SUBMITEED BY: MUHAMMAD FARHAN MALIK

ROLL # BEE-09-165
CLASS: 4-B

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRIC ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
ISLAMABAD CAMPUS
 SENSORS

DEFINITION:
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by
an observer or by an instrument.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps
which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which
most people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing
and robotics.

IDEAL SENSORS:
Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple mathematical function of the
measurement, typically logarithmic. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to the
value or simple function of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between
output signal and measured property.

NON IDEAL SENSORS:

If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

 The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity
error, but the sensor is still linear.
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually
reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full
scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
 If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an
offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
 If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full
range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
 If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is a
dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity
error and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined
as drift (telecommunication).
 Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long
period of time.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
  Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there
is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one
direction than in the other.
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a
dynamic error, or if the variable or added noise noise changes periodically at a frequency
near a multiple of the sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors
can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a
random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of
the dynamic behavior of the sensor.

RESOLUTION:

The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is measuring.
Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that
magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects
an electron tunneling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

TYPES OF SENSORS
Metal detector
A metal detector is a device which responds to metal that may not be readily apparent.

The simplest form of a metal detector consists of an oscillator producing an alternating current that
passes through a coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically conductive metal is
close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced in the metal, and this produces an alternating magnetic
field of its own. If another coil is used to measure the magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the
change in the magnetic field due to the metallic object can be detected.

The first industrial metal detectors were developed in the 1960s and were used extensively for mining and
other industrial applications. Uses include de-mining (the detection of land mines), the detection of
weapons such as knives and guns, especially in airport security, geophysical prospecting, archaeology
and treasure hunting. Metal detectors are also used to detect foreign bodies in food, and in the
construction to detect steel reinforcing bars in concrete and pipes and wires buried in walls and floors

HYDROPHONE:
A (Greek "hydro" = "water" and "phone" = "sound") is a microphone designed to be used underwater for
recording or listening to underwater sound. Most hydrophones are based on a piezoelectric transducer that
generates electricity when subjected to a pressure change. Such piezoelectric materials, or transducers can
convert a sound signal into an electrical signal since sound is a pressure wave. Some transducers can also
serve as a projector (emitter), but not all have this capability, and may be destroyed if used in such a
manner.

GEOPHONE:
A geophone is a device which converts ground movement (displacement) into voltage, which may be
recorded at a recording station. The deviation of this measured voltage from the base line is called the
seismic response and is analyzed for structure of the earth
MAGNETIC ANOMALY DETECTOR:
A magnetic anomaly detector (MAD) is an instrument used to detect minute variations in the Earth's
magnetic field. The term refers specifically to magnetometers used by military forces to detect
submarines (a mass of ferromagnetic material creates a detectable disturbance in the magnetic field); the
military MAD gear is a descendent of geomagnetic survey instruments used to search for minerals by the
disturbance of the normal earth-field.

The SH-60B Seahawk helicopter carries a yellow and red towed MAD array known as a ‘MAD bird’, seen on the aft fuselage.

Radio direction finder

A radio direction finder (RDF) is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due to radio's ability
to travel very long distances and "over the horizon", it makes a particularly goodnavigation system for
ships, small boats, and aircraft that might be some distance from their destination (see Radio navigation).
PYRANOMETER:

A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used to measure broadband solar irradiance on a planar

surface and is a sensor that is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (in watts per
metre square) from a field of view of 180 degrees. The name pyranometer stems from Greek,
"pyr - πῦρ" meaning "fire" and "ano - ἄνω" meaning "above, sky".

A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate.

a solar radiation sensor that can be applied in scientific grade solar radiation observations. It complies with the "first class"
specifications within the latest ISO and WMO standards. The scientific name of this instrument is pyranometer.

ANEMOMETER:
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station
instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, meaning wind. The first known
description of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450. They are also
very easy to make as a project.

Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed, and those
that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close connection between the pressure and the
speed, an anemometer designed for one will give information about both.

A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 1846 by John Thomas Romney Robinson

NEUTRON DETECTION:

Neutron detection is the effective detection of neutrons entering a well-positioned detector.

There are two key aspects to effective neutron detection: hardware and software. Detection
hardware refers to the kind of neutron detector used (the most common today is the scintillation
detector) and to the electronics used in the detection setup. Further, the hardware setup also
defines key experimental parameters, such as source-detector distance, solid angle and detector
shielding. Detection software consists of analysis tools that perform tasks such as graphical
analysis to measure the number and energies of neutrons striking the detector.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR:

The airspeed indicator is used by the pilot during all phases of flight, from take-off, climb,
cruise, descent and landing in order to maintain airspeeds specific to the aircraft type and
operating conditions as specified in the Operating Manual.

During instrument flight, the airspeed indicator is used in addition to the Artificial horizon as an
instrument of reference for pitch control during climbs, descents and turns.

The airspeed indicator is also used in dead reckoning, where time, speed, and bearing are used
for navigation in the absence of aids such as NDBs, VORs or GPS.
 Diagram showing the face of a true airspeed indicator typical for a faster single engine aircraft

CAPACITIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS:

Capacitive displacement sensors “are non-contact devices capable of high-resolution

measurement of the position and/or change of position of any conductive target” They are also
able to measure the thickness or density of non-conductive materials Capacitive displacement
sensors are used in a wide variety of applications including semiconductor processing, assembly
of precision equipment such as disk drives, precision thickness measurements, machine tool
metrology and assembly line testing. These types of sensors can be found in machining and
manufacturing facilities around the world.

PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR:

A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is a device used to detect the distance, absence, or presence
of an object by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver. They are
used extensively in industrial manufacturing. There are three different functional types: opposed
(a.k.a. through beam), retro reflective, and proximity-sensing (a.k.a. diffused).

PROXIMITY SENSOR:

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field, or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor requires a metal
target.

PRESSURE SENSOR:

A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of

the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit
area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the
pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Digital air pressure sensor

NUCLEAR DENSITY GAUGE:

A nuclear density gauge is a tool used for Civil construction, Petroleum industry, mining and
archeology purposes. It consists of a radiation source that emits a directed beam of particles and
a sensor that counts the received particles that are either reflected by the test material or pass
through it. By calculating the percentage of particles that return to the sensor, the gauge can be
calibrated to measure the density and inner structure of the test material.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS:

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive thermal

devices (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical
resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of
platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly
replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C, due to higher
accuracy and repeatability.
OPTICAL TRIANGULATION SENSORS:

Optical Triangulation Sensors are commonly used to provide door mounted safety detection on
swinging automatic doors.

In North America, these types of sensors are very common and manufactured in very high
volumes. When automatic swinging doors open and close, it is important that they do not come
into contact with pedestrians passing through the door.

Sensors used in the automatic door industry typically fall into four categories:

1. Microwave Sensors used to detect motion of a person as they approach an automatic

door,
2. Reflective Optical Sensors that are mounted on the door header and detect the presence of
a person in the door path
3. Camera based sensors that are also mounted on the door header and detect presence (a
competing technology to Reflective Optical Sensors); and
4. Triangulation sensors which are mounted on the door and move with the door to provide
safety.

VISUAL SENSOR NETWORK:

A visual sensor network is a network of spatially distributed smart camera devices capable of
processing and fusing images of a scene from a variety of viewpoints into some form more
useful than the individual images. A visual sensor network may be a type of wireless sensor
network, and much of the theory and application of the latter applies to the former. The network
generally consists of the cameras themselves, which have some local image processing,
communication and storage capabilities, and possibly one or more central computers, where
image data from multiple cameras is further processed and fused (this processing may, however,
simply take place in a distributed fashion across the cameras and their local controllers). Visual
sensor networks also provide some high-level services to the user so that the large amount of
data can be distilled into information of interest using specific queries

DEFECT DETECTOR:
A defect detector is a device used on railroads to detect axle and signal problems in passing trains. The
detectors are normally integrated into the tracks and often include sensors to detect several different kinds
of problems that could occur. Defect detectors were one invention which enabled American Railroads to
eliminate the caboose at the rear of the train, as well as various station agents stationed along the route to
detect unsafe conditions. The use of defect detectors has since spread to other overseas railroads.

CURB FEELERS:

Curb feelers or curb finders are springs or wires installed on a vehicle which act as "whiskers" to
warn drivers that they are too close to the curb or other obstruction.

The devices are fitted low on the body, close to the wheels. As the vehicle approaches the curb,
the protruding 'feelers' act as whiskers and scrape against the curb, making a noise and alerting
the driver in time to avoid damaging the wheels or hubcaps. The feelers are manufactured to be
flexible and do not easily break.

Curb feeler mounted behind the front wheel of a 1950s Rambler American.
CRANK SENSOR:

A crank sensor is a component used in an internal combustion engine to monitor the position or
rotational speed of the crankshaft. This information is used by engine management systems to
control ignition system timing and other engine parameters. Before electronic crank sensors were
available, the distributor would have to be manually adjusted to a timing mark on the engine.

The crank sensor can be used in combination with a similar camshaft position sensor to monitor
the relationship between the pistons and valves in the engine, which is particularly important in
engines with variable valve timing. It is also commonly the primary source for the measurement
of engine speed in revolutions per minute.

AIR-FUEL RATIO METER:

An air-fuel ratio meter monitors the air-fuel ratio of an internal combustion engine. Also called
air-fuel ratio gauge, air-fuel meter, or air-fuel gauge. It reads the voltage output of an oxygen
sensor, sometimes also called lambda sensor, whether it be from a narrow band or wide band
oxygen sensor.

The original narrow band oxygen sensors became factory installed standard in the late 70's and
early 80's. In recent years, a newer and much more accurate 'wide band' sensor, though more
expensive, has become available.

Most stand-alone narrow band meters have 10 LEDs and some have more. Also common,
narrow band meters in round housings with the standard mounting 2 1/16" and 2 5/8" diameters,
as other types of car 'gauges'. These usually have 10 or 20 LEDs. Analogue 'needle' style gauges
are also available.

As stated above, there are wide band meters that stand alone or are mounted in housings. Nearly
all of these show the air-fuel ratio on a numeric display, since the wide band sensors provide a
much more accurate reading. And since they use more accurate electronics, these meters are
more expensive.

OXYGEN SENSOR:

An oxygen sensor, or lambda sensor, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of
oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. It was developed by the Robert Bosch GmbH
company during the late 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Günter Bauman. The original
sensing element is made with a thimble-shaped zirconia ceramic coated on both the exhaust and
reference sides with a thin layer of platinum and comes in both heated and unheated forms. The
planar-style sensor entered the market in 1998 (also pioneered by Bosch) and significantly
reduced the mass of the ceramic sensing element as well as incorporating the heater within the
ceramic structure. This resulted in a sensor that started sooner and responded faster. The most
common application is to measure the exhaust gas concentration of oxygen for internal
combustion engines in automobiles and other vehicles. Divers also use a similar device to
measure the partial pressure of oxygen in their breathing gas.

CHEMICAL FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR:

ChemFET, or chemical field-effect transistor, is a type of a field-effect transistor acting as a

chemical sensor. It is a structural analog of a MOSFET transistor, where the charge on the gate
electrode is applied by a chemical process. It may be used to detect atoms, molecules, and ions in
liquids and gases.

ISFET, an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor, is the best known subtype of ChemFET devices. It
is used to detect ions in electrolytes.

ENFET is a CHEMFET specialized for detection of specific bimolecular using enzymes.

SPEEDOMETER:

A speedometer is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a land vehicle.
Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and
as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards. Speedometers for other vehicles have specific
names and use other means of sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is
an airspeed indicator.

Parking sensors
Parking sensors are proximity sensors for road vehicles which can alert the driver to unseen obstacles
during parking man oeuvres.

The ultrasonic sensors are currently available in several brands of cars, with a variety of brand names
such as Parktronic and Parking Aid. Some systems are also available as additional upgrade kits for later
installation.

Description
Parking sensor systems use ultrasonic proximity detectors embedded in
the front and/or rear bumpers, to measure the distances to nearby
objects at low level. The sensors measure the time taken for each sound
pulse to be reflected back to the receiver.[1][2]
Depending on the speed of the vehicle and the distance to the obstacle,
the system will warn the driver by visual and/or audible means about the
risk of collision. The feedback to the driver will generally indicate the
direction and proximity of the obstacle. Warnings are deactivated when
the vehicle exceeds a certain speed, and can be switched off for
situations such as stop-and-go traffic.
[edit]Audible feedback
The most common form of feedback to the driver in a car with parking
sensors is audible "beeps" and/or tones. Generally, the frequency of the
beep indicates distance from an obstruction; with the beeps becoming
faster the closer the vehicle moves to an object. A continuous tone may
be heard when the vehicle is extremely close, often warning a driver to
stop immediately to avoid collision.
[edit]Visual feedback

Tire-pressure monitoring system

A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air

pressure inside the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles. The system is also sometimes referred
to as a tire-pressure indication system (TPIS). These systems report real-time tire-pressure information to
the driver of the vehicle, either via a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light
TPMS system dashboard icons

TPMS low pressure warning icon 

TPMS system failure icon 

Current sensor
A current sensor is a device that detects electrical current (AC or DC) in a wire, and generates a signal
proportional to it.The generated signal could be analog voltage or current or even digital output.It can be
then utilized to display the measured current in an ammeter or can be stored for further analysis in a data
acquisition system or can be utilized for control purpose

The sensed current and the output signal can be:

 AC current input,
 analog output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 bipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 unipolar output, which is proportional to the average or RMS value of the sensed current
 DC current input,
 unipolar, with a unipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 digital output, which switches when the sensed current exceeds a certain threshold

Hall Effect sensor

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to changes in magnetic
field. Hall sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a
known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the
relative position of the magnet can be deduced.

Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall
sensor can be used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is
integrated with a wound core or permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.

Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off) mode,
and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the
pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment; for example some computer
printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. When high reliability is required, they are
used in keyboards

AAll sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion
engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used inbrushless DC electric
motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally spaced
magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each revolution. This arrangement is commonly
used to regulate the speed of disc drives..