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CHAPTER THREE OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance
and low output impedance. With the application of negative feedback, Op-amps can be used to implement
functions such as addition, subtraction, differentiation, integration, averaging and amplification. Typical
uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity),
oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a number of
differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain. An op-amp can have a single input and
single output, a differential input and single output, or a differential input and differential output.

Figure 3.1 shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would result using a differential
amplifier input stage. Recall from Chapter 2 that each input results in either the same or an opposite
polarity (or phase) output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or the minus (-)
input.

Ro
Non-
inverting + +
+
Output Vi Ri AVi Vo
_ _
Inverting -

(a) Circuit symbol (b)Small-signal model

Figure 3.1: Basic operational amplifier circuit representation

The op-amp will come up with different types of IC packages. The most commonly used type of op-amp
is 741 families and is shown in figure 3.2.

OFFSET
N.C.
NULL 1 8
-IN 2 7 V+

+IN 3 + 6 OUTPUT
OFFSET
V 4 5 NULL

Figure 3.2: IC package of 741 op-amps

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Basic op-amp circuit

Figure 3.3 shows a simplified schematic diagram for a typical op amp. This circuit is equivalent to
the 741 and many later-generation op amps. To pin down some important ideas, we will analyze how
this circuit works.

1 Input stage

The differential amplifier pairs take input signals and produce an amplified current from the current
mirror which goes into the second stage.

2 second stage

The second stage converts current to voltage and provides frequency compensation through the
capacitor Cc, which prevents oscillation by causing the gain to roll-off as the frequency increases.

3 output stage

The last stage is a class B push-pull emitter follower amplifier which provides current to drive a load.

+VCC

2I
I

Vn
Vo
CC
Vp

I1
 Input Stage -VCC

Second stage Output Stage

Figure 3.3 simplified schematics of op-amps

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3.2 OP-AMP CHARACTERSISTICS

3.2.1 IDEAL OP-AMP

An ideal operational amplifier (Op-amp) is an amplifier with the following theoretical characteristics.

The ideal op amp has a gain figure which is infinitely large.

The ideal op amp will provide no response what so ever to common mode inputs yet will provide
an infinite gain for differential inputs. This leads to an ideal CMRR which is infinitely large.
The ideal op amp would have identical transistors, in which case no offset voltage whatsoever
would occur.
The ideal op amp input impedance should be infinitely
large. Ideally the output impedance should be zero.
The fastest possible rate of change that can occur in the output voltage is signified by the slew
rate. The ideal op amp should be able to change its output instantaneously from one voltage level
to another. This implies that the ideal slew rate is infinitely fast, involving no time delay
whatsoever.
The ideal op amp should be able to amplify any sort of input, from zero up to any frequency in
the ac realm. Thus its frequency should be infinitely wide, from dc up to infinite frequency
figures.
The ideal op amp should be able to withstand any amplitude of input indefinitely, with no
resulting damage occurring under any circumstance.

As a summary, an ideal Op-amp is an amplifier with infinite gain, infinite bandwidth, infinite input
impedance and zero output impedance. Figure 3.4 shows the small-signal representation of ideal op-amp.

+ +
Vi Ri = ∞ AVi Vo
_ _

Figure 3.4: Ideal op-amp circuit representation

3.3.2 PRACTICAL OP-AMP

In practice, the ideal characteristics cannot be achieved. However, in many practical situations, op-amps
can approximate these characteristics. Some of the important characteristics of op-amp are viewed briefly
in the upcoming sessions. Since this information is important for electronic designers, they are normally
available in data sheet.

Very Large Finite Gain

While the gain of an op amp can never be infinite, most op amps provide open loop gain figures
which are of the order of 100,000 when used alone without the addition of feedback paths.

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Large Input Impedance and Small Output Resistance

Practical op amps provide input impedance usually above 100 KΩ. By using Darlington
transistor the impedance becomes about 1 MΩ. In case of FET it approaches to several MΩ. The
output resistance for a typical op-amp may be 50Ω.

Very Large CMRR

Compared to the conventional differential amplifiers, op-amps exhibit very good ability of
rejecting common mode signals.

Output Voltage and Current Saturation

In practice, op amps will operate linearly over a limited range of output voltage and current. For a typical
op-amp (741) the range for voltage and current are around ±(10-15) V and ±(10-20) mA. Beyond this
range, the output will be nonlinearly distorted (e.g. cut-off). In normal applications input amplitude
should never exceed the dc supply values, remaining below the positive supply value and above
the negative supply value at all times.

Vo

Positive
saturation
VCC1

Vd

-VCC2
negative
saturation

Figure 3.5 Transfer characteristics of practical operational amplifier

Limited Bandwidth

Practical op amps offer frequency response characteristics from zero hertz to upper limits of
approximately 100 KHz or more. The typical frequency response (open-loop) is single-time-constant
(STC) low-pass response shown below.

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 Figure 3.6 Frequency response of open-loop op amp

Most op-amps have very small band width and very large gain which is unacceptable for
practical use. Consequently, we can use closed loop operation to trade off gain to bandwidth. As
long as the gain band width product is not changed, we will have the new cut-off frequency
given by

Where

• or is the 3-dB corner frequency of the op-amp without feedback

• or is the unity-gain frequency of the op-amp without feedback

• is the gain of the closed loop system

Slew rate

Another nonlinear distortion for large output signals are so-called slew-rate limiting. This refers to
the maximum allow rate of change of signal, defined as:

Non-linear SR limiting can be illustrated using a sine wave output:

The changing rate is given by

So the maximum changing rate is given by , which depends on both the maximum output voltage
and frequency. If exceeds maximum SR, distortion happens as shown below.

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Offset Voltages

Practical open-loop op-amps have non-zero output even when there is no applied input voltage
called output offset voltage. This voltage is mainly caused by the mismatch of amplifier the
internal circuit parameters. The corresponding input voltage required to produce zero output is
defined as input offset voltage (Vos). The input offset voltage can be modeled as the dc voltage
in series with a hypothetical offset free op-amp. Many op amps provide external terminals
specifically for offset adjustment. This adjustment is a potentiometer which changes the biasing
of the two transistors of the diff amp which makes the output voltage as close to zero as possible.

Actual Op-amp

Vos
Offset-free op-amp

Offset and Bias Currents

In a practical op-amp, both input terminal are supplied with dc currents to function. Generally, the bias
current of the inverting terminal is different from that of the non-inverting terminal. When the op-amp is
operated in a closed loop the bias currents will start to circulate in the external circuit elements producing
non-zero output voltage. These two currents are modeled with two current sources as shown in the figure
below. The average of these two currents is referred as input bias current. The different between these two
currents is referred as input offset current.

IB1

-
IB2

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3.3 APPLICATION OF OP-AMPS

3.3.1 OP-AMP AMPLIFERS

Since the operational amplifier has two inputs, it has three possible amplifier configurations:

Inverting amplifier

Non inverting amplifier

Difference amplifier
In each of the three main configurations when used for amplification of signals a fraction of the
output voltage is applied back to the inverting input, i.e. negative voltage feedback, either series
or shunt, is employed.

[A] INVERTING AMPLIFIER

One of the most widely used op amp circuit configuration is the inverting amplifier. An amplifier
of this type is defined as a circuit that receives a signal voltage at its inverting input and delivers
a large output while the non inverting input is grounded. The phase or polarity of the output
signal is an inversion of the input. The level of amplification is controlled by the feedback
resistor connected between the inverting input and the output. This causes the amplifier to have a
negative feedback. The addition of a feedback resistor permits the amplifier to have a controlled
level of amplification.

R2

R1
-

VS Vo
+

Figure 3.7: Inverting amplifier

The corresponding small signal representations for approximate ideal op-amp are depicted in the figures
3.8 (a) and (b).
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 Rf

R1 Ro = 0 I R1 Rf
+ + + +
-AvVi
VS Vi Ri -AvVi V o
VS Vi Vo
_ =∞ _ _
_

Figure 3.8 (a) Small signal model. (b) Simplified circuit using ideal op-amp characteristics.

Pertaining to figure 3.8(b),

But, vo=-Av vi, then,

Rearranging terms, we could get

Now, substituting vi =- vo /Av in the above equation we could reach at

For op-amps as it was true that Av is very large, the above equation lends itself for simplification so
that the following important relation between the input and the output is obtained.

In general, the foregoing analysis was somewhat tiresome, and we are forced to look for simpler analysis
method relaying on the properties of op-amp. Op-amps are designed to have very large input impedance,
thereby allowing very small amount of current to enter the input terminals. Besides, they have very large
gain so that the differential input is negligible compared to the output. These two characteristics of op-
amp will help as to assume a fictitious ground at the input terminals called virtual ground. Virtual ground
is an assumption where the current and voltage are zero at the specified node.

Now, let us analysis the previous circuit using virtual ground technique.

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 Rf

I R1 I Rf
+
R1 Vs
Ii=0 - Ii=0 vi=0
Vo
VS vi=0 Vo
+

Virtual ground

Figure 3.9 Virtual ground representation

Using either of the above figures,

Therefore,

This is exactly similar to the previous result. Thanks to the virtual ground method!

[B] NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

In this case the input signal is connected to the positive (non-inverting) terminal of the op-amp as shown
in fig. 3.10.

Vs
Ii=0

+ Vs Rf
Vo Vo
vi=0
-

Rf R1

R1

Figure 3.10: non-inverting amplifier

Using virtua1 ground technique,

Therefore,
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Thus, the output is in phase to the input and is scale by a constant factor.

[C] THE DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

By using both the inverting input and the non inverting input at the same time we get what is
called a difference or differential amplifier, whose output voltage is proportional to the voltage
difference as shown in the figure.
R2

R1
-
Vo
V1 R3
+
R4
V2

Figure 3.11 Difference amplifier

Each of the two input signal will produce its own component of the total output signal, which is
independent from the other input signal. We may easily determine the resulting output signal by
using the principle of superposition.

First, setting to be zero we have an inverting amplifier with output given by

Next, by setting only equal to zero, the circuit now resembles a non inverting amplifier whose
output is given by

Where, is the effective voltage at the non inverting input, which is equal to:

Substituting this value into the above equation, we could have,

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The resulting output signal from both signal sources simultaneously is the sum of the two.

Therefore:

If we choose the resistor values in such a way that R1=R4 and R2 = R3, then the output will be
expressed as,

3.3.2 OP AMPS FOR ANALOG COMPUTING

Literally, there are thousands of applications in which op-amps are used. The primary use of op
amps is to manipulate mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration,
differentiation and so on. In fact, the term operational amplifier was originally derived from the
use of electronic circuitry to perform various mathematical operations. This section presents
some useful operational amplifier circuits that, for the most part, are extensions of circuits
covered previously.

[A] SUMMER

A summing amplifier is an amplifier whose output is proportional to the weighted sum of the
signals applied to its inputs. Summing amplifiers are used in applications where linear mixing of
several signal is required. For example, in the recording of music the signals produced by various
instruments and voices must be combined and processed to produce a record.
The nearly ideal nature of the inverting amplifier can be utilized effectively to design a summing
amplifier. An n-input op-amp based summing amplifier is shown in the figure 3.12.

V1
R1

V2
R2

Vn
V R1n
I1 Rf

IF
I2
-
G
In Vo
+

Figure 3.12 summing amplifier

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Appling KCL to node G, we can write

Because of the virtual ground at the node G, we may define the current terms as follows:

… , and

Substituting these into the above result, yields

Therefore,

Thus, if we select the values of the resistors so that , then the output voltage can
be conveniently written as

Except the negative sign and the scaling factor, the above result clearly shows that the output is
the sum of the inputs.
One of the special cases of summer amplifier is averaging circuit. If we chose equal values of
input resistors and if we take the feedback resistor to have a value such that , where n is
the number of inputs, we could perform the average of the input signals.

[B] SUBTRACTOR

There are many possible ways to construct an analogue subtractor. One is that we can make use of an
inverting amplifier in front of the input signal which is going to be subtracted from the other signal.
Figure 3.13 shows subtractor circuit.

V1
R Rf
- R1

+ -V1
-
Vo
V2 R2 +

Figure 3.13 Subtractor amplifier

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The output of the above circuit is simply,

[C] DIFFERENTIOR

A differentiating circuit produces an output voltage which is proportional to the rate of change of
the input voltage. RC circuits in combination with op-amps can be used to design an analog
differentiator.
I2 R

C
I1
-
Vo
Vi(t)
+

Figure 3.14 Differentiation amplifier

Employing virtual ground concept,

and

Using KCL

Rearranging terms, we could find

[D] INTEGRATOR

An integrating circuit is one which produces an output that is directly proportional to the area
under the input wave shape at every instant. The placement of the capacitor and resistor in
integrators are exactly opposite in to that of differentiator circuits as shown below.

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 I2 C

I1 R
-
Vo
Vi(t)
+

Figure 3.15 Integrating amplifier

Employing virtual ground concept,

and

Using KCL

Integrating both sides, may give us

[F] MULTIPLIER

In analog computing direct multiplication and division is not possible. However, we can take the
advantage of the additive property of logarithm and the ability of op amps to add and amplify signal
logarithmically. Figure 3.16 shows logarithmic op amp multiplier or divider, depending on the sign of the
outputs of the log amplifier. Each of the amplifiers is discussed here under.

V1 Log

Adder Antilog Vo

V2 Log

Figure 3.16 Logarithmic multiplier

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Log Amplifier

A logarithmic amplifier is an amplifier for which the output voltage is proportional to the logarithm of the
input voltage. In order to perform such operation a device that operate nonlinearly (logarithmically) can
be used to control the gain of the op amp. One such device is the semiconductor diode. The diode is
placed rather than the resistor to provide a feedback signal as shown in figure 3.16.

I2 D

R
I1 -
Vo
Vi +

Figure 3.16 Simple logarithmic amplifiers

Utilizing the concept of virtual ground to figure 3.16, we may write

The forward transfer characteristics of the diode is closely expressed by

Using KCL , we can combine the above two results such that

Rearranging terms and taking the natural logarithm of both sides, we can write

Thus, the output is directly proportional to the logarithm of the input.

Antilog Amplifier

Figure 3.17 show an antilog amplifier. The output of this amplifier is mathematically expressed as

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 I2 R

D
I1 -
Vo
Vi +

Figure 3.17 Antilog Amplifier

3.3.3 OTHER OP-AMP APPLICATION

Up to this point, we had been discussing the application of op-amps in analog computing. Now, we will
extend our discussion to account for few some other useful applications of op-amp.

[A] BUFFER

A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an input signal from a load by using a stage
having unity voltage gain, with no phase or polarity inversion, and acting as an ideal circuit with
very high input impedance and low output impedance. Figure 3.18 shows an op-amp connected
to provide this buffer amplifier operation.

-
Vo

Vi +

Figure 3.18 Voltage Buffer circuit

[B] VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTOR

Sometimes it may be necessary to convert voltage to current. Operational op-amps can be used to
perform such operation by replacing the feedback resistor with load.

Io
Load
Zo
I1 R
-
Vo
+
Vi

Figure 3.19 Simple voltage to current convertor

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For the input voltage connected to the positive terminal, the current through the load is given by

[C] CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR

Figure 3.18 is an op-amp circuit to convert current to voltage. Due to the virtual ground at the amplifier
input, the current through the source resistor is essentially zero and flows through the feedback resistor R.
Thus the output is given by

The output voltage is directly proportional to the input current.

R
I

-
Vo
IS RS +

Figure 3.20 Current to voltage convertor

References:

1 ROBERT BOYLEST AND LOUIS NASHELSKY, ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY,7 th EDITION

2 JACOB MILLMAN ,MICROELECTRONICS, 2ND EDITION

3 DENTON J.DAILEY, OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND LINEAR INTEGRATED, Chapter-2, Chapter-3,and Chapter-
4

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