MACHINING

What is machining and what types of machining do you

know?
•The broad term used to describe removal of materials from a workpiece.
Covers Cutting and Abrasive (Grinding) and Advanced processes.
• Cutting process to produce a wide variety of shapes.
• Two main categories: Conventional and Non-conventional.
• Conventional machining: Turning, Facing, Boring, Drilling, Milling,
Planing, shaping, Grinding, Parting, Threading, Knurling, Broaching
and Sawing.
• Non-conventional machining: Chemical, Electrochemical, Electric-
Discharge, Laser beam, Water-Jet, Abrasive-Jet, Ultrasonic,
Nanofabrication and Micromachining.
Fundamentals of cutting
The major independent variables in the cutting process are:
• Tool material, coating and tool condition.
• Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness.
• Workpiece material, condition, and temperature.
• Cutting parameters, such as speed, feed and depth of cut.
• Cutting fluids.
• The characteristics of the machine tool, such as its stiffness and damping.
• Workholding and fixturing.

Dependent variables (influenced by changes in the independent ones):

• Type of chip produced.
• Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process.
• Temperature rise in the workpiece, the chip and the tool.
• Wear failure of the tool.
• Surface finish produced on the workpiece after machining.
Single Point Cutting

Processes characterised by single point tools which have one major

cutting edge ending in a corner which leads to the minor cutting edge or
flank.
Tool Geometry: Single point cutting can be carried out on
almost any material whose hardness is less
- Back rake angle (bα) than that of the cutting tool material. Economic
– Side rake angle (sα) machining of a material depends on many
factors: hardness of material, hardness and
– End relief angle (ERA) toughness of the cutting tool, design of cutting
– Side relief angle (SRA) tool, cutting fluid, metal removal rate, surface
finish, tolerance and speed.
– Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)
– Nose radius Important note:
– End cutting edge angle (ECEA) Read more about rake, clearance
and wedge angles.
Single Point Cutting (Rake Angles)
It can be positive or negative
– Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited
deflection of work, tool holder, and machine.
– Negative = typically used to machine harder
metals-heavy cuts.

Small to medium rake angles cause:

–high compression
–high tool forces
–high friction
–result = Thick—highly deformed—hot chips
 • Larger positive rake angles
– Reduce compression and less
chance of a discontinuous chip
– Reduce forces
– Reduce friction
– Result = A thinner, less deformed,
and cooler chip.

• Problems….as we increase the angle:

– Reduce strength of tool
– Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat away from the
cutting edge.
– To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to conduct
heat better, in some tools, zero to negative rake angles are
used.
Negative Rake Tools

The negative rake angles

transfer the cutting forces to
the tool which help to provide
added support to the cutting
edge.
 Positive vs. Negative Rake Angles
• Positive rake angles • Negative rake angles
– Reduced cutting forces – Initial shock of work to tool
is on the face of the tool and
– Smaller deflection of work, tool
not on the point or edge.
holder, and machine
This prolongs the life of the
– Considered by some to be the most tool.
efficient way to cut metal
– Higher cutting speeds/feeds
– Creates large shear angle, reduced can be employed
friction and heat
– Allows chip to move freely up the
chip-tool zone
– Generally used for continuous cuts on
ductile materials which are not too
hard or brittle
Conventional machining
Single Point Cutting
•Turning: means that the part is rotating while it is being machined. It can
produce straight, conical, curved or grooved work pieces such as shafts,
spindles and pins.

•Facing: to produce a flat surface at the end of the part.

•Boring: to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous process
or to produce circular internal grooves.

•Planing/Shaping: mainly for roughing and finishing flat surfaces.

Shapers used for smaller components than planers.
Single point cutting
 Multipoint Cutting (translational)
Processes characterised by cutting tools which have more than one major
cutting edge of a well defined geometry, and which have translational
movement.
Conventional machining
Multipoint Cutting (translational)
•Broaching: vertical or horizontal machining process which pushes or
pulls a specially shaped tool (the broach) trough the workpiece. A wide
range of shapes can be produced such holes, slots, keyways, splines,...etc.
Metal removal rate is high since both roughing and finishing is usually
performed in a single pass. A wide range of ferrous and ferrous materials
can be cut, special broaches are used for very hard materials. Broaching is
frequently used as an alternative to milling.

•Bandsawing: a continuous cutting action, almost unrestricted

machining geometry, blades holds sharpness longer, less power, less
material waste and simple fixturing. Flood or mist cooling. Almost no limit
to the materials which can be cut depending on the blade. Also there is no
limit on geometry of part.
 Multipoint Cutting (rotational)
Process characterised by cutting tools which have more than one major
cutting edge of well defined geometry.
Conventional machining
Multipoint Cutting (rotational)
•Drilling: To produce a hole which may be followed by boring to improve
its accuracy and surface finish. Drill materials vary; the most common
being high speed steel and cobalt high speed steel. For high production
rates and special application; carbide-diamond drills are used. Almost any
material can be drilled the only limitation being the hardness of the drill.

•Milling: Very versatile process to produce a variety of shapes using

machines with multiple cutting edges. Each edge takes its share of the
cutting as the work piece is fed past them. Shapes involving contours, flat
surfaces and slots may be produced. For a material to be milled, its
hardness has to be less than the milling cutter and should have minimum
ductility. Non-metallic materials can be milled provided they are not too soft
or do not contain very hard second phases.
Grinding - Principles
Mainly used for finishing cylindrical or flat surfaces, although may also be
used for rouging and profiling, where it can replace turning, milling and
planing. The cutting is achieved through a micro-machining process where
the abrasive particles act as many individual cutting tools. This provides a self
sharpening tool as particles are torn from the wheel when they become blunt.

1. Selection of grinding wheel is essential 1. Ferrous, non-ferrous, polymers

for all applications. Cubic boron nitride and ceramics are ground as
and diamond are two of the most long as workpiece is softer than
common cutting media used in the abrasive grit.
grinding wheels. 2. High ductility metals have a
2. Speeds for most grinding operations is tendency to clog the grinding
30-35 m/s. wheels (requires dressing).

3. For high speed grinding (100 m/s), 3. For hard materials, a soft grade,
machines can be used. fine-grained wheel should be
used, whereas for softer metals
a harder grain and coarse-
grained wheel should be used.
Thread Grinding
Two thread grinding methods:
i) Traverse grinding - Traverse can be used to finish course threads or
produce fine threads from solid.

ii) Plunge grinding. The wheel enters work to full depth then work is rotated 1 full turn
while grinding form traverses 1 thread pitch.
Two methods of producing thread form in the wheel:
Pressing (crushed) or cut using diamond tool.

Centreless Grinding
Used for the production of cylindrical and multi-diameter workpieces. It is used
particularly for work which cannot be held between centres. There are several
types and all have three basic elements: Grinding wheel, Control wheel and
work rest blade or support. It can be internal or external.
 Temperature in Cutting
The energy dissipated in cutting operations is converted into heat, which in
turn, raises the temperature in the cutting zone. Having some knowledge
about that is important for the following:
1. Excessive temperature adversely affects the strength, hardness, and wear
resistance of the cutting tool.
2. Increased heat causes dimensional changes in the part being machined,
making it difficult to control dimensional accuracy.
3. Heat can induce thermal damage to the machined surface, adversely
affecting its properties.
4. The machine tool itself may be subjected to elevated and uneven
temperatures, causing distortion of the machine and poor dimensional
control of the workpiece.
Cutting temperatures increases with the strength of the workpiece material,
with the cutting speed and the depth of cutting. They decrease with thermal
conductivity of the workpiece material.
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Cutting tools are subject to : 1. High localised stresses. 2. Sliding of the chip
along the rake face. 3. Sliding of the tool along the freshly cut surface. 4. High
temperatures.
These conditions induce tool wear which will affect the tool life, the quality of
the machined surface, accuracy and the economics of cutting.
Tool Wear: Should be a gradual process, much like the wear of the tip of an
ordinary pencil.
Cutting fluids: Friction, heat build up and consequently tool wear are reduced
by the use of cutting fluids (oil or water based are most common).
There are two types of wear, corresponding to two regions in the tool:
Flank wear : Occurs on the relief face of the tool and is attributed to: 1.
Rubbing the tool along the surface (adhesive wear) and 2. High temperature.
Crater wear: Occurs on the rake face of the tool (changes the geometry and in
turn the cutting process). Factors affecting it are: high temperature and
chemical affinity between tool and workpiece materials.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure

Chipping: The breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge
of the tool. It is similar to breaking the tip of a sharp pencil. If the
chipped piece is very small, it is called micro/macro chipping. If
relatively large, it is called gross chipping or fracture.
Unlike wear, chipping is not a gradual process. It results in a
sudden loss of tool material and a change in shape which will affect
the cutting process.
Two main causes of chipping are: Mechanical shock and thermal
fatigue.
 Various cutting-tool materials with a wide range of mechanical,
physical, and chemical properties are available:

1. Carbon and medium-alloy steels. 2. High-speed steels.

3. Cobalt alloys. 4. Carbides. 5. Coated tools.
6. Alumina-based ceramics. 7.Cubic boron nitride.
8. Silicon-nitride-base ceramics. 9. Diamond.
10. Whisker-reinforced materials.
Operating characteristics of tool materials
1. High Speed Steels:
General characteristics: High toughness, resistance to fracture, wide
range of roughing and finishing, good for interrupted cuts.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Flank wear, crater wear.
Limitations: Low hot hardness, limited hardenability and limited wear
resistance.
2. Uncoated carbides:
General characteristics: High hardness over a wide range of
temperatures, toughness, wear resistance, versatile and wide range of
applications.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Flank wear, crater wear.
Limitations: Cannot use at low speed because of cold welding of chips
and microchipping.
Operating characteristics of tool materials…cont
3. Coated carbide:
General characteristics: Improved wear resistance over uncoated
carbides, better frictional and thermal properties.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Flank wear, crater wear.
Limitations: Cannot use at low speed because of cold welding of chips and
microchipping.
4. Ceramics:
General characteristics: High hardness at elevated temperatures, high
abrasive wear resistance.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Depth-of-cut line notching, microchipping,
gross fracture.
Limitations: Low strength, low thermo-mechanical fatigue strength
Operating characteristics of tool materials…cont
5. Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride:
General characteristics: High hot hardness, toughness, cutting-edge
strength.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Depth-of-cut line notching, chipping, oxidisation.
Limitations: Low strength, low chemical stability at higher temperatures.
6. Polycrystalline diamond:
General characteristics: Hardness and toughness, abrasive wear
resistance.
Modes of tool wear/failure: Chipping, oxidisation, graphitisation.
Limitations: Low strength, low chemical stability at higher temperatures.