Instructor’s Manual

EE 121
Basic Electronics

B. S. Computer Science
Department of Computer Science
Hamdard Institute of Engineering and Technology
Hamdard University Islamabad Campus

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 List of Experiments

S # Title of Experiment
1 To study about the Electrical Symbols, resistor color coding and use of
multi-meter
2 Use of Equipments like, Oscilloscope, Function Generator, and Power
Supply.
3 Understanding of Breadboard and how to use Multisim software
4 To study the characteristics and approximation of Diode.
5 Study of Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers.
6 Study Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier and Effect of Capacitor input filter.
7 Study of Clipper and Clamper Circuits
8 Study of Characteristics of Zener Diode
9 Zener Regulator and Loading Effect
10 Study of LED characteristics and driver Circuits
11 BJT Testing
12 Study of Common-Emitter connection of Transistor
13 Study of Base Biasing Techniques of Transistor
14 Operation of typical Junction FET and its Transduction

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 Lab # 1
To study about the electrical symbols, resistor colour
coding, and the use of Multimeter
Electrical Symbols:

RESISTOR COLOR CODING

Resistor Colour Coding:

There are two ways to find the resistance value of a resistor. The color bands on the
body of the resistor tell how much resistance it has. As shown in the following diagrams figure
(1), there are 5-band resistors and 4-band resistors. Form both 5- and 4-band resistors, the last
band indicates tolerance in table (1). Consult with the “Resistor Tolerance” in table (2) chart
for finding the tolerance value.

Fig.( 1) 5- Band and 4- Band resistors

The first method for read resistor colors in Fig.(2)

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 Fig.(2) First method read resistor

The first litter word to represent color resistor code in table (1)

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 Table (2) Resistor Tolerance

View the resistors and based on the color bands determine its value. Below is an
example:

The first band is a one (1), the second band is a zero (0), and the multiplier band or
third band is one time text to the third power ( ) or one thousand (1000). Multiply 10 times
1000.

Another way to tell the resistance value of a resistor is to actually measure it with the
ohmmeter. The explanation of how to measure the resistance is given in the later tip.
Where:-
Rmax = R+(R * T )

Procedure
1. Measure and record twenty resistors with value of 1 Kohm.
2. Find the R max. , R min. then calculate the percentage error.
3. Repeat the steps (1,2) with resistor value of 10K ohm.
4. Repeat the steps (1,2) with resistor value of 100K ohm.

Discussion

1. Comment for your results.

2. Determine the value and tolerance of the 10 resistors as shown in the following tables
for chart fig. (3):

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6
 Fig.(3)

3. Record resistor colors gave to its value in below :

4.7 KΩ 5% , 910Ω , 12 Ω 5%, 6.8KΩ 20%

MULTIMETER

A multimeter is has three parts:

Display
Selection Knob
Ports

The display usually has four digits and the ability to

display a negative sign. A few multimeters have
illuminated displays for better viewing in low light
situations.

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The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common
and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally
black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is
the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the port
that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current
(up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a banana type connector on
the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with this meter.
This allows for different types of probes to be used.

Using a Multimeter to test the voltage on a LiPo Battery.

Probe Types
There are many different types of probes available for multimeters. Here are a few of our
favorites:
Banana to Alligator Clips : These are great cables for connecting to large wires or pins on a
breadboard. Good for performing longer term tests where you don’t have to have to hold the
probes in place while you manipulate a circuit.
Banana to IC Hook : IC hooks work well on smaller ICs and legs of ICs.
Banana to Tweezers : Tweezers are handy if you are needing to test SMD components.
Banana to Test Probes : If you ever break a probe, they are cheap to replace!

Measuring Voltage
To start, let’s measure voltage on a AA battery: Plug the black probe into COM and the red
probe into mAVΩ. Set the multimeter to “2V” in the DC (direct current) range. Almost all

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portable electronics use direct current), not alternating current. Connect the black probe to the
battery’s ground or ‘-’ and the red probe to power or ‘+’. Squeeze the probes with a little
pressure against the positive and negative terminals of the AA battery. If you’ve got a fresh
battery, you should see around 1.5V on the display (this battery is brand new, so its voltage is
slightly higher than 1.5V).
If you’re measuring DC voltage (such as a battery or a sensor hooked up to an Arduino) you
want to set the knob where the V has a straight line. AC voltage (like what comes out of the
wall) can be dangerous, so we rarely need to use the AC voltage setting (the V with a wavy line

next to it). If you’re messing with AC, we recommend you get a non-contact tester rather than
use a digital multimeter.

Use the V with a straight line to Use the V with a wavy line to measure
measure DC Voltage AC Voltage

What happens if you switch the red and black probes? The reading on the multimeter is simply
negative. Nothing bad happens! The multimeter measures voltage in relation to the common
probe. How much voltage is there on the ‘+’ of the battery
compared to common or the negative pin? 1.5V.
If we switch the probes, we define ‘+’ as the common or zero
point. How much voltage is there on the ‘-’ of the battery
compared to our new zero? -1.5V!

Now let’s construct a simple circuit to demonstrate how to measure

voltage in a real world scenario. The circuit is simply a 1kΩ and
a Blue super bright LED powered with a SparkFun Breadboard
Power Supply Stick. To begin, let’s make sure the circuit you are
working on is powered up correctly. If your project should be at
5V but is less than 4.5V or greater than 5.5V, this would quickly give you an indication that
something is wrong and you may need to check your power connections or the wiring of your
circuit.

Measuring the voltage coming off of a Power Supply Stick.

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Set the knob to “20V” in the DC range (the DC Voltage range has a V with a straight line next
to it). Multimeters are generally not autoranging. You have to set the multimeter to a range that
it can measure. For example, 2V measures voltages up to 2 volts, and 20V measures
voltages up to 20 volts. So if you’ve measuring a 12V battery, use the 20V setting. 5V system?
Use the 20V setting. If you set it incorrectly, you will probably see the meter screen change and
then read ‘1’.

With some force (imagine poking a fork into a piece of cooked meat), push the probes onto two
exposed pieces of metal. One probe should contact a GND connection. One probe to the VCC
or 5V connection.

We can test different parts of the circuit as well. This practice is called nodal analysis, and it is
a basic building block in circuit analysis. By measuring the voltage across the circuit we can
see how much voltage each component requires. Let’s measure the whole circuit first.
Measuring from where the voltage is going in to the resistor and then where ground is on the
LED, we should see the full voltage of the circuit, expected to be around 5V.

We can then see how much voltage the LED is using. This is what is referred to as the voltage
drop across the LED. If that doesn’t make sense now, fear not. It will as you explore the world
of electronics more. The important thing to take away is that different parts of a circuit can be
measured to analyze the circuit as a whole.

This LED is using 2.66V of the available 5V supply to illuminate. This is lower than the
forward voltage stated in the datasheet on account of the circuit only having small amount of
current running though it, but more on that in a bit.

Overload
What happens if you select a voltage setting that is too
low for the voltage you’re trying to measure? Nothing bad.
The meter will simply display a 1. This is the meter trying to
tell you that it is overloaded or out-of-range. Whatever you’re
trying to read is too much for that particular setting. Try changing
themultimeter knob to a the next highest setting.

Reading the 5V across this circuit is too much for the 2V setting on the multimeter.

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Selection Knob

Why does the meter knob read 20V and not 10V? If you’re looking
to measure a voltage less than 20V, you turn to the 20V setting. This
will allow you to read from 2.00 to 19.99.
The first digit on many multimeters is only able to display a ‘1’ so
the ranges are limited to 19.99 instead of 99.99. Hence the 20V max
range instead of 99V max range.

Warning! In general, stick to DC circuits (the settings on the

multimeter with straight lines, not curvy lines). Most multimeters
can measure AC (alternating current) systems, but AC circuits can
be dangerous. A wall outlet with AC or 'main voltage' is the stuff
that can zap you pretty good. VERY carefully respect AC. If you
need to check to see if an outlet is 'on' then use a AC tester. Really
the only times we've needed to measure AC are when we've got an outlet that is acting funny
(is it really at 110V?), or if we're trying to control a heater (such as a hot plate). Go slow and
double check everything before you test an AC circuit.

Measuring Resistance
Normal resistors have color codes on them. If you don’t
know what they mean, that’s ok! There are plenty of online
calculators that are easy to use. However, if you ever find
yourself without internet access, a multimeter is very handy
at measuring resistance.
Pick out a random resistor and set the multimeter to the
20kΩ setting. Then hold the probes against the resistor legs
with the same amount of pressure you when pressing a key on a
keyboard.

The meter will read one of three things, 0.00, 1, or the actual resistor value.
In this case, the meter reads 0.97, meaning this resistor has a value of 970Ω, or about 1kΩ
(remember you are in the 20kΩ or 20,000 Ohm mode so you need to move the decimal three
places to the right or 970 Ohms).

If the multimeter reads 1 or displays OL, it’s overloaded. You will need to try a higher mode
such as 200kΩ mode or 2MΩ (megaohm) mode. There is no harm if this happen, it simply
means the range knob needs to be adjusted.

If the multimeter reads 0.00 or nearly zero, then you need to lower the mode to 2kΩ or 200Ω.
Remember that many resistors have a 5% tolerance. This means that the color codes may
indicate 10,000 Ohms (10kΩ), but because of discrepancies in the manufacturing process a
10kΩ resistor could be as low as 9.5kΩ or as high as 10.5kΩ. Don’t worry, it’ll work just fine
as a pull-up or general resistor.

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Let’s drop the meter down to the next lowest setting, 2KΩ. What happens?

Not a whole lot changed. Because this resistor (a 1KΩ) is less than 2KΩ, it still shows up on
the display. However, you’ll notice that there is one more digit after the decimal point giving us
a slightly higher resolution in our reading. What about the next lowest setting?

Now, since 1kΩ is greater than 200Ω, we’ve maxed out the meter, and it is telling you that it is
overloaded and that you need to try a higher value setting.
As a rule of thumb, it’s rare to see a resistor less than 1 Ohm. Remember that measuring
resistance is not perfect. Temperature can affect the reading a lot. Also, measuring resistance of
a device while it is physically installed in a circuit can be very tricky. The surrounding
components on a circuit board can greatly affect the reading.

Measuring Current
Reading current is one of the trickiest and most insightful readings in the world of embedded
electronics. It’s tricky because you have to measure current in series. Where voltage is measure
by poking at VCC and GND (in parallel), to measure current you have to physically interrupt
the flow of current and put the meter in-line. To demonstrate this, we’ll use the same circuit we
used in the measuring voltage section.

The first thing we’ll need is an extra piece of wire. As mentioned, we’ll need to physically
interrupt the circuit to measure the current. Said another way, pull out the VCC wire going to
the resistor, add a wire where that wire was connected, and then probe from the power pin on
the power supply to the resistor. This effectively “breaks” power to the circuit. We then insert
the multimeter in-line so that it can measure the current as it “flows” through to the multimeter
into the bread board.

For these pictures, we cheated and used alligator clips. When measuring current, it’s often good
to watch what your system does over time, for a few seconds or minutes. While you might
want to stand there and hold the probes to the system, sometimes it’s easier to free up your
hands. These alligator clip probes can come in handy. Note that almost all multimeters have the

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same sized jacks (they’re called “banana plugs”) so if you’re in a pinch, you can use your
friend’s probes.

With the multimeter connected, we can now set the dial to the proper setting and measure some
current. Measuring current works the same as voltage and resistance – you have to get the
correct range. Set the multimeter to 200mA, and work from there. The current consumption for
many breadboard projects is usually under 200mA. Make sure the red probe is plugged into the
200mA fused port. On our favoritemultimeter, the 200mA hole is the same port/hole as voltage
and resistance reading (the port is labeled mAVΩ). This means you can keep the red probe in
the same port to measure current, voltage, or resistance. However, if you suspect that your
circuit will be using close to or more than 200mA, switch your probe to the 10A side, just to be
safe. Overloading the current can result in a blown fuse rather than just an overload display.
More on that in a bit.

This circuit was only pulling 1.8mA at the time of measurement, not a lot of current. The
average reading was closer to 2.1mA.

Realize that the multimeter is acting as a piece of wire – you’ve now completed the circuit, and
the circuit will power on. This is important because as time goes on the LED, microcontroller,
sensor, or whatever device being measured may change its power consumption (such as turning
on an LED can resulting in a 20mA increase for a second, then decrease for a second when it
turns off). On the multimeter display you should see the instantaneous current reading. All
multimeters take readings over time and then give you the average, so expect the reading to
fluctuate. In general, cheaper meters will average more harshly and respond more slowly, so
take each reading with a grain of salt. In your head, take an
average range such as 7 to 8mA under normal 5V conditions
(not 7.48mA).
Similar to the other measurements, when measuring current,
the color of the probes does not matter. What happens if we
switch probes? Nothing bad happens! It simply causes the
current reading to become negative:
Current is still flowing through the system, you’ve just
changed your perspective and now the meter reads negative.
Remember! When you're done using the meter, always return
the meter to read voltage (return the probes to the voltage

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port, set the meter to read the DC voltage range if necessary). It's common to grab a meter and
begin to quickly measure the voltage between two pins. If you have left your meter in 'current'
mode, you won't see the voltage on the display. Instead you'll see '0.000' indicating that there is
no current between VCC and GND. Within that split second you will have connected VCC to
GND through your meter and the 200mA fuse will blow = not good. So before you put the
meter down for the night, remember to leave your meter in a friendly state.
Measuring current can be tricky the first couple of times. Don’t worry if you blow the fuse -
we’ve done it dozens of times!

Continuity
Continuity testing is the act of testing the resistance between two points. If there is very low
resistance (less than a few Ωs), the two points are connected electrically, and a tone is emitted.
If there is more than a few Ωs of resistance, than the circuit is open, and no tone is emitted.
This test helps insure that connections are made correctly between two points. This test also
helps us detect if two points are connected that should not be.
Continuity is quite possibly the single most important function for embedded hardware gurus.
This feature allows us to test for conductivity of materials and to trace where electrical
connections have been made or not made.
Set the multimeter to ‘Continuity’ mode. It may vary among DMMs, but look for a diode
symbol with propagation waves around it (like sound coming from a speaker).

Multimeter is set to continuity mode.

Now touch the probes together. The multimeter should emit a tone (Note: Not all multimeters
have a continuity setting, but most should). This shows that a very small amount of current is
allowed to flow without resistance (or at least a very very small resistance) between probes.
Warning! In general, turn OFF the system before checking for continuity.
On a breadboard that is not powered, use the probes to poke at two separate ground pins. You
should hear a tone indicating that they are connected. Poke the probes from the VCC pin on a
microcontroller to VCC on your power supply. It should emit a tone indicating that power is
free to flow from the VCC pin to the micro. If it does not emit a tone, then you can begin to
follow the route that copper trace takes and tell if there are breaks in the line, wire, breadboard,
or PCB.
Continuity is a great way to test if two SMD pins are touching. If your eyes can’t see it, the
multimeter is usually a great second testing resource.
When a system is not working, continuity is one more thing to help troubleshoot the system.
Here are the steps to take:

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If the system is on, carefully check VCC and GND with the voltage setting to make sure the
voltage is the correct level. If the 5V system is running at 4.2V check your regulator carefully,
it could be very hot indicating the system is pulling too much current.
Power the system down and check continuity between VCC and GND. If there is continuity (if
you hear a beep), then you’ve got a short somewhere.
Power the system down. With continuity, check that VCC and GND are correctly wired to the
pins on the microcontroller and other devices. The system may be powering up, but the
individual ICs may be wired wrong.

Assuming you can get the microcontroller running, set the multimeter aside, and move on to
serial debugging or use a logic analyzer to inspect the digital signals.
Continuity and large capacitors: During normal troubleshooting. you will be probing for
continuity between ground and the VCC rail. This is a good sanity check before powering up a
prototype to make sure there is not a short on the power system. But don’t be surprised if you
hear a short ‘beep!’ when probing. This is because there is often significant amounts of
capacitance on the power system. The multimeter is looking for very low resistance to see if
two points are connected. Capacitors will act like a short for a split second until they fill up
with energy, and then act like an open connection. Therefore, you will hear a short beep and
then nothing. That’s ok, it’s just the caps charging up.

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 Lab # 2
Use of Equipments like Oscilloscope, Function
Generator and Power Supply

OSCILLOSCOPE

• The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device

• It draws a graph of an electrical signal.
• In most applications the graph shows how signals change over time:
– the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage
– the horizontal (X) axis represents time.

Example Electrical Signal

Above, this sine wave represents a voltage that is changing over time
So at time=2.5s, what is the voltage?
– And again at 10seconds?...15 seconds?
We can see that as time moves forward, the voltage is changing
– Is this an AC or DC voltage? What does that mean?

What are the major components?

Display Screen
– Displays an input signal with respect to time.
Control Panel
– Adjusts how the input signal is displayed.
What is the purpose of an oscilloscope
The purpose of an oscilloscope is to measure a voltage that changes with time and show it in a
graphical format

Here is the oscilloscope in our lab

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-Notice the X-Y axes

2) Here is our alternating voltage

signal from before
3) if we measure our signal with
the scope, it would look like this.

Oscilloscope Screen
Notice that the screen has ruled divisions both horizontally and vertically.

The major divisions are marked off in centimeters, the middle lines
also have minor divisions every 0.2 of a centimeter.

Oscilloscope Probes

Oscilloscope Problem
• Using the function generator, create a wave with the following output:
– 3 kHz Frequency
– Sinusoidal Shape
– 2 Volt Amplitude
– D.C Offset 0
• Adjust the output so that only 2 complete cycles are showing.
• When are you finished, call your tutor to inspect it.
FUNCTION GENERATOR

A Function Generator is a device that is used to generate test signals for testing electronic
circuits.

All function generators can generate three basic types of waveforms

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– Sinusoidal

– Triangular

– Rectangular

• We can control the amplitude and frequency of generated waveforms.

• We can also control the DC level of generated waveforms.

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Function Generator Probes

POWER SUPPLY

This section will explain how to use the dual-output benchtop DC power supply. The supply
has two variable outputs, channels one and two, as well as a third ixed 5 V output. The control
panel of the power supply is shown in Figure 1, note that each output has its own set of
controls.

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To set the output voltage of one of the channels, turn the corresponding 'VOLTAGE' knob and
watch the voltage readout (indicated in Figure 2) until it settles on the desired voltage. Along
with this, you also need to set the maximum current by increasing the 'CURRENT' knob. If too
much demand is placed on the power supply, and you attempt to draw more current than what
is set by the current limit knob, the supply enters constant current mode, and the CC indicator
LED will come on.

The current limit feature is useful if you need to prevent a load from being supplied with too
much current, however this will not be a concern in the labs, so set the limit as high you need it
to be.

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The power supply can be operated in three different modes, and each mode changes the way
both chan-nels behave. You can change the mode by using the two mode select switches
indicated in igure 2.

Independent Mode
In independent mode, the two supply channels are operated completely independently.

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Figure 3 shows how the supply voltages are taken at the output posts. V1 and V2 can be set
from 0 to 30 V independently. Adjusting the current knob for either channel sets the current
limit for that channel alone.

Also shown in Figure 3 is the green GND earth connection, which is physically isolated from
the positive and negative output posts. This ground is connected to the metal case of the power
supply, and to the building earth. The circuits you build should not require the use of this
terminal.

Series Mode

When in series mode, the positive (red) terminal of channel two is connected to the negative
(black) terminal of channel one, shown in Figure 4. In this mode, the voltage setting for
channel two (the slave) will mimic the setting for channel one (the master). This means that the
voltage V1 appears on both channels, creating a virtual ground in the middle. The voltage at the
positive terminal of channel one will be at V1 V, whilst the voltage at the negative terminal of
channel two is V1 V.

Series mode is useful when you need to power an op-amp with both positive and negative
supplies, and also provide the circuit with a ground (0 V). The overall output current will be
limited by the lowest set current knob.

Parallel Mode
While in parallel mode, both positive terminals, and both negative terminals, are connected
together. This allows you to supply twice the maximum current to your circuit, for a total of 6
amps of current.

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Summary
Table 1: Summary of the different power supply modes.

Mode Voltage Settings Current Limiting Channel Connections

Both voltage knobs set the out- Bothcurrentlimitingknobsset The channels are not
Independent put voltages for both channels the current limit for both chan- connected together.
independently. nels independently.

The voltage knob for channel The current limit is set at the The channels are linked
Series one sets the voltage for both lower of the two current limit- in series, providing a
channels. ing knobs. bipolar supply.

The voltage knob for channel The current limit is set by the The channels are con-
Parallel one sets the voltage for both channel one current knob. nected together in paral-
channels. lel, allowing you to sup-
ply larger currents.

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 Lab # 3
Understanding of Breadboard, and how to use
Multisim Software
Breadboard:
A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit
designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting
their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires where
appropriate. The breadboard has strips of metal underneath the board and connect the holes on
the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the top and bottom
rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while the remaining holes are
connected vertically.

Note how all holes in the selected row are connected together, so the holes in the selected
column. The set of connected holes can be called a node:

To interconnect the selected row (node A) and column (node B) a cable going from any hole in
the row to any hole in the column is needed:

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Now the selected column (node B) and row (node A) are interconnected:

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 MULTISIM TUTORIAL

Start

Click on Start All Programs National Instruments Circuit

Design
Suite 10.0 Multisim.

1. Open/Create Schematic

A blank schematic Circuit 1 is automatically created. To create a new

schematic click on File – New – Schematic Capture. To save the
schematic click on File /SaveAs. To open an existing file click on
File/ Open in the toolbar.

2. Place Components
To Place Components click on Place/Components. On the Select
Component Window click on Group to select the components
needed for the circuit. Click OK to place the component on

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 theschematic.

Figure 1: Select Resistor Figure 2: Select DC voltage

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For example to select resistors and the DC source shown in Figure 3 click on
Place/Components. In Group select Basic scroll down to Resistors and select the valueof the
resistor needed to construct the circuit, for this example select 1k. To place DC source click on
Sources in Group and select DC Source. As shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively

Figure 3: DC Source & Resistors

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Virtual Components
Components can also be place on the circuit using Virtual components. Click on View –
Toolbars and select the toolbar needed for the circuit.

Figure 4: Virtual Components

4. Rotate Components
To rotate the components right click on the Resistor to flip the component on 90 Clockwise
(Ctrl +R) and 90 Counter Clockwise (Ctrl+Shift+R).

Figure 5: Rotate Components

5.Place Wire/Connect Components

To connect resistors click on Place/Wire drag and place the wire. Components can also be
connected by clicking the mouse over the terminal edge of one component and dragging to the
edge of another component. Reference Figure 6

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 Figure 6: Place/ Wire
6. Change Component Values
To change component values double click on the component this brings up a window that
display the properties of the component. Reference Figure 7. Change R1 from 1k Ohm to 10
Ohms, R2 to 20 Ohms, R3 to 30 Ohms, and R4 to 40 Ohms. Also change the DV source from 0
V to 20 V. Figure 8 shows the completed circuit

Figure 7: Change Component Values

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 Figure 8: Completed Circuits

7. Grounding:
All circuits must be grounded before the circuit can be simulated. Click on Ground in the
toolbar to ground the circuit. If the circuit is not grounded Multisim will not run the simulation.

Ground
Figure 9: Grounding
8. Simulation:
To simulate the completed circuit Click on Simulate/Run or F5. This feature can also be
accessed from the toolbar as shown in the Figure 10 below.

RUN STOP

PAUSE

Figure 10: Simulation

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 Analyzing Components

Multisim offers multiple ways to analyze the circuit using virtual instruments. Some of the
basic instruments needed for this lab are described below.

1) Multimeter
Use the Multimeter to measure AC or DC voltage or current, and resistance or decibel
loss between two nodes in a circuit. To use the Multimeter click on the Multimeter
button in the Instruments toolbar and click to place its icon on the workspace.
Double-click on the icon to open the instrument face, which is used to enter settings
and view measurements.

Figure 11: Multimeter

To measure Voltage place multimeter in Parallel with the component (Resistor, Voltage
etc). To measure Current place the multimeter in series with the component. Reference
the Figure 12 and 13.

Figure 12: Measure Voltage Figure 13: Measure Current

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 2) Wattmeter
The wattmeter measures power. It is used to measure the magnitude of the active
power, that is, the product of the voltage difference and the current flowing
through the current terminals in a circuit.

Insert in series with the

Load

Connect in Parallel with the Load

Figure 14: Wattmeter

To use the instrument, click on the Wattmeter button in the Instruments toolbar and
click to place its icon on the workspace. The icon is used to wire the Wattmeter to the
circuit. Double-click on the icon to open the instrument face, which is used to enter
settings and view measurements. Reference Figure 15 for more details.

Figure 15: Wattmeter Connection

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3) Agilent Multimeter

1. The Agilent Mulitmeter Instrument can also be used to measure and simulate circuits with
more accuracy. To use the multimeter click on the Agilent Multimeter tool button, place its
icon on the workspace and double-click on the icon to open the instrument. Click on the
Power button to switch on the instrument.

Figure16: Agilent Multimeter.

4) Ammeter:

The ammeter offers advantages over the multimeter for measuring current in a circuit. It
takes up less space in a circuit and you can rotate its terminals to suit your layout. Always
connect the ammeter in series with the load. To place Ammeter click on View--- Toolbar ---
Select Measurement Components. SeeFigure 17 on how to use the Ammeter.

Figure 17: Ammeter

34
5) Voltmeter
The Voltmeter offers advantages over the multimeter for measuring voltage in a circuit.
Always connect the voltmeter in parallel with the load. The voltmeter can be found in the
measurement toolbar.

Voltmete
Ammeter r

Figure 18:Voltmeter

35
 LAB # 4
(To study the characteristics and approximation of Diode)
(a) To study the characteristics of diode.
Apparatus/Component:
• Power Supply (adjustable from 0 to 15V).
• Silicon Diode (1N4001 or equivalent).
• Resistor ½W (1kΩ)
• VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter).
• Graph paper.
• Rectangular coordinate.
Description/Theory:
A resistor is a linear device because its voltage & current are proportional in either
direction. A diode on other hand is non-linear device because its voltage & current are not
proportional. Further more a diode is a unilateral device because its conduct well only in
forward direction. As a guide a small signal silicon diode has a DC reverse/forward resistance
ratio of more than 1000:1. In this experiment you will measure diode voltage & current for both
forward & reverse bias.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1-1 Fig. 1-2

Procedure:
1. Using the VOM as an Ohmmeter measure the diode DC forward resistance & reverse
Resistance on one of the middle resistance ranges. If diode is all right. You should have a
reverse/forward resistance ratio greater than 1000:1.
2. Connect the circuit of Fig 1-1 using a current limiting resistor of 1kΩ. for each source
voltage listed in table 1-1 measure & record the diode voltage V & diode current I.
3. Connect the Circuit of Fig 1-2. For each source voltage listed in table 1-2 measure &
record the diode voltage V & diode current I.
4. Graph the data of table 1-1 & 1-2 to get a diode a curve (I versus V).

36
Observation:
Table 1-1: Forward Bias
Source Voltage Vs Diode Voltage VD Diode Current ID
0V
0.5V
1V
2V
4V
6V
8V
10V
15V

Table 1-2: Reverse Bias

Source Voltage Vs Diode Voltage VD Diode Current ID
-1V
-5V
-10V
-15V

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

37
 Lab # 4 (Continued)
(b)
To study the diode approximation.
Apparatus/Component:
• Power supply (adjustable from 0 to 15V)
• Silicon diode (1N4001 or equivalent)
• Resistor 1/2W (220Ω, 220Ω, 470Ω)
• VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)

Description/Theory:
In this experiment you will work with the three diode approximation.
In the ideal or first approximation a diode acts like a closed switch when forward bias & an
open switch when reverse bias. In the second approximation we include the knee voltage of the
diode when it is forward bias. This means assuming 0.7V across the conducting silicon diode. In
the third approximation we include the knee voltage & bulk resistance, because of this, the
voltage across the conducting diode is increases as the diode current increases.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1-1
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of Fig 1-1. Adjust the source voltage listed in table 1-1, measure &
record the diode voltage V & diode current I.
2. We will let the knee voltage to be the measured diode voltage for a source voltage of
2V. Record the knee voltage in table 1-2 (it should be in the vicinity of 0.7V).
3. Calculate the bulk resistance using
rB = ∆V / ∆I
where ∆V & ∆I are the changes in measured voltage & current in table 1-1.
Record rB in table 1-2.
4. Adjust the source voltage of Fig 1-1 at 15V. Measure & record the diode current in table
1-3. Than calculate the diode current with the ideal, second & third approximations (use
the Vknee&rB of table 1-2). Record answer in table 1-3.

38
Observation:
Table 1-1: Two points on the forward curve
Source Voltage Vs Diode Voltage VD Diode Current ID
2V
10V

Table 1-2: Diode Values

Vknee
IB

Table 1-3: Diode Current

Vs 15V
Ideal I VS/R
Second (Vs-Vknee)/R
Third I (VS – Vknee)/ (R=rB)
Measured I

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

39
Lab # 5 (Study of Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers)
(a)
To study Half-Wave Rectifier circuits.
Apparatus/Components:
 Transformer AC centre tapped (Triad F-25X or equivalent) with fuse line cord
 Silicon diode (1N4001or equivalent)
 Resistor ½+W (1k)
 VOM (Analog & Digital Multimeter)
 Oscilloscope

Description/Theory:
The basic rectifier circuits are half-wave, full-wave & bridge. The ripple frequency of
half-wave rectifier is equal to the input frequency. For a given transformer the unfiltered
output of the half-wave & full-wave rectifier ideally has a DC value of slightly less than half the
RMS secondary voltage (45%).
In this experiment you will build a type of rectifier & measure their input/output
characteristics. Be especially careful in this experiment when connecting the transformer to line
voltage. The transformer should have a fused line cord with all primary connection insulated to
avoid electrical shock.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 2-1

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of Fig 2-1. Measure the RMS voltage across the secondary winding &
record in table 2-1.

40
 2. Measure & record DC load voltage across 1kΩ load resistor.
3. Use an oscilloscope to look at rectified voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Record the peak
voltage of half-wave signal. Next measure the period of the rectified output. Calculate
the ripple frequency & record the result in table 2-1.
4. Calculate the peak output voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Also calculate the output
voltage & ripple frequency. Record your calculation in table 2-1.

Observation:
Table 2-1 Half-Wave Rectifier
FORMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage Write measured
value
Peak output voltage Vo.pk = Vpk -0.7
DC output voltage Vo.DC = Vo.pk / π
Ripple frequency Fripple = fin

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

Lab Tasks:
 To study negative Half-Wave rectifier.
1. Find DC load voltage across load resistor.
2. Find the peak voltage of negative half-wave signal.
3. Find the period of the rectified output.

41
 Lab # 5 (Continued)
(b)
To study Full-Wave Center Tapped Rectifier circuits
Apparatus/Component:
 Transformer AC centre tapped (Triad F-25X or equivalent) with fuse line cord
 Silicon diode (1N4001or equivalent)
 Resistor 1/4W (1kΩ)
 VOM (Analog & Digital Multimeter)
 Oscilloscope

Description/Theory:
Another basic rectifier circuits is full-wave center tapped rectifier. The ripple frequency
of full-wave rectifier is twice to the input frequency. For a given transformer the unfiltered
output of the full-wave rectifier ideally has a DC value of slightly less than half the RMS
secondary voltage (45%). While the unfiltered output of the bridge rectifier is slightly less than
the RMS secondary voltage (90%).
In this experiment you will build a type of rectifier & measure their input output
characteristics. Be especially careful in this experiment when connecting the transformer to line
voltage. The transformer should have a fused line cord with all primary connection insulated to
avoid electrical shock.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 2-1

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of Fig 2-1.

42
 2. Use an oscilloscope to look at rectified voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Record the peak
voltage of Half-Wave signal. Next measure the period of the rectified output. Calculate
the ripple frequency & record the result in table 2-1.
3. Calculate the peak output Voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Also calculate the output
voltage & ripple frequency. Record your calculation in table 2-1.
4. Connect the center tap rectifier circuit of Fig 2-1.
5. Calculate & measure the qualities listed in table 2-1, record in table 2-1.
6. Measure & record DC load voltage across 1kΩ load resistor.

Observation:
Table 2-1 Half-Wave Rectifier
FORMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage Write measured
value
Peak output voltage Vo.pk = Vpk-0.7
DC output voltage Vo.dc = Vo.pk / π
Ripple frequency Fripple = fin

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

Lab Tasks:
 To study the negative Full-wave rectifier.
1. Find the peak output rectified voltage across load resistor.
2. Find the peak voltage of negative half-wave signal.
3. Find DC load voltage across 1kΩ load resistor.

43
Lab # 6(Study Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier and Effect of Capacitor input filter)
(a)
To study Full-Wave Bridge rectifier circuits.
Apparatus/components:
 Transformer AC center tapped (Triad F-25X or equivalent) with fuse line cord
 Silicon diode (1N4001 or equivalent)
 Resistor 1/2W (1kΩ)
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multi-meter)
 Oscilloscope

Description/Theory:
The last rectifier circuit is Full-Wave Bridge rectifier. The ripple frequency of Full-Wave
rectifier is twice to the input frequency. For a given transformer the unfiltered output of the
Full-Wave rectifier ideally has a DC value of slightly less than half the RMS Secondary voltage
(45%) while the unfiltered output of the Bridge rectifier is slightly less than the RMS secondary
voltage (90%).
In this experiment you will build a type of rectifier & measure their input/output
characteristics. Be especially careful in this experiment when connecting the transformer to line
voltage. The transformer should have a fused line cord with all primary connection insulated to
avoid electrical shock.

Circuit diagram:

Fig. 3-1

Procedure:
1. Connect the center tap rectifier circuit of Fig 3-1.
2. Measure & record DC load voltage across 1kΩ load resistor.

44
 3. Use an oscilloscope to look at rectified voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Record the peak
voltage of Half-Wave signal. Measure the period of the rectified output. Calculate the
ripple frequency & record the result in table 3-1.
4. Calculate peak output voltage across 1kΩ load resistor. Also calculate the output
voltage& ripple frequency. Record your calculation in table 3-1.
5. Calculate & measure the quantities listed in table 3-1.

Observation:
Table 3-1
FORMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage Write measured
value
Peak output voltage Vo.pk = Vpk-0.7
DC output voltage Vo.dc = Vo.pk / π
Ripple frequency Fripple = fin

Result/Conclusion:

To be explained by students.

45
Lab # 6 (Continued)
(b)
To study the effect of capacitor input filter.
Apparatus/Component:
 Transformer AC center tapped (Triad F-25X or equivalent) with fuse line cord
 Silicon diode (1N4001 or equivalent)
 Resistor 1/2W (1kΩ, 10kΩ)
 Capacitor (47µf & 470µf) 25V rating or better
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multi-meter)
 Oscilloscope

Description/Theory:
By connecting the output of a bridge rectifier to a capacitor input filter we can produce
a DC load voltage that is approximately constant. Ideally the filtered DC output voltage equal to
the peak secondary voltage.
To a better approximation the DC voltage is typically 90 to 95 percent of the peak
secondary voltage with peak to peak ripple of about 10 percent.

Circuit diagram:

Fig. 3-1

Procedure:
1. In the Fig 3-1, note down the RMS voltage.

46
 2. Build the circuit of Fig 3-1 with RL =1kΩ & C = 47µf. calculate & measure all the
quantities listed in table 3-1.
3. Repeat step 2 for RL = 1kΩ & C = 470µf & record in table 3-2.
4. Repeat step 2 for RL = 10kΩ & C = 470µf & record in table 3-3.

Observation:
Table 3-1: RL = 1kΩ & C = 47µf
FOMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage
Peak output voltage VO.pk = VP – 1.4
DC output voltage VO.DC = (1-(1/2fRC))
VO.pk
DC load current I = VO.DC /RL
Ripple frequency f = 2fin
Peak-to-peak ripple Vr(pp) = VO.pk/fRC
Ripple factor Vr(pp)/ VO.DC

Table 3-2: RL = 1kΩ & C = 470µf

FOMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage
Peak output voltage VO.pk = VP – 1.4
DC output voltage VO.DC = (1-(1/2fRC)) VO.pk
DC load current I = VO.DC /RL
Ripple frequency f = 2fin
Peak-to-peak ripple Vr(pp) = VO.pk/fRC
Ripple factor Vr(pp)/ VO.DC

Table 3-3: RL = 10kΩ & C = 470µf

FOMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary voltage
Peak output voltage VO.pk = VP – 1.4
DC output voltage VO.DC = (1-(1/2fRC))
VO.pk
DC load current I = VO.DC /RL
Ripple frequency f = 2fin
Peak-to-peak ripple Vr(pp) = VO.pk/fRC
Ripple factor Vr(pp)/ VO.DC

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

47
Lab Tasks:
 To study the Bridge rectifier with zener regulator.
1. Find output voltages across zener diode.
2. Use different zener diodes & repeat step 1 for each.

48
 Lab # 7
Study of Clipper and Clamper Circuits
Apparatus/Component:
 Power supply (adjustable From 0 to 15V)
 Resistors 1/2W (1kΩ, 100kΩ)
 Capacitor (1µf)
 Diode (1N4001 or 1N914)
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)
 Functional generator
 Oscilloscope

Description/Theory:
The clippers circuits have ability to clip off a portion of a signal without distribute the
remaining part of signal. There are two general categories of clippers, series & parallel.
The clamping network is one that will clamp a signal to a different DC level.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 4-1 Fig. 4-2 Fig 4-3

 Fig. 4-1 (Series clipper circuit).

 Fig. 4-2 (Parallel clipper circuit).
 Fig .4-3 (clamper circuit).

Procedure:
1. Connect the component of each circuit.
2. Apply voltage to circuit.
3. Sine a rectangular wave according to Fig 4-1, 4-2, &4-3 one by one.
4. Observe the output wave form.

Result/conclusion:

49
To be explained by students.
Lab Tasks:
 To study the negative series clipper circuit.

 To study the negative clamper circuit.

50
 Lab # 8
Study of Characteristics of Zener Diode
Apparatus/Component:
 Power supply (adjustable From 0 to 15V)
 Zener diode (1N753)
 Resistor 1/2W (220Ω)
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)

Description/Theory:
In this experiment you will get data for the zener voltage &zener resistance. Ideally a
zener diode is equivalent to a DC source when operating in a break down region. To second
approximation it is like a DC source with small internal impedance. Its main advantage is the
approximately constant voltage appearing across it.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 5-1 Fig. 5-2

Procedure:
1. Measure diode reverse & forward resistance on one of the middle resistance ranges. If
diode is all right, you should have a reverse/forward resistance ratio should be at least
1000:1.
2. The 1N753 has a nominal zener voltage of 6.2V. in Fig 5-1. Connect the circuit of Fig 5-1.
Measure & record output voltage &zener current for each input voltage listed in table 5-
1.
3. With data of table 5-1, calculate & record the in Fig 5-1 for each entry of table 5-2.
4. Calculate zener resistance for Vin = 10V
5. Also calculate zener resistance for Vin = 12V

51
Observation:
Table 5-1: Two points on the forward curve
Input Voltage Vin Measured VZ Measured IZ
0V
2V
4V
6V
8V
10V
12V
14V

Table 5-2: Zener resistance

Input VoltageVin CalculatedIZ CalculatedRZ
0V
2V
4V
6V
8V
10V
12V
14V

Result/conclusion:
To be explained by students.

52
 Lab # 9
Zener Regulator and Loading Effect
Apparatus/Component:
• Power Supply (adjustable from 0 to 15V)
• Zener Diode
• Resistor ½W (620Ω, 150Ω)
• VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)
• Oscilloscope
• Potentiometer (100kΩ)

Description/Theory:
In this experiment, you will build & experiment with voltage regulation circuit. Normally,
this regulator is placed directly after the rectifier-filter stage in a power supply. Therefore, the
input to the regulator is a filtered but unregulated DC voltage. However in this experiment, you
will use the DC voltage from the power supply. Because its voltage can be easily adjusted. It
allows you to investigate the operation of the regulator over a range of input voltage.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 6-1

Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit in Fig 6-1.
2. Adjust the voltage at 8V while potentiometer to its minimum value.
3. Measure output voltage & record it in table 6-1.
4. Adjust the voltage at 12V while potentiometer to its minimum value.
5. Measure output voltage & record it in table 6-1
6. Adjust the voltage at 10V while potentiometer to its minimum value.
7. Measure output voltage & record it in table 6-1
8. Adjust the voltage at 1oV while potentiometer to its maximum value.
9. Measure output voltage & record it in table 6-1

53
Observation:
Table 6-1

Input Voltage Vin Set Potentiometer to Measure Vout

8V Minimum
12V Minimum
10V Minimum
10V Maximum

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

54
Lab # 10(Study of LED characteristics and driver Circuits)
(a)
To study the characteristics of Light Emitting Diode
(LED).
Apparatus/Component:
• Power Supply (adjustable from 0 to 15V).
• Light Emitting Diode (LED).
• Resistor ½W (1kΩ)
• VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter).
• Graph paper.
• Rectangular coordinate.

Description/Theory:
A resistor is a linear device because its voltage & current are proportional in either
direction. A diode on other hand is non-linear device because its voltage & current are not
proportional. Further more a diode is a unilateral device because its conduct well only in
forward direction. As a guide a small signal silicon diode has a DC reverse/forward resistance
ratio of more than 1000:1. In this experiment you will measure diode voltage & current for both
forward & reverse bias.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 7-1 Fig. 7-2

Procedure:
1. Using the VOM as an Ohmmeter measure the diode DC forward resistance & reverse
Resistance on one of the middle resistance ranges. If diode is all right. You should have a
reverse/forward resistance ratio greater than 1000:1.

55
2. Connect the circuit of Fig 7-1 using a current limiting resistor of 1kΩ. for each source
voltage listed in table 7-1 measure & record the diode voltage V & diode current I.
3. Connect the Circuit of Fig 7-2. For each source voltage listed in table 7-2 measure &
record the diode voltage V & diode current I.
4. Graph the data of table 7-1 & 7-2 to get a diode a curve (I versus V).

Observation:
Table 7-1: Forward Bias

Source Voltage Vs Diode Voltage VD Diode Current ID

0V
0.5V
1V
2V
4V
6V
8V
10V
15V
Table 7-2: Reverse Bias

Source Voltage Vs Diode Voltage VD Diode Current ID

-1V
-5V
-10V
-15V

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

56
Lab # 10 (Continued)
(b)

To study LED Drivers circuit.

Apparatus/Component:
 2 Power supply (adjustable From 0 to 15V)
 3 Resistors 1/2W (220Ω, 1kΩ, 10kΩ)
 3 Transistors (2N3904 or any NPN silicon transistor)
 LED (TIL221 or equivalent)
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)
Description/Theory:
The simplest way to use a transistor is as a switch, meaning that is operates at either
saturation or cut out but no where else along the alongthe load line. When saturated a
transistor appears as a closed switch between it collector & emitter terminals. When cut off it is
like an open switch. Because of the wide variation in βdc value, hard saturation is used with
transistor switches. This means having enough base current to guarantee transistor saturation
under all operating condition. With small signal transistor hard saturation requires a base
current of approximation 1/10th of the collector saturation current.
Another basic way to use the transistor is as a direct current source. In this case the
base resistor is emitted & the base supply voltage is connected directly to the based terminal.
To set up the desire collector current we use an emitter resistor. The emitter is bootstrapped to
with in one VBE drop of the base voltage. Therefore the collector current is equals (VBB – VBE)
divided by the RE. This fixed collector current then flow through the load, which is connected
between the collector & positive supply voltage.
In this experiment you will build the transistor switch & a transistor current you will also
have the opportunity to troubleshoot & design this basic transistor circuit.
Circuit Diagram:

57
 Fig. 7-1 Fig. 7-2
Procedure:
1. In figure 7-1 calculate IB, IC& VCE. Record your answer in table 7-1.
2. Connect the transistor switch of Fig 7-1.
3. Measure & record the quantities listed in table 7-1.
4. Repeat step 1 & 2 for two other transistors.
5. In Fig 7-2 calculate all quantities listed in table 7-2.
6. Connect the transistor current source of Fig 7-2. Measure & record the quantities listed
in table 7-2.
7. Repeat step 5 & 6 for two other transistors.

Observation
Table 7-1: Transistor Switch
Transistor CALCULATED MEASURED
IB IC VCE IB IC VCE
1.
2.
3.

Table 7-2: Transistor Current Source

Transistor CALCULATED MEASURED
IB IC VCE IB IC VCE
1.
2.
3.

Result/conclusion:
To be explained by students.

58
 Lab # 11
BJT Testing
(a) NPN & PNP
(b) Identification of (Emitter, Collector & Base)
(c) BJT working.

59
 Lab # 12
Study of Common-Emitter connection of Transistor
Apparatus/Component:
 Power supply (adjustable From 0 to 15V)
 Transistor (2N3904 or any NPN silicon transistor)
 Resistor 1/2W (100Ω, 1kΩ, 470kΩ)
 VOM (Analog or Digital Multimeter)

Description/Theory:
As an approximation of transistor behavior, we use the Ebers-Moll model. The emitter
diode acts like a controlled current source. The voltage across the emitter diode of a small
signal transistor is typically 0.6 to 0.7V. For most troubleshooting & design, we will use 0.7V for
the VBE drop. In this experiment, you will get data for calculating the αdc, βdc & the VBE drop.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 9-1
Procedure:
1. Measure the resistance between the collector & emitter of one of the transistor. This
resistance should be extremely high (hundred of mega ohms) in either direction.
2. Measure the reverse & forward resistance of the base-emitter diode & base collector
diode. For both diode reverse/forward resistance ratio should be at least 1000:1.
3. Repeat step 1 & 2 for the two other transistors.
4. Connect the circuit of Fig 9-1, using one of the transistors.
5. Measure & record VBE & VCE in table 9-1.
6. Measure & record IC& IB in table 9-1.
7. Calculate the values of VCB, IE, αdc, βdc in Fig 8-1. Record in table 9-2.
8. Repeat step 4 to 7 for two other transistors.
9. If the curve tracer is available, display the collector curve of all three transistors. Notice
the difference in βdc, breakdown voltages etc.

60
Observation:
Table 9-1:
Transistor VBE VCE IB IC
1.
2.
3.

Table 9-2:
Transistor VCB IE άdc ßdc
1.
2.
3.

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

Lab Task:
1. Find the current (I) & voltages (V) across the LED.

61
 Lab # 13
Study of Base Biasing Techniques of Transistor
Apparatus/Component:
 Power supply 15V
 Transistor (2N3904)
 Resistor 1/2W (2.2kΩ, 22kΩ)
 Decade resistance box or potentiometer

Description/Theory:
A circuit like Fig 9-1 is referred to as base bias because its sets up a fixed base current. You
can calculate the base current by applying Ohm’s law to the total base resistance. This base
current will remain constant when you replaced transistor.
On the other hand the collector current equals the current gain time the base current.
Because of this the collector current may have large variation from one transistor to next. In
other words the Q point in a base bias circuit is heavily dependent on the value of β dc.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 10-1

Procedure:
1. The fixed base current circuit of Fig 10-1 is not a stable biasing circuit, but it is a good
way to measure βdc.
2. Connect the circuit of Fig 10-1 using one of transistor.
3. Adjust R to get a VCE of1V. Record the value of R in table 10-1. In Fig 10-1, notice the
total base resistance RB = R + 22kΩ. Record the value of RB in table 10-1.
4. Calculate the value of βdc, IC. Record in table 10-1.
5. Repeat step 2 to 4 for the two other transistor.
6. With the value of table 10-1, calculate the ideal & second approximation values of IE in
Fig 10-1. Record the value of IE in table 10-2.

62
Observation
Table 10-1: βdc values
Transistor R RB βdc IC
1.
2.
3.

Table 10-2: Calculation

Test IE(ideal) IE(second)
1.
2.
3.

Result/conclusion:
To be explained by students.

Lab Task:
1. Find the current (I) & voltages (V) across the LED.

63
 Lab # 14
Operation of typical Junction FET and its
Transduction
Apparatus/Component:
 Power Supply (adjustable from 0 to 15V).
 Silicon Diode (1N914 or equivalent).
 Resistor (½W) (100Ω, 1kΩ, 1kΩ)
 N-channel FET transistor.
 Potentiometer (1kΩ, 100kΩ,)

Description/Theory:
In this practical you will examine the relationship between the gate-to-source voltage
(VGS), the drain current (ID), and the drain-to-source voltage (VDS) in an N-channel junction FET.
You will first measure & record the corresponding VGS, ID& VDS value & then plot these values to
form a set of drain characteristics curve. Then you will complete the experiment by using this
curve to determine the transconductance of the FET.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig 11-1
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig 11-1.
2. Applied voltages to 1kΩ potentiometer. You will be using this potentiometer to control
the drain-to-source voltages (VDS) applied to the FET.
3. Turn the potentiometers fully clockwise & then turn on your circuit.
4. The gate-to-source voltage (VGS) applied to the FET will be zero. Adjust potentiometer
until the drain-to-source voltage (VDS) is equal to 1 volt.
5. Use the volt meter to measure the voltage across R4. Use this voltage reading & the
resistance of the R4 to calculate the FET’s drain current (ID) according to Ohm’s law.
Record your calculated value in table 11-1 ID (milliamperes).

64
 6. Now adjust R1 so that VGS is equal to 0.25 volts.
7. Adjust the R5 until VDS is equal to 1 volt.
8. Use the volt meter to measure the voltage across R4. Use this voltage reading & the
resistance of the R4 to calculate the FET’s drain current (ID) according to Ohm’s law.
Record your calculated value in table 11-2 ID (milliamperes).
9. Now adjust R1 so that VGS is equal to 0.5 volts.
10. Adjust the R5 until VDS is equal to 1 volt.
11. Use the volt meter to measure the voltage across R4. Use this voltage reading & the
resistance of the R4 to calculate the FET’s drain current (ID) according to Ohm’s law.
Record your calculated value in table 10-3 ID (milliamperes).
12. Now adjust R1 so that VGS is equal to 0.75 volts.
13. Adjust the R5 until VDS is equal to 1 volt.
14. Use the volt meter to measure the voltage across R4. Use this voltage reading & the
resistance of the R4 to calculate the FET’s drain current (ID) according to Ohm’s law.
Record your calculated value in table 11-4 ID (milliamperes).
15. Now use the corresponding values of VDS& ID that you recorded in the table 11-1 to plot
the drain characteristic curves on the graph. Connect the various points plotted to form
a continuous curve. Label this curve VGS = 0.
16. Now use the corresponding values of VDS& ID that you recorded in the table 11-2to plot
the drain characteristic curves on the graph. Connect the various points plotted to form
a continuous curve. Label this curve VGS = 0.25.
17. Now use the corresponding values of VDS& ID that you recorded in the table 11-3to plot
the drain characteristic curves on the graph. Connect the various points plotted to form
a continuous curve. Label this curve VGS = 0.50.
18. Now use the corresponding values of VDS& ID that you recorded in the table 11-4to plot
the drain characteristic curves on the graph. Connect the various points plotted to form
a continuous curve. Label this curve VGS = 0.75.
19. Now use the set of drain characteristic curve that you plotted in graph to determine the
transconductance of FET. Select a constant value of VDS that is well above the pinch-off
voltage of the device (possibly 6 or 7 volts) & observe the change in ID when VGS changes
from 0-to-0.25 volts.

Transconductance = ∆ ID
∆ VGS
Transconductance =

Observation:
Table 11-1
VGS.0 volts
VDS (volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ID (milliamperes)

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Table 11-2
VGS.0.25 volts
VDS (volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ID (milliamperes)

Table 11-3
VGS.05 volts
VDS (volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ID (milliamperes)

Table 11-4
VGS.0.75 volts
VDS (volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ID (milliamperes)

Result/Conclusion:
To be explained by students.

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