux density, Wb/m2; h is the harmonic order,
h
/1 corresponds to the fundamental; kwh is the wind-
ing factor at the hth harmonic frequency.With E1 as
expressed in Eq. (7),
Eh kwh

Hh (9)
Fig. 1. The thermal limit I22t
/K , K
/5 /10. E1 kw1
so that the total rms generated voltage per phase is:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Blackburn [5] says that negative sequence currents in rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X ffi X
k 2
a generator appear as double-frequency currents in the E
2
Eh
E1 Hh wh (10)
rotor circuit causing severe overheating, melting and h
1 h
1 kw1
damage. For a negative sequence current I2 flowing for t Voltage total harmonic distortion can now be expressed
seconds, ANSI standards express the limit I22t
/K , as:
which is plotted in Fig. 1. Typical K values for very sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi

2 X
kwh 2
large generators are 5 /10. E
THDV
1
1 Hh (11)
E1 h
1 kw1

4. Harmonics generated by rotating machines

Rotating machines are considered sources of harmo- 4.2. Distributed windings

nics because the windings are embedded in slots which
are not perfectly sinusoidally distributed resulting in a Concentrated windings are those windings with all
distorted mmf [1,2]. coil sides of a certain phase concentrated [3,6 /8] in a
single slot under one pole, thus requiring deep slots.
4.1. Induced EMF Distributed windings result in a more efficient utilisation
of the armature periphery. The distribution factor is the
For an ac three-phase synchronous generator operat- ratio of the phase emf for a distributed winding to that
ing in a harmonic environment, we would first need to for a concentrated one.
provide a brief review of the induced emf, winding sin(qa=2) sin(p=2m)
distribution and coil pitching. One form of electromag- kd1

(12)
q sin(a=2) q sin(a=2)
netic induction is the generation of a voltage because of
relative motion [6] between a magnetic field and a where kd 1
/1 for a concentrated winding; q is the
current-carrying-conductor (ccc). With the ccc moving number of slots per pole per phase, q
/1 for a
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the induced emf in concentrated winding, q
/S /2pm ; a is the slot pitch
an ac three-phase synchronous generator is: in 8electrical, a
/pg ; p is the number of pole pairs; g is
E1
4:44fo Nf1 kw1 (7) the slot pitch in 8mechanical, g
/3608/S ; S is the
number of slots; m is the number of phases. For a
where E1 is the fundamental component of the rms concentrated winding;
generated voltage per phase; fo is the fundamental
frequency, fo
/50/60 Hz; N is the number of turns per S
2pm (13a)
phase; f1 is the fundamental component of the flux per 180
g
(13b)
pole per phase, Wb; kw 1 is the winding factor at the pm
fundamental frequency, kw 1
/kd 1kp 1; kd 1 is the distri- 180
bution factor at the fundamental frequency; kp 1 is the a
(13c)
m
pitch factor at the fundamental frequency.
To include the effect of harmonics, we would need to q
1 (13d)
modify the above equation for the induced emf. The h th kd1
1 (13e)
34 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37

For a three-phase machine, Eq. (12) reduces to: 4.5. Induced emf and voltage total harmonic distortion

sin(30 ) 1
kd1

(14) Eqs. (10) and (11) can now be re-written as:
q sin(a=2) 2q sin(a=2) sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
2 sin(a=2)sin(ph=6)sin(bh=2)2
As the number of slots increases, the distribution factor E
E1 Hh
decreases and has a minimum of 2/p for an infinite h
1 sin(ah=2)sin(b=2)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
number of slots. So, for a distributed winding 2/p 5/ X
2 sin(a=2)sin(ph=6)sin(bh=2)2
kd 1 B/1. THDV
1 Hh
Taking harmonics into consideration, the distribution h
1 sin(ah=2)sin(b=2)
factor would be:2 sin(x=2)
Letting Fh (x )
/ ; this reduces to:
sin(ph=6) sin(xh=2)
kdh
(15a)
q sin(ah=2) sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
Fh (a)
2
kdh 2 sin(a=2)sin(ph=6) E
E1 Hh

: (15b) h
1 Fh (b)Fh (p=3)
kd1 sin(ah=2) sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
Fh (a)
2
THDV
1 Hh
h
1 Fh (b)Fh (p=3)
4.3. Chorded (fractional-pitch) windings
Typically, with a
/68 and b
/1608, E
/1.0045E1, so
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A chorded winding is a winding whose coil sides are that THDV
(E=E1 )2 1
9:5%:/
less than a pole pitch apart, thus saving copper. The
pitch factor [3,6 /8] is the ratio of coil voltages for a
fractional-pitch winding to those for a full-pitch one.

 5. Harmonic elimination in rotating machines
b
kp1
sin B1 (16)
2 Inspection of Eqs. (8), (15b) and (17b) shows that:

where b is the coil span in 8electrical, b
/sa ; s is the coil kdh B kd1 B1
span in slots.The usefulness of winding distribution and kph B kp1 B 1
chording in reducing or eliminating harmonics will be
Eh BE1 :
touched on in Section 5.
Accounting for harmonics, the pitch factor would be: This makes it clear that, although distribution and

 chording result in reducing the fundamental component
bh
kph
sin (17a) of the induced emf, this negative effect is more than
2 outweighed when considering the purpose they were
kph sin(bh=2) intended for, namely harmonics. Obviously, they have

(17b) the advantage of reducing harmonic voltages. Recalling
kp1 sin(b=2)
that:
where h is the harmonic order.

bh
kph
sin (19)
4.4. The winding factor 2
where kph is the pitch factor at the h th harmonic; kp 1 is
In the presence of harmonics, the winding factor the pitch factor at the fundamental frequency, kp 1
/
becomes: sin(b/2) B/1; b is the coil span in 8electrical, b
/sa ; s
kwh
kdh kph is the coil span in slots, it is noticed that any one
harmonic can be completely eliminated through select-
so that: ing a coil span (fractional pitch) that results in the
kwh kdh kph 2 sin(a=2)sin(ph=6)sin(bh=2) respective pitch factor being zero.


(18)
kw1 kd1 kp1 sin(ah=2)sin(b=2)

bh 360 720
kph
sin
0 for b
or (20)
where b
/sa . 2 h h
That is to say, a coil span of 4/5 pole pitch
2
Generally, for an m-phase machine, (144 8electrical) results in eliminating the fifth harmonic.
sin(qah=2) sin(ph=2m) The third harmonic is suppressed through using a coil of
kdh

:/
q sin(ah=2) q sin(ah=2) 2/3 pole pitch (120 8electrical) span. Furthermore, a coil
 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37 35

span of 5/6 pole pitch (150 8electrical) greatly reduces Hh f1

fh

fifth and seventh harmonics (kp 5
/kp 7
/0.2588). h
Finally, damper (squirrel-cage) windings, consisting
of copper bars that are short-circuited at both ends, are Eh
4:44fh Nfh kwh
4:44fo NHh f1 kwh ;
introduced into the pole shoes [7] of rotating machines
to, as the name implies and among other functions, harmonic components for the phase and line voltages
damp the effect of backward mmf. Bearing in mind that are presented in Table 1. The phase voltage is plotted in
harmonic-generated fields interact with the rotor field of Fig. 2. Phase and line-to-line values of the rms generated
rotating machines to produce a pulsating field, this voltage are calculated next. Voltage total harmonic
pulsating field can be thought of as the combination of distortion is found to be 9.508%.
two fields rotating in the forward and backward
directions. The backward component does not contri- rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
2
Ephase
Eph
4:154 kV
bute to energy transfer but produces double-frequency
h
1
eddy-currents in the pole shoes. Eddy-currents flowing
in the damper winding set-up a flux that, by Lenz’s law, rX
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
counterbalances the backward field thus keeping it at a Eline
El2
7:164 kV
h
1
low level.
To illustrate the discussion, consider a three-phase, 4-
pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with
120 stator slots and 11 conductors/slot. Coil span is 8/9
pole pitch. The fundamental flux is 0.09 Wb/pole with
the third, fifth and seventh harmonic components 5.1. The advantages of chorded windings
having amplitudes of 16, 10 and 4% that of the
fundamental. Next we will calculate the rms harmonic Let’s now rework our example with full-pitched coils.
components for the phase and line voltages. What effect does this have on the voltage magnitude and
The number of slots per pole per phase is: waveform?
With no chording, b
/1808, kp
/1.0, kw
/kd and the
S 120
q


10 slots=pole=phase phase voltage is plotted in Fig. 3. The results show that,
2pm 4 × 3 although chording (fractional pitching) reduces the
The number of turns per phase is: fundamental component of the induced emf, yet it has
the advantage of reducing harmonic voltages thus
120 slots 11 conductors turn resulting in an improved voltage waveform.
N

3 phase slot 2 conductors Harmonic components for the phase and line voltages
are presented in Table 2. Phase and line-to-line values of

220 turns=phase
the rms generated voltage are calculated next. Voltage
The slot pitch in 8mechanical is: total harmonic distortion is calculated to be 10.911%.
360 360 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
g


3 Ephase
Eph 2

4:224 kV
S 120
h
1

The slot pitch in 8electrical is: rX

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a
pg
2 × 3
6  Eline
El2
7:275 kV
h
1
The coil span in 8electrical is:
8 8 Table 1
b
tp
180
160 Synchronous generator emf, chorded and distributed coils
9 9
h
/1 h
/3 h
/5 h
/7
With the distribution factor, pitch factor, winding
factor, flux and emf given by: Hh 1 0.16 0.1 0.04
kdh 0.9554 0.6392 0.1932 /0.1395
sin(qah=2) kph 0.9848 /0.866 0.6428 /0.342
kdh
kwh 0.9409 /0.5536 0.1242 0.0477
q sin(ah=2)
fh (Wb) 0.09 0.0048 0.0018 0.000514

 Eph (V) 4135.6 /389.4 54.58 8.39
bh
kph
sin Eph (%) 100 /9.414 1.32 0.203
2 El (V) 7163.1 0 94.54 14.53
kwh
kdh kph THDV
/9.508%.
36 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37

Fig. 2. Phase voltage waveform, chorded and distributed coils. Fig. 4. Phase voltage waveform, concentrated windings.

The number of slots per pole per phase is:

S
q

1 slot=pole=phase
2pm
The number of turns per phase is:
120 slots 110 conductors turn
N

3 phase slot 2 conductors

220 turns=phase
The slot pitch in 8mechanical is:
360 360
g


30
Fig. 3. Phase voltage waveform, full-pitched coils.
S 12
The slot pitch in 8electrical is:
Table 2 a
pg
2 × 30
60
Synchronous generator emf, no chording
The coil span in 8electrical is:
h
/1 h
/3 h
/5 h
/7
8 8
Hh 1 0.16 0.10 0.04
b
tp
180
160
9 9
kwh 0.9554 0.6392 0.1932 /0.1395
fh (Wb) 0.09 0.0048 0.0018 0.000514 The distribution factor, the pitch factor, the winding
Eph (V) 4199.41 449.58 84.92 /24.53
factor and the flux per pole per phase are as given
Eph (%) 100 10.706 2.022 /0.584
El (V) 7273.59 0 147.08 /42.49 before. With:
Eh
4:44fh Nfh kwh
4:44fo NHh f1 kwh ;
THDV
/10.911%.
harmonic components for the phase and line voltages
5.2. The advantages of distributed windings are presented in Table 3. Phase and line-to-line values of
the rms generated voltage are calculated next. Voltage
Let’s now rework our example with concentrated
windings and 110 conductors/slot. What effect does this Table 3
have on the voltage magnitude and waveform? Synchronous generator emf, concentrated windings
With no distribution, kdh
/1 and the phase voltage is h
/1 h
/3 h
/5 h
/7
plotted in Fig. 4. The results show that, although
distribution reduces the fundamental component of the Hh 1 0.16 0.1 0.04
induced emf, yet it has the advantage of reducing kdh 1 1 1 1
kwh
/kph 0.9848 /0.866 0.6428 /0.342
harmonic voltages thus resulting in an improved voltage fh (Wb) 0.09 0.0048 0.0018 0.000514
waveform. Eph (V) 4328.82 /609.07 282.54 /60.14
The number of slots is: Eph (%) 100 /14.504 6.728 /1.432
El (V) 7497.74 0 489.38 /104.16
S
2pm
12 slots THDV
/16.052%.
 G.J. Wakileh / Electric Power Systems Research 66 (2003) 31 /37 37

Table 4
Synchronous generator, emf, concentrated and full-pitched windings

h
/1 h
/3 h
/5 h
/7

Hh 1 0.16 0.10 0.04

kwh 1 1 1 1
fh (Wb) 0.09 0.0048 0.0018 0.000514
Eph (V) 4395.6 703.30 439.56 175.82
Eph (%) 100 16 10 4
El (V) 7613.40 0 761.34 304.54

THDV
/19.287%.

6. Conclusions
Fig. 5. Phase voltage waveform, concentrated and full-pitched wind-
ings.
In synchronous machines, although distribution and
chording (fractional pitching) reduce the fundamental
total harmonic distortion is calculated to be 16.052%. component of the induced emf, yet they have the
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
Ephase
Eph 2

4:381 kV advantage of reducing harmonic voltages thus resulting
h
1
in an improved voltage waveform.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X ffi A coil span chosen to give a pitch factor of zero at a
Eline
El2
7:514 kV certain harmonic results in the complete suppression of
h
1 that harmonic. Moreover, damper windings introduced
into the pole shoes of synchronous machines have the
effect of reducing the severeness of pulsating fields.

5.3. The advantages of chording and distribution

References
Let’s finally rework our example with concentrated
[1] W.M. Grady, W.H. Kersting, D. Osborn, N.R. Prasad, S.O.
and full-pitched windings and 110 conductors/slot. Ranade, H.A. Smolleck, Power Factor Correction and Power
What effect does this have on the voltage magnitude System Harmonics, Spring Short Course Series on Electric Power
and waveform? Systems and Harmonics, a short course held at the Department of
With no distribution or chording, kwh
/kph
/kdh
/1 Electrical and Computer Engineering, New Mexico State Uni-
and the phase voltage is plotted in Fig. 5. Again, versity, 15 /18 March 1993.
[2] IEEE Working Group on Power System Harmonics, Power System
although distribution and chording reduce the funda- Harmonics, IEEE Power Engineering Society Tutorial Course, 84
mental component of the induced emf, yet they have the EHO 221-2-PWR.
advantage of reducing harmonic voltages thus resulting [3] G.J. Wakileh, Power Systems Harmonics-Fundamentals, Analysis
in an improved voltage waveform. and Filter Design, Springer, Berlin, New York, 2001.
Harmonic components for the phase and line voltages [4] B.L. Theraja, A.K. Theraja, A Text-Book of Electrical Technol-
ogy, 22nd ed, Publication Division of Nirja Construction &
are presented in Table 4. Phase and line-to-line values of Development Co. Ltd, Ram Nagar, New Delhi, 1989.
the rms generated voltage are calculated next. Voltage [5] J.L. Blackburn, Protective Relaying, Marcel Dekker, New York,
total harmonic distortion is calculated as 19.287%. 1987.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X [6] I.L. Kosow, Electric Machinery and Transformers, Prentice Hall,
2
Ephase
Eph
4:477 kV Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972.
h
1 [7] J. Hindmarsh, Electrical Machines and Their Applications, fourth
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X ffi ed, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1984.
Eline
El2
7:657 kV [8] M.G. Say, Alternating Current Machines, fifth ed, Wiley, New
h
1 York, 1983.