Chapter 1

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite

technology. Its fundamental technique involves measuring the ranges between the
receiver and a few simultaneously observed satellites, and the positions of the
satellites are forecasted and broadcasted along with the GPS signal to the user.
Through several known positions (of the satellites) and the measured distances
between the receiver and the satellites, the position of the receiver can be deter-
mined. The position change, which can also be determined, is then the velocity of
the receiver. The most important applications of GPS are positioning and
navigation.
Through its evolution over the past few decades, GPS has now come to be
known even by school children. It has been extensively applied in several areas,
including air, sea, and land navigation, low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite orbit deter-
mination, static and kinematic positioning, and flight-state monitoring, as well as
surveying. Its wide utility has made GPS a necessity for industry, research, edu-
cation, and daily life.
For example, joggers wishing to determine their location using a GPS watch can
do so very simply, merely by pressing a key. The underlying principles of such an
application, however, are complex, and include knowledge of electronics, orbital
mechanics, atmospheric science, geodesy, relativity theory, mathematics, adjust-
ment and filtering, and software engineering. Many scientists and engineers have
devoted efforts toward making GPS theory easier to understand and its applications
more precise.
Galileo is the European global positioning system, and GLONASS is the
Russian system. In China, the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System has undergone
rapid development in recent years. The positioning and navigation principles of
these systems are nearly the same as those of the US GPS system. With very few
exceptions, GPS theory and algorithms can be directly used for the Galileo,
GLONASS, and BeiDou systems. The global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
of the future will likely feature a combination of the GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and
BeiDou systems.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016 1
G. Xu and Y. Xu, GPS, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-50367-6_1
2 Chapter 1
Introduction

In order to describe the distance measurement using a mathematical model,

coordinates, and time systems, the orbital motion of the satellite and GPS observa-
tions must be discussed (Chaps. 2–4). The physical influences on GPS measurement
such as ionospheric and tropospheric effects also must be dealt with (Chap. 5).
Linearised observation equations can then be formed using various methods, such as
data combination and differentiation as well as the equivalent technique (Chap. 6).
The equation system may be full-rank or rank-deficient and may need to be solved in
a post-processing or a quasi-real-time way, so the various adjustment and filtering
methods shall be discussed (Chap. 7). For precise GPS applications, phase obser-
vations must be used, and therefore the ambiguity problem must be dealt with
(Chap. 8). The algorithms of parameterisation and the equivalence theorem as well as
standard algorithms of GPS data processing can then be discussed (Chap. 9).
Applications of GPS theory and algorithms to GPS/Galileo software development
will be sequentially outlined, and the concept of precise kinematic positioning and
flight-state monitoring from practical experience will be present (Chap. 10). The
theory of dynamic GPS applications for perturbed orbit determination based on the
above-referenced theory will then be described (Chap. 11). Singularity-free orbits
theory will be outlined and discussed for the purpose of a combined analytical and
numerical orbit determination (Chap. 12). Discussions and comments will be pre-
sented in the final chapter. Thus the contents and structure of this book are organised
in a logical sequence.
The book covers kinematic, static, and dynamic GPS theory and algorithms.
Most of the content is refined theory that has been applied to the independently
developed scientific GPS software, KSGSoft (Kinematic and Static GPS Software)
and MFGSoft (Multi-Functional GPS/Galileo Software), and which was obtained
from extensive research on individual problems. Because of our strong research and
application background, we are able to describe complex theories comfortably and
with confidence. A brief summary of the contents is given in the preface.
Numerous GPS and GPS-related books are frequently quoted and carefully
studied. Some of these are strongly suggested for further reading, e.g., Bauer
(1994), Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. (2001), King et al. (1987), Kleusberg and
Teunissen (Eds.) (1996), Leick (1995), Liu et al. (1996), Parkinson and Spilker
(Eds.) (1996), Remondi (1984), Seeber (1993), Strang and Borre (1997), Wang
et al. (1988), Xu (1994), Xu (2003b, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012), Xu and Xu (2013).

1.1
A Key Note on GPS

The US Global Positioning System was designed and built and is operated and
maintained by the US Department of Defense (cf., e.g., Parkinson and Spilker
1996). The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and the system was fully
operational by the mid-1990s. The GPS constellation consists of 24 satellites in six
 1.1
A Key Note on GPS 3

orbital planes, with four satellites in each plane. The ascending nodes of the orbital
planes are equally spaced 60° apart, and the orbital planes are inclined at 55°.
Each GPS satellite is in a nearly circular orbit, with a semi-major axis of 26,578 km
and a period of about 12 h. The satellites continuously orient themselves to ensure
that their solar panels stay pointed toward the sun and their antennas toward the
earth. Each satellite carries four atomic clocks, is roughly the size of a car, and
weighs about 1000 kg. The long-term frequency stability of the clocks reaches
better than a few parts in 10−13 over the course of a day (cf. Scherrer 1985). The
atomic clocks aboard the satellite produce the fundamental L-band frequency,
10.23 MHz.
The GPS satellites are monitored by five base stations. The main base station is
in Colorado Springs, CO, and the other four are located on Ascension Island
(Atlantic Ocean), Diego Garcia (Indian Ocean), Kwajalein, and Hawaii (both
Pacific Ocean). All stations are equipped with precise caesium clocks and receivers
to determine the broadcast ephemerides and to model the satellite clocks.
Ephemerides and clock adjustments are transmitted to the satellites, which in turn
use these updates in the signals that they send to GPS receivers.
Each GPS satellite transmits data on three frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz), L2
(1227.60 MHz), and L5 (1176.45 MHz). The L1, L2, and L5 carrier frequencies
are generated by multiplying the fundamental frequency by 154, 120, and 115,
respectively. Pseudorandom noise (PRN) codes, along with satellite ephemerides,
ionospheric models, and satellite clock corrections are superimposed onto the
carrier frequencies L1, L2, and L5. The measured transmission times of the signals
that travel from the satellites to the receivers are used to compute the pseudoranges.
The course/acquisition (C/A) code, sometimes called the Standard Positioning
Service (SPS), is a pseudorandom noise code that is modulated onto the L1 carrier.
The precision (P) code, sometimes called the Precise Positioning Service (PPS), is
modulated onto the L1, L2, and L5 carriers, allowing for the removal of the effects
of the ionosphere.
GPS was conceived as a ranging system from known positions of satellites in
space to unknown positions on land and sea, as well as in air and space. The orbits
of the GPS satellites are available by broadcast or by the International Geodetic
Service (IGS) . IGS orbits are precise ephemerides after post-processing or
quasi-real-time processing. All GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into
their computer, which tells them where each satellite is at any given moment. The
almanac is a data file containing information on orbits and clock corrections for all
satellites. It is transmitted by a GPS satellite to a GPS receiver, where it facilitates
rapid satellite vehicle acquisition within the GPS receivers. The GPS receivers
detect, decode, and process the signals received from the satellites to create the data
for code, phase, and Doppler observables. The data may be available in real time or
saved for downloading. The receiver internal software is usually used to process the
real-time data with the single point positioning method and to output the infor-
mation to the user. Because of the limitation of the receiver software, precise
positioning and navigating are usually carried out by an external computer with
4 Chapter 1
Introduction

more powerful software. The fundamental contribution of GPS for users of the
system is to inform them of their location, movements, and timing.
As the GPS technology has moved into the civilian sector, its applications have
become almost limitless, and understanding GPS has become a necessity.

1.1.1
GPS Modernization

GPS modernization is an ongoing effort to upgrade with new, advanced capabilities

to meet growing military, civil, and commercial needs (GPS.gov 2015). A major
focus of the GPS modernization program is the addition of new navigation signals
to the satellite constellation. The program also involves a series of consecutive
satellite acquisitions (Shaw 2011) and improvements to the GPS control segment
(Bailey 2014). The specific initiatives involved in GPS modernization include the
following.
Ending Selective Availability
The first step in the GPS modernization program occurred in May 2000, when
the use of Selective Availability (SA) was ended. SA was an intentional degradation
of civilian GPS accuracy implemented on a global basis from the GPS satellites.
Prior to its deactivation, civil GPS readings could be off by up to 100 m. After SA
was turned off, civil GPS accuracy was instantly improved by an order of magni-
tude, benefiting civil and commercial users worldwide.
In September 2007, the US government announced its decision to procure the
future generation of GPS satellites, known as GPS III, without the SA feature. This
makes the policy decision of 2000 permanent and eliminates a source of uncertainty
in GPS performance that had been of concern to civil GPS users worldwide.
New Civil Signals
The central focus of the GPS modernization program is the addition of new
navigation signals to the satellite constellation (Enge 2003). Three new signals are
designed for civilian use: L2C, L5, and L1C. The legacy civil signal, called L1 C/A
or C/A at L1, will continue broadcasting in the future, for a total of four civil GPS
signals. The new signals are phasing in incrementally as new GPS satellites are
launched to replace older ones. Most of the new signals will be of limited use until
they are broadcast from 18 to 24 satellites.
L2C is the second civilian GPS signal, designed specifically to meet commercial
needs. When combined with L1 C/A in a dual-frequency receiver, L2C enables
ionospheric correction. Civilians with dual-frequency GPS receivers can achieve
the same accuracy as the military. L2C delivers faster signal acquisition, enhanced
 1.1
A Key Note on GPS 5

reliability, and greater operating range. It also broadcasts at a higher effective power
than the legacy L1 C/A signal, making it easier to receive under trees and even
indoors.
L5 is the third civilian GPS signal, broadcast in a radio band reserved exclu-
sively for aviation safety services. With protected spectrum, higher power, greater
bandwidth features, L5 is designed to support safety-of-life transportation and other
high-performance applications. It will provide users worldwide with the most
advanced civilian GPS signal. In combination with L1 C/A, L5 will be used to
improve accuracy through ionospheric correction and robustness via signal
redundancy. When used in combination with L1 C/A and L2C, L5 will provide a
highly robust service.
L1C is the fourth civilian GPS signal, designed to enable interoperability
between GPS and international satellite navigation systems. The design will
improve mobile GPS reception in cities and other challenging environments.
Japan’s Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), the Indian Regional Navigation
Satellite System (IRNSS), and China’s BeiDou system also adopt L1C-like signals
for international interoperability.
New GPS Satellites
The GPS constellation is a mix of new and legacy satellites. And the GPS
modernization program involves a series of consecutive satellite acquisitions,
including GPS IIR(M), GPS IIF, and GPS III.
The IIR(M) series of satellites is an upgraded version of the IIR series, com-
pleting the backbone of today’s GPS constellation. The new civil and military GPS
signal known as L2C is added to this generation of spacecraft. It has a 7.5-year
design lifespan. It was launched in 2005–2009, and there are seven healthy IIR(M)
satellites in the GPS constellation.
The IIF series expands on the capabilities of the IIR(M) series with the addition
of a third civil signal on the L5 frequency for safety-of-life transportation appli-
cations. Compared to previous generations, GPS IIF satellites have a longer life
expectancy and a higher accuracy requirement. Each spacecraft uses advanced
atomic clocks. The IIF series will improve the accuracy, signal strength, and quality
of GPS. It has a 12-year design lifespan. It was launched in 2010, and there are ten
operational IIF satellites in the GPS constellation.
The III series is the most currently developed and the newest block of GPS
satellites, adding a fourth civil signal on L1 (L1C). GPS III will provide more
powerful signals in addition to enhanced signal reliability, accuracy, and integrity,
all of which will support position, navigation, and timing services. It has a 15-year
design lifespan and is planned to begin launching in 2016.
The Control Segment Upgrades
As part of the GPS modernization program, the GPS control segment has been
continuously upgraded, including the Legacy Accuracy Improvement Initiative
(L-AII); Architecture Evolution Plan (AEP); Launch and early orbit, Anomaly
6 Chapter 1
Introduction

resolution, and Disposal Operations (LADO); Next Generation Operational Control

System (OCX), and Launch Checkout Capability (LCC).
The L-AII, completed in 2008, expanded the number of monitoring sites in the
operational control segment from 6 to 16, which is a 10–15 % improvement in the
accuracy of the information broadcast from the GPS constellation. Ten operational
GPS monitoring sites were added to help define the earth reference frame used by
GPS.
In September 2007, the original legacy master control station was upgraded to an
entirely new one. The AEP improved the flexibility and responsiveness of GPS
operations and paved the way forward for the next generation of GPS space and
control capabilities. AEP improves both monitoring stations and ground antennas,
substantially improving the sustainability and accuracy of GPS. AEP is capable of
managing all satellites in the constellation, including the new Block IIF satellites. It
also features an alternate master control station, a fully operational backup for the
master control station.
The GPS master control station can command and control a constellation of up
to 32 satellites. The LADO system serves three primary functions. The first is
telemetry, tracking, and control. The second is the planning and execution of
satellite movements during LADO. The third function is LADO simulation of
different telemetry tasks for GPS payloads and subsystems. The LADO system has
been upgraded several times since 2007. In October 2010, a new version adding
GPS Block IIF capability was accepted, following testing during the launch of the
first GPS IIF satellite.
The OCX was developed in 2008, and will add many new capabilities to the
GPS control segment, including the ability to fully control the modernized civil
signals (L2C, L5, and L1C). It will be delivered in increments. OCX Block 1 will
replace the existing command and control segment and support the mission oper-
ations of the initial GPS III satellites. This version will introduce the full capabilities
of the L2C navigation signal. OCX Block 1 is scheduled to enter service in 2016.
OCX Block 2 will support, monitor, and control additional navigation signals,
including L1C and L5. OCX Block 3 will support new capabilities added to future
versions of GPS III. Any increments beyond OCX Block 3 will be phased to
support future satellite generations.
The LCC is a command and control centre that will check out all GPS III
satellites. The LCC will be fully integrated with OCX, which will allow the
operation of a single OCX-centric system that can sustain the GPS constellation
from launch to disposal. The LCC component of OCX will be delivered prior to
OCX Block 1 in order to support the launch and check out of the first GPS III
satellite, scheduled for launch in 2015. The LCC will ensure a timely launch so
constellation availability remains optimal and not impacted by the late discovery of
problems.
 1.2
A Brief Message About GLONASS 7

1.2
A Brief Message About GLONASS

GLONASS is the GNSS managed by the Russian Space Forces and is operated by
the Coordination Scientific Information Centre (KNITs) of the Russian Defence
Ministry. The system is comparable to the US GPS, and the two systems share the
same principles of data transmission and positioning methods. The first GLONASS
satellite was launched into orbit in 1982. The system consists of 21 satellites in
three orbital planes, with three in-orbit spares. The ascending nodes of the three
orbital planes are separated by 120°, and the satellites within the same orbital plane
are equally spaced 45° apart. The difference in arguments of latitude for satellites in
equivalent slots in two different orbital planes is 15°. Each satellite operates in
nearly circular orbit, with a semi-major axis of 25,510 km. Each orbital plane has
an inclination angle of 64.8°, and each satellite completes an orbit in approximately
11 h 16 min.
Caesium clocks are used on board the GLONASS satellites. The stability of the
clocks reaches better than a few parts in 10−13 over a day. The satellites transmit
coded signals in two frequencies located on two frequency bands, 1602–
1615.5 MHz and 1246–1256.5 MHz, with a frequency interval of 0.5625 and
0.4375 MHz, respectively. The antipodal satellites, which are separated by 180° in
the same orbital plane in argument of latitude, transmit on the same frequency. The
signals can be received by users anywhere on the earth’s surface to identify their
position and velocity in real time based on ranging measurements. Coordinate and
time systems used in GLONASS are different from those of the US GPS, and
GLONASS satellites are distinguished by slightly different carrier frequencies
rather than PRN codes. The ground control stations of GLONASS are maintained
only in the territory of the former Soviet Union, for historical reasons. This lack of
global coverage is not optimal for the monitoring of a GNSS.
GLONASS and GPS are not entirely compatible; however, they are generally
interoperable. Combining the GLONASS and GPS resources will benefit the GNSS
user community not only in increased accuracy, but also in higher system integrity
on a worldwide basis.

1.2.1
The Development of GLONASS

GLONASS is once again approaching full operation (Urlichich et al. 2011).

Twenty-four satellites are currently in service, providing continuous global cov-
erage (Mirgorodskaya 2013; Testoyedov 2015). These are modernized GLONASS
or GLONASS-M satellites, transmitting the legacy frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) navigation signals in the L1 and L2 frequency bands.
8 Chapter 1
Introduction

The structure of the navigation signals transmitted by the satellites determines

the accuracy of the pseudorange measurements and affects a user’s position ac-
curacy. Evolution of the GLONASS navigation signals is a top priority for overall
system development. A new version of the satellites, GLONASS-K, will broadcast
a code division multiple access (CDMA) signal in the L3 band for the first time in
the system’s history. In addition to the change in signal parameters, new navigation
information will be transmitted to users through this signal and will also become
available in the L1 and L2 bands (Urlichich et al. 2010, 2011). The evolution of
GNSS augmentation is another important aspect in the development of GLONASS.
The Russian satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) and the System for
Differential Correction and Monitoring (SDCM) are in the deployment phase. Thus,
interoperability and compatibility with other SBASs become important.
Navigation Signals
The main aspect for GLONASS development is an extension of the ensemble of
navigation signals (Revnivykh 2007). This extension means that new CDMA
signals in the L1, L2, and L3 bands are being added to the existing FDMA signals.
The GLONASS satellites will continue to broadcast the legacy signals until the last
receiver stops working.
The first phase in the implementation of CDMA technology on GLONASS-K
satellites includes a new signal in the L3 band on a carrier frequency of
1202.025 MHz. The ranging code chipping rate for the CDMA signal is 10.23
megachips per second with a period of 1 ms. It is modulated onto the carrier using
quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), with an in-phase data channel and a
quadrature pilot channel.
GLONASS Augmentation Development
SDCM has been under development since 2002. The main elements of the
system, including the network of reference stations in Russia and abroad, the central
processing facility (CPF), and the SDCM information distribution channel, have
been designed.
Ground Stations. The SDCM uses 14 monitoring stations in Russia and two in
Antarctica. Eight more monitoring stations are being added in Russia and several
more outside Russia (Revnivykh 2010).
Central Processing. Raw measurements (GLONASS and GPS L1 and L2
pseudorange and carrier phase measurements) from the ground stations come to the
SDCM CPF. The CPF calculates the precise satellite ephemerides and clocks,
controls integrity, and generates the SBAS messages. The format of these messages
is compliant with the international standards also used by the Wide Area
Augmentation System (WAAS), the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
Service (EGNOS), and the Japanese Multifunctional Transport Satellite (MTSAT)
Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS).
Format Limitations. The current SBAS format has limited capacity for broad-
casting corrections for GLONASS and GPS satellites combined. There is space for
 1.2
A Brief Message About GLONASS 9

only 51 satellites, insufficient for the current number of satellites in orbit, and
studies are looking into the efficiency of SDCM data broadcasting in an attempt to
resolve this contradiction. The three main options involve using a dynamic satellite
mask, using two CDMA signals, or providing an additional SBAS message.
Distribution. The main advantage of SBAS is its universal space channel to
users. The SDCM orbit constellation will consist of three geostationary satellites
from the multifunctional space relay system Luch, which will be used to relay
communications between low earth-orbiting spacecraft and ground facilities in
Russia. The satellites will also include transponders for relaying SDCM signals
from CPF to users.
The development of GLONASS is entering a new historical phase. New CDMA
navigation signals and deployment of a national SBAS system will provide not only
a new quality of navigation service, but the basis for a regional precise navigation
system with an accuracy of a few decimetres for users in Russia and neighbouring
countries.

1.3
Basic Information on Galileo

Galileo is a GNSS created by the European Union (EU) and the European Space
Agency (ESA) to provide a highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service
under civilian control (cf., e.g., ESA homepage). While it is designed as an inde-
pendent navigation system, Galileo will nonetheless be interoperable with the other
two global satellite navigation systems, GPS and GLONASS. A user will be able to
position with the same receiver from any of the satellites in any combination.
Galileo will guarantee availability of service with higher accuracy.
The first Galileo satellite, 2.7 × 1.2 × 1.1 m in size and weighing 650 kg, was
launched in December 2005. The Galileo constellation consists of 30 Medium Earth
orbit (MEO) satellites in three orbital planes with nine equally spaced operational
satellites in each plane plus one inactive spare satellite. The ascending nodes of the
orbital planes are equally spaced by 120°. The orbital planes are inclined 56°. Each
Galileo satellite is in a nearly circular orbit, with a semi-major axis of 29,600 km
(cf. ESA homepage) and a period of about 14 h. The Galileo satellite rotates about
its earth-pointing axis such that the flat surface of the solar array always faces the
sun to collect maximum solar energy. The deployed solar array spans 13 m. The
antennas always point toward the earth. Once the fully deployed Galileo system is
achieved, the Galileo navigation signals will provide good coverage even at lati-
tudes up to 75°N. The large number of satellites together with the carefully opti-
mised constellation design, plus the availability of the three active spare satellites,
will ensure that the loss of one satellite has no discernible effect on the user.
10 Chapter 1
Introduction

The Galileo satellite has four clocks, two of each type (passive maser and
rubidium, stabilities: 0.45 and 1.8 ns over 12 h, respectively). At any time, only one
of each type is operational. The operating maser clock produces the reference
frequency from which the navigation signal is generated. If the maser clock were to
fail, the operating rubidium clock takes over instantaneously, and the two reserve
clocks start up. The second maser clock takes the place of the rubidium clock after a
few days when it is fully operational. The rubidium clock then goes on stand-by or
reserve again. In this way, the Galileo satellite is guaranteed to generate a navi-
gation signal at all times.
Galileo will provide ten navigation signals in right-handed circular polarization
(RHCP) in the frequency ranges 1164–1215 MHz (E5a and E5b), 1215–1300 MHz
(E6), and 1559–1592 MHz (E2-L1-E1) (cf. Hein et al. 2004). The interoperability
and compatibility of Galileo and GPS is realized by having two common centre
frequencies in E5a/L5 and L1 as well as adequate geodetic coordinate and time
reference frames.

1.3.1
The Development of Galileo

On 21 October 2011, the first two of four satellites designed to validate the Galileo
concept both in space and on land became operational. Two more followed on 12
October 2012. This in-orbit validation (IOV) phase is now followed by additional
satellite launches to reach initial operational capability (IOC) by mid-decade
(Blanchard 2012). Galileo services will come with quality and integrity guarantees,
marking the key difference of this first complete civil positioning system from the
military systems that have come before. A range of services will be extended as the
system is built up from IOC to reach full operational capability (FOC) by 2020.
Two Galileo Control Centres (GCCs) have been implemented in Europe to
provide control of the satellites and to perform navigation mission management.
The data provided by a global network of Galileo Sensor Stations (GSSs) will be
sent to the GCCs through a redundant communications network. The GCCs will use
the data from the sensor stations to compute the integrity information and to syn-
chronise the time signal of all satellites with the ground station clocks. The
exchange of data between the control centres and the satellites will be performed
through up-link stations.
As an additional feature, Galileo provides a global search and rescue
(SAR) function, based on the operational Cospas-Sarsat system (Bosco 2011). To
do so, satellites are equipped with a transponder, which is able to transfer the
distress signals from the user transmitters to regional rescue coordination centres,
which will then initiate the rescue operation. At the same time, the system will send
a response signal to the user, informing them that their situation has been detected
and that help is on the way. This latter feature is new and is considered a major
 1.3
Basic Information on Galileo 11

upgrade compared to the existing system, which does not provide feedback to the
user (cf. ESA homepage 2015).

1.4
Introduction of BeiDou

The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) , also known as BeiDou-2, is

China’s second-generation satellite navigation system that will be capable of pro-
viding positioning, navigation, and timing services to users on a continuous
worldwide basis (ESA Navipedia 2014).
BDS consists of three major components: the space constellation, the ground
control segment and the user segment. The space constellation consists of five GEO
satellites, 27 MEO satellites, and three IGSO satellites. The GEO satellites are
positioned at 58.75°E, 80°E, 110.5°E, 140°E, and 160°E, respectively. The MEO
satellites operate in orbit at an altitude of 21,500 km and an inclination of 55° and
are evenly distributed in three orbital planes. The IGSO satellites operate in orbit at
an altitude of 36,000 km and an inclination of 55° and are evenly distributed in
three IGSO planes. The tracks of sub-satellite points for those IGSO satellites
coincide, with the intersection point at a longitude of 118°E, and a phase difference
of 120°. The ground control segment consists of a Master Control Station (MCS),
Time Synchronization/Upload Stations (TS/US), and Monitor Stations (MS). The
main tasks of MCS are collecting observational data from each MS, processing
data, generating satellite navigation messages, uploading navigation messages,
monitoring satellite payload, performing mission planning and scheduling, and
conducting system operation and control. The main tasks of TS/US are uploading
navigation messages, exchanging data with MCS, and carrying out time synchro-
nization and measurement under the general coordination of MCS. The main tasks
of MS are the continuous tracking and monitoring of navigation satellites, receiving
navigation signals, and providing observational data to the MCS for generating
navigation messages. Three signals are designed for use: B1, B2, and B3. The user
segment encompasses various BeiDou user terminals, including those compatible
with other navigation satellite systems, to meet various application requirements
from different fields and industries.
The BeiDou Time (BDT) system is used as the time reference for BDS, and the
China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000) is used as the coordinate
framework of BDS. Upon full system completion, BDS can provide positioning,
velocity measurement, and timing services to users worldwide. It can also provide
wide area differential services with accuracy of better than 1 m, as well as short
message services with a capacity of 120 Chinese characters per message.
12 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.4.1
The Development of BeiDou

BDS is steadily accelerating construction based on a “three-step” development

strategy as follows:
Step I BeiDou Navigation Satellite Demonstration System. The BeiDou
Navigation Satellite Demonstration System consists of three major
components: the space constellation, the ground control segment, and the
user segment. The space constellation includes three GEO satellites,
positioned at 80°E, 110.5°E, and 140°E, respectively, above the equator.
The ground control segment consists of the ground control centre and a
number of calibration stations. The ground control centre completes
satellite orbit determination, ionospheric correction, user location deter-
mination, and user short message information exchanging and processing.
The calibration stations mainly provide the distance measurement and six
correction parameters to the ground control centre. The user segment
includes hand-held type, vehicle type, command type, and other types of
terminals, which are capable of sending positioning requests and
receiving location information.
Step II BDS regional services. In 2004, China initiated the construction of the
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. By the end of 2012, BDS consisted
of 14 operational satellites in orbit, including five GEO satellites, five
IGSO satellites, and four MEO satellites, and possessed FOC for China
and the surrounding areas.
Step III BDS global services. From 2014, additional satellites were launched,
while regional service performances are advanced and expanded to the
worldwide scope. Approximately 40 BeiDou navigation satellites in total
will have been launched by about 2020, and the system with global
coverage will be fully established.
Currently, BDS is under continuous and stable operation. As of 25 October
2012, 16 BeiDou navigation satellites had been launched to form the constellation,
and they had entered into operation by the end of 2012. It possesses FOC and
provides continuous passive positioning, navigation, and timing services to China
and surrounding areas (China Satellite Navigation Office 2013).
Along with the construction of BDS and the development of service capabilities,
BDS has been widely applied in many fields including transportation, marine
fisheries, disaster forecasting, weather forecasting, forest fire prevention, time
synchronization for telecommunication systems, power distribution, and disaster
relief and reduction.
 1.5
A Combined Global Navigation Satellite System 13

Table 1.1 Frequencies of each GNSS constellation

GNSS Frequency band Frequency (MHz)
system
GPS L1/L2/L5 1575.42/1227.60/1176.45
GLONASS G1/G2/G3 1602 + n*9/16
1246 + n*716
1202.025
n = −7 * +12
Galileo E1/E5a/E5b/E5 1575.42/1176.45/1207.140/1191.795/1278.75
(E5a + E5b)/E6
BDS B1/B2/B3 1561.098/1207.14/1268.52

1.5
A Combined Global Navigation Satellite System

With the development of the Galileo and BeiDou systems, the GPS and GLONASS
systems now face direct competition. Without a doubt, this has a positive influence
on the modernisation of the GPS system and the further development of the
GLONASS system. Multiple navigation systems operating independently help
increase awareness and accuracy of real-time positioning and navigation. The
GNSS of the future will inevitably comprise a combined system featuring an
aggregation of the GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou systems. A constellation
of hundreds of satellites among the four systems greatly increases the visibility of
the satellites, especially in critical areas such as urban canyons. Many studies on
multi-GNSS combinations have been conducted in recent years (Wang et al. 2001;
Cai and Gao 2013; Li et al. 2015). It is expected that multi-GNSS combinations will
significantly increase the number of observed satellites, optimize spatial geometry
and the dilution of precision, and improve convergence, accuracy, continuity, and
reliability. However, a minimum requirement for fusion of multi-GNSS data is the
calibration of inter-system biases (ISB). Research related to ISB estimation and its
applications, as well as ISB modelling, has been brought to the forefront recently
(cf. e.g., Jiang et al. 2016).
Because GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou are independent systems, their
time and coordinate systems differ. The four time systems are all based on UTC,
and the four coordinate systems are all Cartesian systems; therefore, their rela-
tionships can be determined, and any system can be transformed from one to
another. The origins of the GPS and GLONASS coordinates are meters apart from
each other. The origins of GPS and Galileo coordinates have differences of a few
centimetres. The GPS and BeiDou coordinates have the same origin. Several carrier
frequencies are used in each system for the removal of the effects of the ionosphere.
The frequency differences within the GLONASS system and between the GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou systems are generally not a serious problem if the
carrier phase observables are considered distance surveys by multiplying the
wavelength. Table 1.1 summarizes the frequencies each GNSS constellation used.
14 Chapter 1
Introduction

In the present edition of this book, the theory and algorithms of GPSs will be
discussed in more general terms in order to take into account the differences among
the GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou systems.

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