Table of Contents

CHAPTER I. DEFINE A NETWORK ........................................................................................... 6

I.1Introduction to the networks ................................................................................................... 6
I.2 Properties of Computer networks: ......................................................................................... 6
I.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a network ......................................................................... 7
I.3.1 Some Advantages ............................................................................................................ 7
I.3.2 Some Disadvantages ....................................................................................................... 7
I.4 History of computer Network ................................................................................................ 8
I.4.1 Chronological of the most significant events in the history of computer networks ........ 9
CHAPTER II. DESCRIBE THE FACILITIES OF THE NETWORK ........................................ 10
II.1 To share the files................................................................................................................. 10
II.2 To share information .......................................................................................................... 10
II.3 To share Printer .................................................................................................................. 10
II.4 To communicate (Sending and Receiving of the messages). ............................................. 10
CHAPTER III. DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF NETWORKS ....................................................... 11
III.1 LAN (local area network) ................................................................................................. 11
III.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) ................................................................................. 11
III.3 WAN (wide area network) ................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER IV. DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN THE NETWORK TOPOLOGIES....................... 12
IV.1Star topology ...................................................................................................................... 12
IV.2 Bus topology ..................................................................................................................... 12
IV.3Ring topology..................................................................................................................... 13
IV.4 Mesh topology................................................................................................................... 14
V. INFORMATION TRANSPORT MEANS AND NETWORK CABLES MAKING .............. 17
V.1 Wired means ....................................................................................................................... 17
V.1.1 Copper (UTP-STP) ...................................................................................................... 17
V.1.2 Coaxial ......................................................................................................................... 22
V.1.3 Optical Support (Fiber Optic cable) ............................................................................ 24
V.1.4 Console cable ............................................................................................................... 26
V.1.5 Serial cable................................................................................................................... 27

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 1

 comparisons of the features of the common network media ................................................. 28
V.2 Hertzian support (Wireless)................................................................................................ 29
V.2.1 Benefits of Wireless LAN ........................................................................................... 29
V.2.2 Disadvantages of Wireless LAN ................................................................................. 30
V.2.3 LAN (Infrared, Bluetooth, Wifi, Line of sight) ........................................................... 31
V.2.4 Comparison between Bluetooth, infrared and Wi-fi.................................................... 35
V.3 Line of sight........................................................................................................................ 36
V.4 WAN: Satellite, line of sight .............................................................................................. 37
V.4.1 Satellite ........................................................................................................................ 37
V.5 Transmitting terrestrial ....................................................................................................... 38
VI. Describe network Architecture ............................................................................................... 39
VI.1 Peer to peer........................................................................................................................ 39
VI.2 Client Server architecture.................................................................................................. 40
VII. Identify connections material and define its utility ............................................................... 42
VII.1 Basic hardware components ............................................................................................ 42
VII.1.1 Network interface cards ............................................................................................ 42
VII.1.2 Repeaters ................................................................................................................... 42
VII.1.3 Hub ............................................................................................................................ 42
VII.1.4 Bridges ...................................................................................................................... 43
VII.1.5 Switches .................................................................................................................... 44
VII.1.6 Routers ...................................................................................................................... 45
VII.1.7 Firewalls .................................................................................................................... 46
VII.1.8 Gateway .................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter VIII. OSI REFERENCE MODEL .................................................................................. 47
VIII.1. Protocols and reference model ...................................................................................... 47
VIII.2. OSI Layers model .......................................................................................................... 48
VIII.3. Definition....................................................................................................................... 49
VIII.4 OSI Model layers............................................................................................................ 49
VIII.4.1. LAYER 7 – The APPLICATION Layer ................................................................ 49
VIII.4.2 LAYER 6 – The PRESENTATION Layer .............................................................. 49
VIII.4.3 LAYER 5 – The SESSION Layer ........................................................................... 50

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 2

 VIII.4.4 LAYER 4 – The TRANSPORT Layer ................................................................... 50
VIII.4.5 LAYER 3 – The NETWORK Layer ....................................................................... 51
VIII.4.6 LAYER 2 – The DATA LINK Layer ...................................................................... 51
VIII.4.7 LAYER 1 – The PHYSICAL Layer ........................................................................ 51
VIII.5. The TCP/IP model ......................................................................................................... 52
VIII.5.1. Communication process.......................................................................................... 53
VIII.6. Comparing the OSI model with the TCP/IP model ....................................................... 54
VIII.7. Network security ........................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER IX. NETWORK PROTOCOLS ................................................................................. 57
IX.1. Rules of communication .................................................................................................. 57
IX.1.1 Message Encoding ...................................................................................................... 57
IX.1.2 Message Formatting ................................................................................................... 58
IX.1.3. Message Size ............................................................................................................. 58
IX.1.4. Message Timing ........................................................................................................ 58
IX.1.5. Access Method .......................................................................................................... 58
IX.1.6. Message Patterns ....................................................................................................... 58
IX.2. Standardization of protocols ............................................................................................ 59
IX.3. Network protocol definition ............................................................................................. 60
IX.4. Protocol classes ................................................................................................................ 60
IX.5. Protocol role ..................................................................................................................... 61
1. http (Hypertext transfer Protocol) .................................................................................. 61
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) ......................................................................................... 61
3. IRC (Internet Relay Chat) .............................................................................................. 61
4. Message protocols SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP (Post office Protocol)
and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) .................................................................... 61
IX.6 Protocol examples ............................................................................................................. 62
Chapter X. IP addressing .............................................................................................................. 63
X.1. Definition........................................................................................................................... 63
X.2. Network and Host Portions ............................................................................................... 63
X.3 IPv4 Addressing Notation .................................................................................................. 63
X.4 IPv6 Addressing Notation .................................................................................................. 64

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 3

 X.5 IPv4 Classes ....................................................................................................................... 73
X.6. Assigning Addresses ......................................................................................................... 74
X.6.1 Planning to address the network .................................................................................. 74
X.6.2 Static Assignment of Addresses .................................................................................. 74
X.6.3 Dynamic Assignment of Addresses ............................................................................. 75
X.7. Who Assign the Different Addresses? .............................................................................. 75
X.8. ISPs .................................................................................................................................... 76
A. The Role of the ISP........................................................................................................... 76
B. ISP Services ...................................................................................................................... 76
C. ISP Tiers............................................................................................................................ 77
X.9. Overview of IPv6 .............................................................................................................. 78
X.10. The subnet Mask: ............................................................................................................ 79
X.10.1 Defining the Network and Host Portions................................................................... 79
X.10.2 Calculating Addresses – Basic subnetting ................................................................. 80
X.11. Dividing Networks into Right Sizes................................................................................ 85
X.11.1 Determine the Total Number of Hosts....................................................................... 85
X.11.2 Determine the Number and Size of the Networks ..................................................... 85
X.11.3 Allocating Addresses ................................................................................................. 86
X.12. Subneeting a Subnet - Variable length subnet masking (VLSM) ................................... 87
XI Server Roles ............................................................................................................................. 91
XI.1. DHCP ............................................................................................................................... 91
X.13.1 Lease .......................................................................................................................... 92
XI.2. DNS configuration ........................................................................................................... 92
X.14.1 Steps for configuring a DNS...................................................................................... 92
X.15. Router configuration........................................................................................................ 92
X.15.1 Routers are Computers ............................................................................................. 92
X.15.2 Role of the Router ...................................................................................................... 93
X.15.3 Router Components and their Functions ................................................................... 93
X.15.3 Router Interface ......................................................................................................... 95
X.15.4 Router configuration .................................................................................................. 96
X.16. Proxy configuration ....................................................................................................... 105

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 4

CHAPTER XI. NETWORK TOOLS ......................................................................................... 107
XI.1 Ping tool .......................................................................................................................... 107
XI.2 Tracert tool ...................................................................................................................... 107
XI.3 Netstart tool ..................................................................................................................... 107
XI.4 Winipcfg tool .................................................................................................................. 107
XI.5 Ipconfig tool .................................................................................................................... 108
XI.6 WHOIS tool .................................................................................................................... 108
XI.7 Nslookup tool .................................................................................................................. 108
CHAPTER XII. INTERNET, INTRANET, EXTRANET ......................................................... 109
XII .1 Internet, intranet and extranet definition ...................................................................... 109
XII.1.1 Internet .................................................................................................................... 109
XII.1.2 Intranet .................................................................................................................... 110
XII.1.3 Extranet ................................................................................................................... 111
CHAPTER XIII . INTERNET CONNECTION ......................................................................... 113
XIII.1 Network connection types ............................................................................................ 113
XIII.2 Internet service provider(ISP) ...................................................................................... 113
XIII.3 Connect to the internet using a modem ........................................................................ 114
XIII.4 Connect to internet using a wireless ............................................................................. 115
XIII.5 DSL .............................................................................................................................. 115
XIII.6 other types .................................................................................................................... 116
XIII.6.1 OC3 ........................................................................................................................ 116
XIII.6.2 Satellite .................................................................................................................. 116
Chapter XIV. Server management .............................................................................................. 116
XIV.1 Server Roles ................................................................................................................. 116
XIV.1.1 A domain controller ............................................................................................... 116
XIV.1.2 The DNS Server .................................................................................................... 117
XIV.1.3 The DHCP Server .................................................................................................. 117
XIV.1.4 Active directory ..................................................................................................... 117
XIV.2 User, account and password ......................................................................................... 117
XIV.3 Permissions .................................................................................................................. 118

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 5

CHAPTER I. DEFINE A NETWORK
- A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware
components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing
of resources and information.
- A computer network is a group of computers that shares information across wireless
or wired technology.
- A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the
ability to exchange data.

Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process
residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network.

I.1Introduction to the networks

I.2 Properties of Computer networks:

1. Facilitate communications

Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information

In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
Share network and computing resources.
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network
printer.
Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.

3. The network May be insecure

A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or
computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from
normally accessing the network (denial of service).

4. May interfere with other technologies

Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and
VDSL.

5. May be difficult to set up

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 6

 A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.

I.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a network

I.3.1 Some Advantages

A user can logon to a computer anywhere on the network and access their work files from the
file server

Computers can be managed centrally - with the same software installed on each one

Time - it is much faster to install an application once on a network - and copy it across the
network to every workstation

Sharing printers, plotters, modems etc… saves money and time

Security - the Network Manager can allocate usernames and passwords to all users to try to
prevent unauthorized access

It is easy and convenient to monitor users - for example websites visited or documents printed -
this can be done using software running on the server

1. Peripherals such as printers can be shared amongst many different users.

2. Terminals are cheaper than standalone PCs.
3. Software can be shared amongst different users.
4. Communication across the network is cheap and fast.

I.3.2 Some Disadvantages

1. Cabling can be expensive to install and replace.
2. A fault with the server will prevent the whole network from working.
3. Security measures are needed to restrict access to the network.
4. WANs are vulnerable to hackers and viruses.

If something goes wrong with the file server the whole network is unable to operate

The technical skills needed to manage a network are much higher than working on a stand-alone
computer

It would take a long time to install software applications on each computer - one at a time!

It can be frustrating to print to a printer in another room - and then find after a long trek - that
there is no paper in the printer!

Users may use too much bandwidth - for example when listening to music files or watching

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 7

video clips - preventing others from using the network facilities properly

I.4 History of computer Network

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications
system, communication between calculation machines and history of computer hardware early
computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many of the
social behavior seen in today's Internet were demonstrably present in nineteenth-century and
arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals.

In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set
from his Model at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in
New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to
computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962,
J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network",
a precursor to the ARPANet. Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald
Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or
packet information technology that could be used in a network between computer systems. In
1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at
Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet
network using 50 Kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and
later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. Now a day‘s computer
networks are the core of modern communication. All modern aspects of the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and telephony increasingly runs over the
Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet. The scope of communication has
increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been
possible without the progressively advancing computer network

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 8

I.4.1 Chronological of the most significant events in the history of computer networks

60s : First experiments with batch-processing networks –terminal oriented network

1962: Paul Baranat RAND proposes packet switching
1969: DARPA funds project on packet switching, 1st IMP at UCLA
1970s: Computerized switches; work on ISDN starts
1970s early: Large Scale IC, 1stmini-computers
1970s: ARPANET starts (UCLA, Utah, SRI, UCSB); its technology evolved into today‘s
Internet
1972: ARPANET grew to 15 nodes
1972 –80 propriety networks and internetworking growing –ALOHAnet (packet radio),
Telenet(BBN commercial packet switching network), Cyclades (French), Tymnet, IBM‘s
SNA….
1974: ―A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection,‖ V. Cerf and R. Kahn, IEEE Trans.
Comm(May).
1974: Standardization of X.25
1980s early: First PC
1980s: OSI (open system interconnection) reference model
1983: official deployment of TCP/IP in ARPANET/MILNET
1986: NSFNET is created; becomes Internet backbone
1980-85: Standardization of LANs (Ethernet, token ring, fddi)
1980s late: Commercial use of internet
1990s: ATM evolves; does not replace IP
1990s: Internet: From 4 to 30M+ wired, published nodes in two decades
1992: WWW by Tim Berners-Lee (CERN) is released; gives a GUI to the Internet
1999: Gigabit Ethernet starts, simplicity wins again.
1990s late: Convergence of telecommunications networks and computer networks
Early 2000 –dot com crashed.
Wireless bloom, P2P

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 9

CHAPTER II. DESCRIBE THE FACILITIES OF THE NETWORK

II.1 To share the files

A network offers the facility of sharing a file so that it may be used by other users. The owner of
the file may set permissions so that other users may be limited on the way they use that file. To
those who are given read/write will be able to modify the content of the file.

II.2 To share information

Computer networks provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of
these optimal information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the
organizational learning rate, which many authors declare as the only fundamental advantage in
competition.

II.3 To share Printer

If you have a printer attached to your computer, you can share it with anyone on the same
network. It doesn't matter what type of printer it is, as long as the printer is installed on your
computer and directly attached with a universal serial bus (USB) cable or other type of printer
cable. Whoever you choose to share the printer with will be able to use it to print, provided they
can locate your computer on the network.

II.4 To communicate (Sending and Receiving of the messages).

Communication begins with a message, or information, that must be sent from one individual or
device to another. People exchange ideas using many different communication methods. All of
these methods have three elements in common. The first of these elements is the message source,
or sender. Message sources are people, or electronic devices, that need to send a message to
other individuals or devices. The second element of communication is the destination, or
receiver, of the message. The destination receives the message and interprets it. A third element,
called a channel, consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the message can
travel from source to destination.

Consider, for example, the desire to communicate using words, pictures, and sounds. Each of
these messages can be sent across a data or information network by first converting them into
binary digits, or bits. These bits are then encoded into a signal that can be transmitted over the
appropriate medium.

In computer networks, the media is usually a type of cable, or a wireless transmission.

The term network in this course will refer to data or information networks capable of carrying
many different types of communications, including traditional computer data, interactive voice,
video, and entertainment products.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 10

CHAPTER III. DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF NETWORKS

III.1 LAN (local area network)

•Local area network (LAN), which is usually a small network constrained to a small geographic
area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of
buildings.

Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards
like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial
cables, phone lines and power lines).

III.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

•Metropolitan area network (MAN), which is used for medium size area. Examples for a city and
its surrounding or a state.

III.3 WAN (wide area network)

•Wide area network (WAN) that is usually a larger network that covers a large geographic area.
It connects countries, continent even the whole world.

Other Type

•Wireless LANs and WANs(WLAN & WWAN) are the wireless equivalent of the LAN and
WAN. Using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone
lines, cables, and air waves.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 11

CHAPTER IV. DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN THE NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes of a computer network.
Physical topology refers to the physical organization of a network.

IV.1Star topology
• All of the stations in a star topology are connected to a central unit called a hub.
The hub offers a common connection for all stations on the network. Each station has its own
direct cable connection to the hub.

In most cases, this means more cable is required than for a bus topology. However, this makes
adding or moving computers a relatively easy task; simply plug them into a cable outlet on the
wall.
If a cable is cut, it only affects the computer that was attached to it. This eliminates the single
point of failure problem associated with the bus topology. (Unless, of course, the hub itself goes
down.)
Star topologies are normally implemented using twisted pair cable, specifically unshielded
twisted pair (UTP). The star topology is probably the most common form of network topology
currently in use.

Advantages of star topology

– Easy to add new stations
– Easy to monitor and troubleshoot
– Can accommodate different wiring
Disadvantages of star topology
– Failure of hub cripples attached stations
– More cable required (more expensive to wire a building for networking)

IV.2 Bus topology

A bus topology connects each computer (node) to a single segment trunk (Backbone).
– A ‘trunk‘ is a communication line, typically coaxial cable, that is referred to as the
‘bus.‘ The signal travels from one end of the bus to the other.
– A terminator is required at each end to absorb the signal so it does not reflect back across
the bus.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 12

In a bus topology, signals are broadcast to all stations. Each computer checks the address on the
signal (data frame) as it passes along the bus. If the signal‘s address matches that of the
computer, the computer processes the signal. If the address doesn‘t match, the computer takes no
action and the signal travels on down the bus.
• Only one computer can ‗talk‘ on a network at a time. A media access method (protocol)
called CSMA/CD is used to handle the collisions that occur when two signals are placed
on the wire at the same time.
• The bus topology is passive. In other words, the computers on the bus simply ‗listen‘ for
a signal; they are not responsible for moving the signal along.
• A bus topology is normally implemented with coaxial cable.

Advantages of bus topology:

– Easy to implement and extend
– Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry
– Typically the cheapest topology to implement
– Failure of one station does not affect others

Disadvantages of bus topology:

– Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
– Limited cable length and number of stations
– A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy
– Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
– Performance degrades as additional computers are added

IV.3Ring topology

A ring topology consists of a set of stations connected serially by cable. In other words, it‘s a

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 13

circle or ring of computers. There are no terminated ends to the cable; the signal travels around
the circle in a clockwise (or anticlockwise) direction.

• Note that while this topology functions logically as ring, it is physically wired as a star.
The central connector is not called a hub but a Multistation Access Unit or MAU.
(Don‘t confuse a Token Ring MAU with a ‗Media Adapter Unit‘ which is actually a
transceiver.)
• Under the ring concept, a signal is transferred sequentially via a "token" from one station
to the next. When a station wants to transmit, it "grabs" the token, attaches data and an
address to it, and then sends it around the ring. The token travels along the ring until it
reaches the destination address. The receiving computer acknowledges receipt with a
return message to the sender. The sender then releases the token for use by another
computer.
• Each station on the ring has equal access but only one station can talk at a time.
• In contrast to the ‗passive‘ topology of the bus, the ring employs an ‗active’ topology.
Each station repeats or ‘boosts‘ the signal before passing it on to the next station.
• Rings are normally implemented using twisted pair or fiber-optic cable

Advantages of ring topology

• Growth of system has minimal impact on performance
• All stations have equal access

Disadvantages of ring topology

• Most expensive topology
• Failure of one computer may impact others
• Complex

IV.4 Mesh topology

Also called mesh topology or a mesh network, mesh is a network topology in which devices are
connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh
topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network.

There are two types of mesh topologies: full mesh and partial mesh.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 14

Partially mesh topology

Partially mesh topology is the type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the
network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link.

This makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a
physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a
connection between every node in the network.

Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all
of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path between
nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the data takes an
alternative path to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type
of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Full mesh topology

Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every other node in a
network.

Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in
the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes.
Full mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.

The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 15

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to
be interconnected

Advantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node
to many other nodes at the same time.

Disadvantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the network,
many of the connections serve no major purpose. This leads to the redundancy of many of the
network connections.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 16

V. INFORMATION TRANSPORT MEANS AND NETWORK CABLES MAKING
Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one
component to another.
Means of transportation on information fall into two main categories: wired means which uses
cables and wireless means which don‘t use cables.

V.1 Wired means

Wired means use Ethernet cables and network adapters. This allows connecting two computers
using an Ethernet crossover cable. It may also require a central device like hub, switch or router
to accommodate more computers.

Types of cables

Types of cables used for LANs include twisted pair, coaxial cables, fiber optic cables and Patch
cable.

V.1.1 Copper (UTP-STP)

Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
modern Ethernet networks. It consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one
another. One wire carries the signal while the other wire is grounded and absorbs signal
interference. The pair forms a circuit that can transmit data. The fact of being twisted provides
protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs.
When electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around
the wire. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields
are the exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They
also cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation
effect. Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively
provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP).

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 17

 a. UTP Cable (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

Wires in each pair are twisted around each other.

UTP cable is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks. It consists of copper wires
that have been twisted into matching pair. The individual pair is not protected with additional
protection from interference. Each copper wire is insulated, and the groups of twisted pair have a
sheathing holding them together, but no additional insulation is provided.

UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector. The
RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers onto a local-area network
(LAN), especially Ethernets.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 18

The following summarizes the features of UTP cable:
Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps
Average cost per node—Least expensive
Media and connector size—Small
Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

Commonly used types(or categories) of UTP cabling are as follows:

Category 1—Used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.
Category 2—Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
Category 3—Used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Category 4—Used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
Category 5—Can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
Category 5e —Used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second
[Gbps]).
Category 6—Typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire
Gauge (AWG) copper wires. Category 6 cable is currently the fastest standard for UTP.

b. STP Cable (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire
twisting. Each pair of wires is wrapped in a metallic foil. The four pairs of wires then are
wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable.
STP usually is installed with STP data connector, which is created especially for the STP cable.
However, STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 19

STP is a type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper together are coated
with an insulating coating that functions as a ground for the wires. The extra covering in shielded
twisted pair wiring protects the transmission line from electromagnetic interference leaking into
to out of the cable.

STP cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting.
The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
Media and connector size—Medium to large
Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in mind:
The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local-area distances.
These are the least-expensive media for data communication. UTP is less expensive than
STP.
Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards are
adapted to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.

c. FTP(Foil screened twisted pair cable)

FTP is a cable containing multiple pairs of copper wire enclosed in a sheath of aluminum foil. It
is used in wiring systems in buildings or other environments where heavy noise adjacent to the
wire might cause interference. The foil provides insulation not afforded by UTP. Its disadvantage
is that it requires more care in earthling (grounding) than UTP and electrical impedances must be
matched when connecting to UTP.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 20

Straight and crossover cabling

a. Straight cable

Straight cable is used to connect different type of devices.

- Computer to switch/hub

- Computer to a cable/DSL modem‘s LAN port.

- Router‘s WAN port to a cable/DSL

-Modem‘s LAN port to a switch/hub‘s uplink port (To expand network).

- Connect two switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one
using normal port.

Straight cable making

b. Crossover cable

A crossover cable is used to connect computing devices together directly. It is a cable to connect
two devices of the same type: two host or two switches to each other.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 21

Crossover cable making

Crossover pin out

V.1.2 Coaxial
• A coaxial cable or coax, is a cable which consists of an inner conductor wire surrounded by
insulation, called the dielectric.

• The dielectric is surrounded by a conductive shield, which is surrounded by a non-conductive

jacket. Coaxial cable has better data transmission rate than twisted pair

Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable television industry and is also
widely used for computer networks.

Although more expensive than standard telephone wire, it is much less susceptible to
interference and can carry much more data.

Note: The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 22

It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor.

Categories of coaxial cables

Category Use

RG-59 Cable TV

RG-58 Thin Ethernet

RG-11 Thick Ethernet

BNC

The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 23

Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node—Inexpensive
Media and connector size—Medium
Maximum cable length—500 m (medium)

V.1.3 Optical Support (Fiber Optic cable)

Definition
Fiber-optic cable is a networking medium capable of conducting modulated light transmission.

Many extremely thin strands of glass or plastic bound together in a sheathing which transmits
signals with light beams. It can be used for voice, data, and video.

That technology uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber optic cable
consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages
modulated onto light waves.

Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:

 Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means
that they can carry more data

 Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference

 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires

 Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than
analogically.

The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In addition, they
are more fragile than wire and are difficult to split.

Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology for local-area networks. In addition, telephone
companies are steadily replacing traditional telephone lines with fiber optic cables. In the future,
almost all communications will employ fiber optics.

Fiber Types
Two types of fiber-optic cable exist:
• Single-mode—Single-mode fiber cable allows only one mode (or wavelength) of light to
propagate through the fiber. It is capable of higher bandwidth and greater distances than
multimode, and it is often used for campus backbones. This type of fiber uses lasers as the light-
generating method. Single-mode cable is much more expensive than multimode cable. Its
maximum cable length is more than 10 km.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 24

• Multimode—Multimode fiber cable allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the
fiber. It is often used for workgroup applications and intra-building applications such as risers. It
uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light-generating device. The maximum cable length is 2
km.

Type Mode

50/125 Multimode, graded

index

62.5/125 Multimode, graded

index

100/125 Multimode, graded

index

7/125 Single mode

Fiber construction

The light-guiding parts of an optical fiber are called the core and the cladding. The core is
usually very pure glass with a high index of refraction. When a cladding layer of glass or plastic
with a low index of refraction surrounds the core glass, light can be trapped in the fiber core.
This process is called total internal reflection. It allows the optical fiber to act like a light pipe,
guiding light for tremendous distances, even around bends.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 25

Fiber optic connector

Fiber optic is not susceptible to EMI, and it is capable of higher data rates than any of the other
types of networking media. Fiber-optic cable does not carry electrical impulses as other forms of
networking media that use copper wire do. Instead, signals that represent bits are converted into
beams of light.

Features of fiber-optible
The following summarizes the features of fiber-optic cables:
Speed and throughput—More than 1 Gbps
Average cost per node—Expensive
Media and connector size—Small
Maximum cable length—More than 10 km for single mode; up to 2 km for multimode

V.1.4 Console cable

A console cable is a cable which is used to configure a router and its is connect to the console
port. But for CISCO devices, Older non-IOS switches still use the console port to configure
them, just like the routers.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 26

Pin out a console cable

V.1.5 Serial cable

Definitions
-A Serial cable is a cable which is connected to the serial/COM port on the computer.

-A serial cable is a cable that can be used to transfer information between two devices
using serial communication. The form of connectors depends on the particular serial port used. A
cable wired for connecting two data terminal equipment directly is known as a null modemcable.

-In computing, a serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which
information transfers in or out one bit at a time (in contrast to a parallel port).

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 27

Pin-out

comparisons of the features of the common network media

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 28

V.2 Hertzian support (Wireless)
Wireless methods do not use electrical (cables) or optical (fiber optics) conductors. It uses the
earth‘s electromagnetic frequency spectrum. There are three main types of wireless media: radio
wave, microwave, and infrared.
Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer
space and through a medium such as air.

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to transmit data
between devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access
point, used for signal distribution.

To receive the signals from the access point, a PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card
(wireless NIC).
Some common applications of wireless data communication include the following:
• Accessing the Internet using a cellular phone
• Establishing a home or business Internet connection over satellite
• Beaming data between two hand-held computing devices
• Using a wireless keyboard and mouse for the PC.
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless LAN

V.2.1 Benefits of Wireless LAN

The popularity of wireless LANs is a testament primarily to their convenience, cost efficiency,
and ease of integration with other networks and network components. The majority of computers
sold to consumers today come pre-equipped with all necessary wireless LAN technology.

The benefits of wireless LANs include:

 Convenience - The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network
resources from nearly any convenient location within their primary networking
environment (home or office). With the increasing saturation of laptop-style computers,
this is particularly relevant.
 Mobility - With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet
even outside their normal work environment. Most chain coffee shops, for example, offer
their customers a wireless connection to the internet at little or no cost.
 Productivity - Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant
affiliation with their desired network as they move from place to place. For a business,
this implies that an employee can potentially be more productive as his or her work can
be accomplished from any convenient location.
 Deployment - Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little
more than a single access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional
cost and complexity of actual physical cables being run to numerous locations (which can
even be impossible for hard-to-reach locations within a building).
 Expandability - Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients
with the existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require
additional wiring.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 29

  Cost - Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired
counterparts. This potentially increased cost is almost always more than outweighed by
the savings in cost and labor associated to running physical cables. Wi-Fi chipset pricing
continues to come down, making Wi-Fi a very economical networking option and driving
inclusion of Wi-Fi in an ever-widening array of devices.

V.2.2 Disadvantages of Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN technology, while replete with the conveniences and advantages described above,
has its share of downfalls. For a given networking situation, wireless LANs may not be desirable
for a number of reasons. Most of these have to do with the inherent limitations of the technology.

 Security - Wireless LAN transceivers are designed to serve computers throughout a

structure with uninterrupted service using radio frequencies. Because of space and cost,
the "antennas" typically present on wireless networking cards in the end computers are
generally relatively poor. In order to properly receive signals using such limited antennas
throughout even a modest area, the wireless LAN transceiver utilizes a fairly
considerable amount of power. What this means is that not only can the wireless packets
be intercepted by a nearby adversary's poorly-equipped computer, but more importantly,
a user willing to spend a small amount of money on a good quality antenna can pick up
packets at a remarkable distance; perhaps hundreds of times the radius as the typical user.
In fact, there are even computer users dedicated to locating and sometimes even hacking
into wireless networks, known as wardrivers. On a wired network, any adversary would
first have to overcome the physical limitation of tapping into the actual wires, but this is
not an issue with wireless packets. To combat this consideration, wireless network users
usually choose to utilize various encryption technologies available such as WPA. Some
of the older encryption methods, such as WEP, are known to have weaknesses that a
dedicated adversary can compromise.
 Range - The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is on
the order of tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be insufficient in a
larger structure. Range varies with frequency band, as Wi-Fi is no exception to the
physics of radio wave propagation. To obtain additional range, repeaters or additional
access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items can add up quickly. Other
technologies are in the development phase, however, which feature increased range,
hoping to render this disadvantage irrelevant.
 Reliability - Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are
subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects (such as
multipath, or especially in this case Rician fading) that are beyond the control of the
network administrator. In the case of typical networks, modulation is achieved by
complicated forms of phase-shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM), making interference and propagation effects all the more disturbing. As a result,
important network resources such as servers are rarely connected wirelessly. Also, many
2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g Access points default to the same channel, contributing to
congestion on certain channels.
 Speed - The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-108 Mbps) is reasonably slow
compared to the slowest common wired networks (100Mbit/s up to several Gbit/s). There
are also performance issues caused by TCP and its built-in congestion avoidance. For

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 30

 most users, however, this observation is irrelevant since the speed bottleneck is not in the
wireless routing but rather in the outside network connectivity itself. For example, the
maximum ADSL throughput (usually 8Mbit/s or less) offered by telecommunications
companies to general-purpose customers is already far slower than the slowest wireless
network to which it is typically connected. That is to say, in most environments, a
wireless network running at its slowest speed is still faster than the internet connection
serving it in the first place. However, in specialized environments, the throughput of a
wired network might be necessary. Newer standards such as 802.11n are addressing this
limitation and will support peak throughputs in the range of 100-200 Mbit/s.
 Energy - Power consumption is fairly high compared to some other standards, making
battery life and heat a concern.

V.2.3 LAN (Infrared, Bluetooth, Wifi, Line of sight)

Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to
digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of
open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11.

V.2.1.1 Infrared

Infrared signals are used for short-range wireless communication in a closed area (not more
than 10 meters) using line-of-sight propagation. The line-of-sight propagation limits the physical
positioning of communicating devices. This technology is used to connect various computing
devices such as handheld computers. They can transfer files and other digital data bidirectional.
Computer infrared adapters both transmit and receive data through ports on the rear or side of a
device.

Unlike WIFI and Bluetooth technologies, infrared network signals cannot penetrate walls or
other obstructions and work only in the direct line of sight.

Working Principle

An infrared connection is communication between an infrared receiver and emitter. The infrared
emitter sends pulses of infrared light to the receiver. Infrared light is used because it has less
problems with interference than other types of light in the visible spectrum. Usually, there are
only two devices in the connection, but the system still needs a computer name and a common
protocol. The computer name is needed in case there are multiple devices in the range of the
connection. This way, the right devices can be selected for the connection. The use of the
protocol has to be explained with the way the devices recognize the infrared signal. A chip inside
the device analyses the infrared pulses that come in to detect any patterns. If a pattern is

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 31

recognized, the appropriate action is executed. In computing devices, these patterns are binary
codes. If the infrared light of the emitter is activated, it is sending a binary 1 and if it is off it is
sending a 0. The protocol ensures that both devices use the same frequency and packet length for
the codes to avoid miscommunication.

Performance

Slow speed(IrDA-SIR)-up to 115 Kps

Medium speed(IrDA-MIR)-up to 1.15 Mbps

Fast speed(IrDA-FIR)-up to 4 Mps

Advantages of infrared networking

- Transmission speeds up to 16 Mbit/s.

- The technology uses a little amount of energy.

- The directed transmission is safe, while it uses a short range direct line of sight signal which is
not diffused.

- The infrared technology has been available for a long time, which means that the technology is
well developed and that there is a lot of knowledge.

- No cables are needed to enable the connection.

Disadvantages of infrared networking

- The connection is restricted to a small range, with a maximum area depending on the used
equipment. (0.3 meters for directed signals and up to five meters for diffused infrared)

- The signal can be of bad quality or can be interrupted due to a wrong angle, distance, noise,
heat or light waves.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 32

- Primarily only usable for a connection between two devices.

V.2.1.2 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data
over short distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band
from 2400-2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area
networks (PANS) with high levels of security. It has been created by telecoms
vendor Ericsson in 1994. It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to
RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.
Examples of use:

- Wireless control of and communication between a Bluetooth mobile phone and a

handsfree headset.
- Wireless control of and communication between a Bluetooth mobile phone and a
Bluetooth compatible car stereo system.
- Wireless Bluetooth headset and intercom.
- Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the
mouse, keyboard and printer.
- Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX.
- GPS receivers
- Medical equipment
- Bar code scanners
- Traffic control devices
- For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-
free connection desired.
- Wireless bridge between two industrial Ethernet.

V.2.1.3 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

Wi-Fi is a mechanism that allows electronic devices to exchange data wirelessly over computer
network. A device enabled with Wi-Fi such as a personal computer, video game console,
Smartphone, tablet or digital audio player, can connect to a network resource such as the internet
via a wireless network access point. The access point or hotspot has a range of about 20 meters
indoors and greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single
room signals or a large area, as much as many square miles, covered by multiple overlapping
access points.

Uses

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 33

To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer has to be equipped with a wireless network interface
controller. The combination of computer and interface controller is called a station. All stations
share a single radio frequency communication channel. Transmissions on this channel are
received by all stations within range. The hardware does not signal the user that the transmission
was delivered and is therefore called a best-effort delivery mechanism. A carrier wave is used to
transmit the data in packets, referred to as "Ethernet frames". Each station is constantly tuned in
on the radio frequency communication channel to pick up available transmissions.

A Wi-Fi-enabled device can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network
connected to the Internet.

Advantages

Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area networks (LANs). Also spaces where cables
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.

Manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price of chipsets for
Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more
devices.

Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards compatible.
Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.

The current version of Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) as of 2010 is widely
considered secure, provided users employ a strong passphrase. New protocols for quality-of-
service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and
video); and power saving mechanisms (WMM Power Save) improve battery operation.

Disadvantage

Due to reach requirements for wireless LAN applications, Wi-Fi has fairly high power
consumption compared to some other standards.

Range

Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless access point using 802.11b or 802.11g
with a stock antenna might have a range of 32 m indoors and 95 m outdoors. IEEE 802.11n,
however, can exceed that range by more than two times. Range also varies with frequency band.
Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz
frequency block which is used by 802.11a. On wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is
possible to improve range by fitting upgraded antennas which have higher gain. Outdoor ranges
can be improved to many kilometers through the use of high gain directional antennas at the
router and remote device(s). In general, the maximum amount of power that a Wi-Fi device can
transmit is limited by local regulations, such as FCC Part 15 in the US.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 34

V.2.4 Comparison between Bluetooth, infrared and Wi-fi

Bluetooth and Infrared are types of serial connections, like USB (universal serial bus).

This means that these two types of communication are made primarily to exchange data between
two devices directly. One device sends and the other receives.

Infrared works by sending data as infrared light. In order for this to work the two infrared ports
must be in optical line of sight. This is best accomplished by having the two ports face each other
at close range (about 4 inches).

Bluetooth works by using radio frequency (RF) waves to exchange data. This is faster than
infrared and easier to connect as the ports do not need to be as close to one another or in line of
sight.

Wi-fi also uses RF waves to exchange data; however wi-fi has a larger range than Bluetooth.
Additionally wi-fi is a system that is primarily designed for network and internet communication.
This means that a wi-fi connection connects you to a wireless access point (most often a router)
that routes and connects you to other devices (often more than one) such as the internet.

Comparison between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi

1 Main difference

The main difference between the two technologies is that Bluetooth devices communicate one-
on-one with each other, whereas Wi-Fi devices communicate with any other device through a
wireless router.
3 Usage Differences

Bluetooth is generally used for transmitting audio, such as from your cell phone to your wireless
earpiece. Wi-Fi is generally used for transmitting Internet signals from your cable or DSL
modem to and from your computer.
2 History

WiFi has been available longer to the general public than Bluetooth.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 35

V.3 Line of sight
Line-of-sight propagation refers to electro-magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation.
Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. The rays or
waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with
material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.

Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data through space. The
transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should be in line-of-sight because the radio
signal cannot bend. With microwave very long distance transmission is not possible. In order to
overcome the problem of line of sight and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used
at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.

Line of sight is used in microwave communication systems which to transmit information from
one place to another without interruption, and have clear reproduction at the receiver.
Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength
allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed
directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same
frequencies without interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Microwaves
are limited to line of sight propagation. Their disadvantages are that they cannot pass around hills
or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.

Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-

point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in
satellite communications, and in deep space radio
communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are
used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and
radio astronomy.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 36

V.4 WAN: Satellite, line of sight

V.4.1 Satellite
• Communications satellites are relay stations that receive signals from one earth station and
rebroadcast them to another

• They use microwave radio signals

The satellites are stationed in space, typically 35,400 km (22,000 mi) (for geosynchronous
satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying
voice, data, and TV signals.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 37

V.5 Transmitting terrestrial

Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The
equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range,
which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx,
48 km (30 mi) apart.

Bands

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 38

VI. Describe network Architecture
There are essentially two types of network architectures—client-server and peer-to-peer

In the client-server scheme, a central server handles all security and file transactions; in peer-to-
peer networks, each machine shares its own resources and handles its own security.

VI.1 Peer to peer

-Peer-to-peer (abbreviated to P2P) refers to a computer network in which each computer in the
network can act as a client or server for the other computers in the network, allowing shared
access to files and peripherals without the need for a central server.

P2P networks can be set up in the home, a business or over the Internet. Each network type
requires all computers in the network to use the same or a compatible program to connect to each
other and access files and other resources found on the other computer. P2P networks can be
used for sharing content such as audio, video, data or anything in digital format.
P2P is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads among peers. Peers
are equally privileged participants in the application. Each computer in the network is referred to
as a node. The owner of each computer on a P2P network would set aside a portion of its
resources - such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth -to be made directly
available to other network participant, without the need for central coordination by servers or
stable hosts
Advantages and disadvantages of peer to peer network
Advantages (Why) Disadvantages (Why)
Peer to Peer Networks are easy and simple to If you have not connected the computers
set up and only require a Hub or a Switch to together properly then there can be problems
connect all the computers together. accessing certain files.
You can access any file on the computer as long It doesn‘t always work if you have many
as it is set to shared folder. computers and works better with 2 – 8
computers.
The requirements for a Peer to Peer Network Security is not good and you can set passwords
are that you have a 10 Base T Ethernet cable for files that you don‘t want people to access
and an Ethernet hub/ switch. This is rather but apart from that the security is pretty poor.
cheap than having a server.
The architecture of the lay out (How It
Connects) is simple.
If one computer fails to work all the other
computers connected to it continue to work.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 39

VI.2 Client Server architecture
A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client)
computers over a local network or the Internet.

Servers typically store files and databases including more complex applications like Web sites.
Servers‘ devices often feature higher-powered central processors, more memory, and larger disk
drives than clients.

While working Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and servers
respond to their clients by acting on each request and returning results. One server generally
supports numerous clients, and multiple servers can be networked together in a pool to handle
the increased processing load as the number of clients grows.

Network servers typically are configured with additional processing, memory and storage
capacity to handle the load of servicing clients. Common types of network servers include:

 Web servers
 proxy servers
 FTP servers
 online Game servers
Numerous systems use this client / server networking model including Web sites and email
services. An alternative model, peer-to-peer networking enables all computers to act as either a
server or client as needed.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 40

Advantages and disadvantages of client/server network
Advantages (Why) Disadvantages (Why)
A Client Sever Can Be scaled up to many
services that can also be used by multiple users.
A client server enables the roles and When the server goes down or crashes. All the
responsibilities of a computing system. This computers connected to it become unavailable
means that it can update all the computers to use.
connected to it. An example of this would be
software updates or hardware updates.
All the data is stored on the servers, which When everyone tries to do the same thing it
generally have far greater security controls than takes a little while for the server to do certain
most clients. Servers can better control access tasks. An example of this would be everyone
and resources, to guarantee that only those logging into their profile in an organization or a
clients with the appropriate permissions may college at the same time.
access and change data.
The security is a lot more advanced than a peer More expensive than a peer to peer network.
to peer network. You can have passwords to You have to pay for startup cost.
your won profile so that no one can access
everything when they want. And the level off
access range in different organisations
Many mature client-server technologies are When you expand the server it starts to slow
already available which were designed to down due to the Bit rate per second.
ensure security, 'friendliness' of the user
interface, and ease of use.
It functions with multiple different clients of
different capabilities.

What’s the difference?

There‘s a huge difference between client/server and peer-to-peer networks.

For instance, a peer-to-peer network has no central server. Each workstation on the network
shares its files equally with the others. There‘s no central storage or authentication of users.
Conversely, there are separate dedicated servers and clients in a client/server network. Through
client workstations, users can access most files, which are generally stored on the server. The
server will determine which users can access the files on the network.

Peer-to-peer networks should be installed in homes or in very small businesses where employees
interact regularly. They are inexpensive to set up (comparatively speaking); however, they offer
almost no security. On the other hand, client/server networks can become as big as you need
them to be. Some support millions of users and offer elaborate security measures. As you can
imagine, client/server networks can become very expensive.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 41

VII. Identify connections material and define its utility

VII.1 Basic hardware components

Apart from the physical communications media themselves as described above, networks
comprise additional basic hardware building blocks interconnecting their terminals, such as
network interface cards (NICs), hubs, bridges, switches, and routers.

VII.1.1 Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer
hardware designed to allow computers to physically access a networking medium. It provides a
low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Each Ethernet network interface has a unique MAC address which is usually stored in a small
memory device on the card, allowing any device to connect to the network without creating an
address conflict. Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six octets. Uniqueness is maintained
by the IEEE, which manages the Ethernet address space by assigning 3-octet prefixes to
equipment manufacturers. The list of prefixes is publicly available. Each manufacturer is then
obliged to both use only their assigned prefix(es) and to uniquely set the 3-octet suffix of every
Ethernet interface they produce.

VII.1.2 Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise,

regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so
that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. Repeaters work
on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation
delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many
network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet's 5-4-
3 rule).

VII.1.3 Hub

A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub.

A hub can be defined as a network device used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains
multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 42

Types of hubs

1. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device
(or segment) to another.
2. Intelligent hubs include additional features that enable an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are
also called manageable hubs.
3. A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address of each
packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

Today, repeaters and hubs have been made mostly obsolete by switches (see below).

VII.1.4 Bridges
Connects different LANs or LAN segments, two or more networks, using the same access
method, with the same protocol, at the media control portions of the data link layer.

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model.

Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received.

However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which
MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an
address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames
that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 43

the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously
unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the
one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

 Local bridges: Directly connect LANs

 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs.
Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have
been replaced with routers.
 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

VII.1.5 Switches
A switch is a device which link network segments, forward and filter frames between segments

Routes or switches data to its destination.

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of data
communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets.

A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the
communication rather than all ports connected.

A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain.

Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 44

A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading
additional switches.

Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels;
these are called multi-layer switches.

The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and
bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a
Web URL identifier).

VII.1.6 Routers
1. A router is a network device that connect networks having the same or different access
methods and media.
2. A router is an inter-networking device that forwards packets between networks by
processing information found in the data gram or packet (Internet protocol information
from Layer 3 of the O S I Model). In many situations, this information is processed in
conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table).

A router operates at the network level of the OSI model and features more sophisticated
addressing software than bridges. Can determine preferred paths.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 45

Forward packets and frames to networks by using a decision-making process based on:

-Routing table data

-Discovery of most efficient routes
-Preprogrammed information from network administrator

Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the
"null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further
processing is done for said data).

VII.1.7 Firewalls

A firewall is an important aspect of a network with respect to security. It typically rejects access
requests from unsafe sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role
firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in 'cyber' attacks
for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.

VII.1.8 Gateway

Operates at or above the OSI transport layer and links LANs or networks that use different
architectures and use dissimilar protocols. Enable communications between two different types
of networked systems.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 46

Chapter VIII. OSI REFERENCE MODEL

There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols and operations. Using
a layered model:

 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined
information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.

 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.

 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above
and below.

 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.

VIII.1. Protocols and reference model

There are two basic types of networking models: protocol models and reference models.

A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol
suite. The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality
required to interface the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol
model because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP
suite.

A reference model provides a common reference for maintaining consistency within all types of
network protocols and services. A reference model is not intended to be an implementation
specification or to provide a sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the
network architecture. The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding
of the functions and process involved.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most widely known internetwork
reference model. It is used for data network design, operation specifications, and
troubleshooting.

Although the TCP/IP and OSI models are the primary models used when discussing network
functionality, designers of network protocols, services, or devices can create their own models to
represent their products. Ultimately, designers are required to communicate to the industry by
relating their product or service to either the OSI model or the TCP/IP model, or to both.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 47

VIII.2. OSI Layers model

The OSI Reference Model represented an early attempt to get all of the various hardware and
software manufacturers to agree on a framework for developing various networking
technologies.

In the late 1970s, two projects began independently, with the same goal: to define a unifying
standard for the architecture of networking systems. One was administered by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), while the other was undertaken by the International
Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, or CCITT(the abbreviation is from the
French version of the name). These two international standards bodies each developed a
document that defined similar networking models.

In 1983, these two documents were merged together to form a standard called The Basic
Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. That's a mouthful, so the standard is usually
referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or
even just the OSI Model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 48

VIII.3. Definition
OSI is a standard reference mode for how network data is transmitted between any two points in
a computer network. It defines seven layers of functions that take place at each end of a network
communication.

VIII.4 OSI Model layers

OSI divides the communication into seven layers:

7. Application Layer
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
2. Data Link Layer
1. Physical Layer

To remember them, a convenient aid for remembering the OSI layer names is to use the first
letter of each word in the phrase:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing

VIII.4.1. LAYER 7 – The APPLICATION Layer

This is the layer at which programs are identified; user authentication and privacy are
implemented. It supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This
layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the
application level.

Summary:
• The top layer of the OSI model
• Provides a set of interfaces for sending and receiving applications to gain access to and
use network services, such as: networked file transfer, message handling and database
query processing

VIII.4.2 LAYER 6 – The PRESENTATION Layer

This is a layer, usually part of an operating system that converts incoming and outgoing data
from one presentation format to another(translating data from application to network format, and
vice versa). The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 49

layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing
freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Summary:

• Manages data-format information for networked communications (the network‘s

translator)
• For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic format for network transmission;
for incoming messages, it converts data from the generic network format to a format that
the receiving application can understand
• This layer is also responsible for certain protocol conversions, data
encryption/decryption, or data compression/decompression
• A special software facility called a ―redirector‖ operates at this layer to determine if a
request is network related on not and forward network-related requests to an appropriate
network resource

VIII.4.3 LAYER 5 – The SESSION Layer

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Summary:

• Enables two networked resources to hold ongoing communications (called a session)

across a network
• Applications on either end of the session are able to ex hange data for the duration of the
session
• This layer is:
Responsible for initiating, maintaining and terminating sessions
Responsible for security and access control to session information (via session participant
identification)
Responsible for synchronization services, and for checkpoint services

VIII.4.4 LAYER 4 – The TRANSPORT Layer

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible
for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Summary:
• Manages the transmission of data across a network
• Manages the flow of data between parties by segmenting long data streams into smaller
data chunks (based on allowed ―packet‖ size for a given transmission medium)

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 50

 • Reassembles chunks into their original sequence at the receiving end
• Provides acknowledgements of successful transmissions and requests resends for packets
which arrive with errors

VIII.4.5 LAYER 3 – The NETWORK Layer

The network layer does routing and forwarding.
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual
circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this
layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.

Summary:
• Handles addressing messages for delivery, as well as translating logical network
addresses and names into their physical counterparts
• Responsible for deciding how to route transmissions between computers
• This layer also handles the decisions needed to get data from one point to the next point
along a network path
• This layer also handles packet switching and network congestion control

VIII.4.6 LAYER 2 – The DATA LINK Layer

This layer provides error control and synchronization for the physical level. At this layer, data
packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and
management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization.
The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and
the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer control show a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls
frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Summary:
• Handles special data frames (packets) between the Network layer and the Physical layer
• At the receiving end, this layer packages raw data from the physical layer into data
frames for delivery to the Network layer
• At the sending end this layer handles conversion of data into raw formats that can be
handled by the Physical Layer

VIII.4.7 LAYER 1 – The PHYSICAL Layer

This layer transmits the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level.
Cables, Cards …

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 51

It conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on
a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232,
and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

Summary:
• Converts bits into electronic signals for outgoing messages
• Converts electronic signals into bits for incoming messages
• This layer manages the interface between the the computer and the network medium
(coax, twisted pair, etc.)
• This layer tells the driver software for the MAU (media attachment unit, ex. network
interface cards (NICs, modems, etc.)) what needs to be sent across the medium
• The bottom layer of the OSI model

VIII.5. The TCP/IP model

The first layered protocol model for internetwork communications was created in the early 1970s
and is referred to as the Internet model. It defines four categories of functions that must occur for
communications to be successful. The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the
structure of this model. Because of this, the Internet model is commonly referred to as the
TCP/IP model.

Most protocol models describe a vendor-specific protocol stack. However, since the TCP/IP
model is an open standard, one company does not control the definition of the model. The
definitions of the standard and the TCP/IP protocols are discussed in a public forum and defined
in a publicly-available set of documents. These documents are called Requests for Comments
(RFCs). They contain both the formal specification of data communications protocols and
resources that describe the use of the protocols.

The RFCs also contain technical and organizational documents about the Internet, including the
technical specifications and policy documents produced by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF).

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 52

VIII.5.1. Communication process

The TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol
suite. These protocols, which are implemented on both the sending and receiving hosts, interact
to provide end-to-end delivery of applications over a network.

A complete communication process includes these steps:

1. Creation of data at the Application layer of the originating source end device
2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol stack in the source
end device
3. Generation of the data onto the media at the Network Access layer of the stack
4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of media and any
intermediary devices
5. Reception of the data at the Network Access layer of the destination end device
6. De-capsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the destination
device
7. Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of the destination
end device

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 53

VIII.6. Comparing the OSI model with the TCP/IP model

The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described in terms of the OSI
reference model. In the OSI model, the Network Access layer and the Application layer of the
TCP/IP model are further divided to describe discreet functions that need to occur at these layers.

At the Network Access Layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify which protocols to use
when transmitting over a physical medium; it only describes the handoff from the Internet Layer
to the physical network protocols. The OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to
access the media and the physical means to send data over a network.

The key parallels between the two network models occur at the OSI model Layers 3 and 4. OSI
Model Layer 3, the Network layer, almost universally is used to discuss and document the range
of processes that occur in all data networks to address and route messages through an
internetwork. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the TCP/IP suite protocol that includes the
functionality described at Layer 3.

Layer 4, the Transport layer of the OSI model, is often used to describe general services or
functions that manage individual conversations between source and destination hosts. These
functions include acknowledgement, error recovery, and sequencing. At this layer, the TCP/IP
protocols Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide the
necessary functionality.

The TCP/IP Application layer includes a number of protocols that provide specific functionality
to a variety of end user applications. The OSI model Layers 5, 6 and 7 are used as references for
application software developers and vendors to produce products that need to access networks
for communications.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 54

VIII.7. Network security

Security means Freedom from danger, fear or ensuring safety. Measures adopted to prevent the
authorized use, misuse modification or denial of use of knowledge or facts, data or capabilities.
Network security is an issue of great significance today where a single problem can change the
fate of companies and organization. A single layer of security cannot ensure good security.
Effective security is achieved by the combination of all security disciplines. Computer security is
critical in almost any technology-driven industry which operates on computer systems.
Computer security can also be referred to as computer safety. The issues of computer based
systems and addressing their countless vulnerabilities are an integral part of maintaining an
operational industry. The prominent security technologies and product categories used today are
anti-virus software, firewalls, smart cards, biometrics, intrusion detection, policy management,
vulnerability scanning, encryption etc.

Cryptography is ―The science of protecting data‖ & Network Security ―keeping information
private and Secure from unauthorized Users‖. This paper gives the Fundamental Requirements

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 55

for the Data Transmission, the security attacks like Interruption, Interception and Modification of
the data Transmission. The Cryptographic Process explaining through a generalized function is
discussed through which encryption and decryption is done by the various algorithms like RSA
algorithm, Hash Functions and many cryptographic algorithms

In the field of networking, the area of network security[20] consists of the provisions and policies
adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse,
modification, or denial of the computer network and network-accessible resources. Network
security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network
administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and
programs within their authority. Network Security covers a variety of computer networks, both
public and private that are used in everyday jobs conducting transactions and communications
among businesses, government agencies and individuals.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 56

CHAPTER IX. NETWORK PROTOCOLS

IX.1. Rules of communication

Protocols are specific to the characteristics of the source, channel and destination of the message.
The rules used to communicate over one medium, like a telephone call, are not necessarily the
same as communication using another medium, such as a letter.

Protocols define the details of how the message is transmitted, and delivered. This includes
issues of:

 Message format
 Message size
 Timing
 Encapsulation
 Encoding
Standard message pattern Many of the concepts and rules that make human communication
reliable and understandable also apply to computer communication.

IX.1.1 Message Encoding

One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding it. Written words, pictures, and spoken
languages each use a unique set of codes, sounds, gestures, and/or symbols to represent the
thoughts being shared.

Encoding also occurs in computer communication. Encoding between hosts must be in an

appropriate form for the medium. Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits
by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 57

impulses depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted. The destination
host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the message.

IX.1.2 Message Formatting

Computer messages are encapsulated. Each computer message is encapsulated in a specific
format, called a frame, before it is sent over the network. A frame acts like an envelope; it
provides the address of the intended destination and the address of the source host. The format
and contents of a frame are determined by the type of message being sent and the channel over
which it is communicated. Messages that are not correctly formatted are not successfully
delivered to or processed by the destination host.

IX.1.3. Message Size

When a long message is sent from one host to another over a network, it is necessary to break the
message into smaller pieces. The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or frames,
communicated across the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the
channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered.

The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long message into individual
pieces that meet both the minimum and maximum size requirements. Each piece is encapsulated
in a separate frame with the address information, and is sent over the network. At the receiving
host, the messages are de-encapsulated and put back together to be processed and interpreted.

IX.1.4. Message Timing

One factor that affects how well a message is received and understood is timing. People use
timing to determine when to speak, how fast or slow to talk, and how long to wait for a response.
These are the rules of engagement.

IX.1.5. Access Method

It is necessary for computers to define an access method. Hosts on a network need an access
method to know when to begin sending messages and how to respond when errors

a. Flow Control
In network communication, a sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the
destination host can receive and process. Source and destination hosts use flow control to
negotiate correct timing for successful communication.

b. Response Timeout
Hosts on the network also have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and what action
to take if a response timeout occurs.

IX.1.6. Message Patterns

Sometimes, a person wants to communicate information to a single individual. At other times,
the person may need to send information to a group of people at the same time, or even to all
people in the same area. A conversation between two people is an example of a one-to-one

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 58

pattern of communication. When a group of recipients need to receive the same message
simultaneously, a one-to-many or one-to-all message pattern is necessary.

There are also times when the sender of a message needs to be sure that the message is delivered
successfully to the destination. In these cases, it is necessary for the recipient to return an
acknowledgement to the sender. If no acknowledgement is required, the message pattern is
referred to as unacknowledged.

Hosts on a network use similar message patterns to communicate.

A one-to-one message pattern is referred to as a unicast, meaning that there is only a single
destination for the message.

When a host needs to send messages using a one-to-many pattern, it is referred to as a

multicast. Multicasting is the delivery of the same message to a group of host destinations
simultaneously.

If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time, a broadcast is used.
Broadcasting represents a one-to-all message pattern. Additionally, hosts have requirements for
acknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.

IX.2. Standardization of protocols

In the early days of networking, each vendor used their own, proprietary methods of
interconnecting network devices and networking protocols. Equipment from one vendor could
not communicate with equipment from another.

As networks became more widespread, standards were developed that defined rules by which
network equipment from different vendors operated. Standards are beneficial to networking in
many ways:

 Facilitate design
 Simplify product development
 Promote competition
 Provide consistent interconnections
 Facilitate training

There is no official local networking standard protocol, but over time, one technology, Ethernet,
has become more common than the others. It has become a de facto standard.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 59

Networking is a means of connecting computers together so that they can share data, such
As files and programs, and resources, such as printers and modems.

IX.3. Network protocol definition

1. A network protocol represents a language used on the network for communication between
computers. Each computer or network peripheral must use the same protocol in order to
understand each other, it directs the communication process.

2. A protocol is a set of rules which allow defining the communication mode between two
entities, software or material.

3. A Network protocol is a set of rules that lead communication between two computers.

Communication is the process or means by which information is sent from one place to the other.

IX.4. Protocol classes

Protocols are divided into the following families:

 OSI model
 SNA (Systems Network Architecture) of IBM Company.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 60

  DECnet architecture of DIGITAL EQUIPMENT COMPUTER Company for the
establishment of DNA (Digital Network Architecture) for the local networks
ETHERNET or extended networks MAN. The recent version is DECnet phase V.
 NetWare architecture for NOVELL society
 AppleTalk architecture APPLE COMPUTER Company.
 Internet model TCP/IP

Etc…

IX.5. Protocol role

In general protocols roles allow insuring that data is sent and received in proper format to the
destination. There is no unique protocol but a set of protocols which serve communication
purpose. Here are some roles of protocols:

1. http (Hypertext transfer Protocol)

HTTP plays a role of defining how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions
Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP protocol plays a role of defining the way in which data must be transferred over a
TCP/IP network.
The aim of FTP protocol is to:
 allow file sharing between remote machines
 allow independence between client and server machine system files
 enable efficient data transfer

3. IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

IRC is a real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous conferencing. It is mainly plays
role in group communication in discussion forums called channels, but also it allows one to one
communication via a private message as well as chat and data transfer (including file sharing.

4. Message protocols SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP (Post office
Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
SMTP: plays role of sending and receiving e-mail but it is limited to the ability of queuing
messages at the receiving end.

POP : plays role of retrieving an e-mail from an e-mail server.

IMAP: Helps to access an e-mail from the local server.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 61

IX.6 Protocol examples
DNS: Domain Name Service: translates computer names into addresses and addresses into
names.

Whois: Obtains information about domain registration.

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Used for the Web.

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Used for sending email.

POP: Post Office Protocol. Used for fetching email.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol. Exchanges files with a server.

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol. Basic Internet protocol.

UDP: User Datagram Protocol. Packet-based protocol.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 62

Chapter X. IP addressing

X.1. Definition
An IP address is a logical address for a network adapter. The IP address uniquely identifies
computers on a TCP/IP network.

Each device on a network must be uniquely defined. At the Network layer, the packets of the
communication need to be identified with the source and destination addresses of the two end
systems. With IPv4, this means that each packet has a 32-bit source address and a 32-bit
destination address in the Layer 3 header.

These addresses are used in the data network as binary patterns. Inside the devices, digital logic
is applied for their interpretation. For us in the human network, a string of 32 bits is difficult to
interpret and even more difficult to remember. Therefore, we represent IPv4 addresses using
dotted decimal format.

An IP address can be private - for use on a local area network (LAN) - or public - for use on the
Internet or other wide area network (WAN).

Internet Protocol (IP) technology was developed in the 1970s to support some of the first
research computer networks. Today, IP has become a worldwide standard for home and business
networking as well. Our network routers, Web browsers, email programs, instant messaging
software - all rely on IP or other network protocols layered on top of IP.

Two versions of IP technology exist today. Essentially all home computer networks use IP
version 4 (IPv4), but an increasing number of educational and research institutions have adopted
the next generation IP version 6 (IPv6).

X.2. Network and Host Portions

For each IPv4 address, some portion of the high-order bits represents the network address. At
Layer 3, we define a network as a group of hosts that have identical bit patterns in the network
address portion of their addresses.

Although all 32 bits define the IPv4 host address, we have a variable number of bits that are
called the host portion of the address. The number of bits used in this host portion determines the
number of hosts that we can have within the network.

X.3 IPv4 Addressing Notation

An IPv4 address consists of four bytes (32 bits). These bytes are also known as octets. Octets can
take any value between 0 and 255.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 63

For readability purposes, humans typically work with IP addresses in a notation called dotted
decimal. This notation places periods between each of the four numbers (octets) that comprise
an IP address. For example, an IP address that computers see as

00001010 00000000 00000000 00000001

is written in dotted decimal as 10.0.0.1 Because each byte contains 8 bits, each octet in an IP
address ranges in value from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 255. Therefore, the full range of
IP addresses is from0.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.255. That represents a total of 4,294,967,296
possible IP addresses.

X.4 IPv6 Addressing Notation

IP addresses change significantly with IPv6. IPv6 addresses are 16 bytes (128 bits) long rather
than four bytes (32 bits). This larger size means that IPv6 supports more than

300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 possible addresses! In the coming years,

as an increasing number of cell phones, PDAs, and other consumer electronics expand their
networking capability, the smaller IPv4 address space will likely run out and IPv6 address
become necessary. IPv6 addresses are generally written in the following form:

hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh

In this full notation, pairs of IPv6 bytes are separated by a colon and each byte in turns is
represented as a pair of hexadecimal numbers, like in the following example:

E3D7:0000:0000:0000:51F4:9BC8:C0A8:6420

As shown above, IPv6 addresses commonly contain many bytes with a zero value.Shorthand
notation in IPv6 removes these values from the text representation (though the bytes are still
present in the actual network address) as follows:

E3D7::51F4:9BC8:C0A8:6420

Finally, many IPv6 addresses are extensions of IPv4 addresses. In these cases, the rightmost four
bytes of an IPv6 address (the rightmost two byte pairs) may be rewritten in the IPv4 notation.
Converting the above example to mixed notation yields

E3D7::51F4:9BC8:192.168.100.32

IPv6 addresses may be written in any of the full, shorthand or mixed notation illustrated above.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 64

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 65
X.6. Types of Addresses in an IPv4 Network

Within the address range of each IPv4 network, we have three types of addresses:

 Network address - The address by which we refer to the network

 Broadcast address - A special address used to send data to all hosts in the network
 Host addresses - The addresses assigned to the end devices in the network

A. Network Address

The network address is a standard way to refer to a network. For example, we could refer to the
network shown in the figure as "the 10.0.0.0 network." This is a much more convenient and
descriptive way to refer to the network than using a term like "the first network." All hosts in the
10.0.0.0 network will have the same network bits.

Within the IPv4 address range of a network, the lowest address is reserved for the network
address. This address has a 0 for each host bit in the host portion of the address.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 66

 B. Broadcast Address

The IPv4 broadcast address is a special address for each network that allows communication to
all the hosts in that network. To send data to all hosts in a network, a host can send a single
packet that is addressed to the broadcast address of the network.

The broadcast address uses the highest address in the network range. This is the address in which
the bits in the host portion are all 1s. For the network 10.0.0.0 with 24 network bits, the
broadcast address would be 10.0.0.255. This address is also referred to as the directed broadcast.

C. Host Addresses

As described previously, every end device requires a unique address to deliver a packet to that
host. In IPv4 addresses, we assign the values between the network address and the broadcast
address to the devices in that network.

X.7. Network Prefixes

An important question is: How do we know how many bits represent the network portion and
how many bits represent the host portion? When we express an IPv4 network address, we add a
prefix length to the network address. The prefix length is the number of bits in the address that
gives us the network portion. For example, in 172.16.4.0 /24, the /24 is the prefix length - it tells
us that the first 24 bits are the network address. This leaves the remaining 8 bits, the last octet, as
the host portion. Later in this chapter, we will learn more about another entity that is used to
specify the network portion of an IPv4 address to the network devices. It is called the subnet
mask. The subnet mask consists of 32 bits, just as the address does, and uses 1s and 0s to indicate
which bits of the address are network bits and which bits are host bits.

Networks are not always assigned a /24 prefix. Depending on the number of hosts on the
network, the prefix assigned may be different. Having a different prefix number changes the host
range and broadcast address for each network.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 67

X.8. Calculating Network, Hosts and Broadcast Addresses

At this point, you may be wondering: How do we calculate these addresses? This calculation
process requires us to look at these addresses in binary.

In the example network divisions, we need to look at the octet of the address where the prefix
divides the network portion from the host portion. In all of these examples, it is the last octet.
While this is common, the prefix can also divide any of the octets.

To get started understanding this process of determining the address assignments, let's break
some examples down into binary.

See the figure for an example of the address assignment for the 172.16.20.0 /25 network.

In the first box, we see the representation of the network address. With a 25 bit prefix, the last 7
bits are host bits. To represent the network address, all of these host bits are '0'. This makes the
last octet of the address 0. This makes the network address 172.16.20.0 /25.

In the second box, we see the calculation of the lowest host address. This is always one greater
than the network address. In this case, the last of the seven host bits becomes a '1'. With the
lowest bit of host address set to a 1, the lowest host address is 172.16.20.1.

The third box shows the calculation of the broadcast address of the network. Therefore, all seven
host bits used in this network are all '1s'. From the calculation, we get 127 in the last octet. This
gives us a broadcast address of 172.16.20.127.

The fourth box presents the calculation of the highest host address. The highest host address for a
network is always one less than the broadcast. This means the lowest host bit is a '0' and all other
host bits as '1s'. As seen, this makes the highest host address in this network 172.16.20.126.

Although for this example we expanded all of the octets, we only need to examine the content of
the divided octet.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 68

X.9. Types of communication

In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate one of three different ways:

 Unicast - the process of sending a packet from one host to an individual host
 Broadcast - the process of sending a packet from one host to all hosts in the network
 Multicast - the process of sending a packet from one host to a selected group of hosts

These three types of communication are used for different purposes in the data networks. In all
three cases, the IPv4 address of the originating host is placed in the packet header as the source
address.

A. Unicast Traffic

Unicast communication is used for the normal host-to-host communication in both a client/server
and a peer-to-peer network. Unicast packets use the host address of the destination device as the
destination address and can be routed through an internetwork. Broadcast and multicast,
however, use special addresses as the destination address. Using these special addresses,
broadcasts are generally restricted to the local network. The scope of multicast traffic also may
be limited to the local network or routed through an internetwork.

B. Broadcast Transmission

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 69

Because broadcast traffic is used to send packets to all hosts in the network, a packet uses a
special broadcast address. When a host receives a packet with the broadcast address as the
destination, it processes the packet as it would a packet to its unicast address.

Broadcast transmission is used for the location of special services/devices for which the address
is not known or when a host needs to provide information to all the hosts on the network.

Some examples for using broadcast transmission are:

 Mapping upper layer addresses to lower layer addresses

 Requesting an address
 Exchanging routing information by routing protocols

C. Multicast Transmission

Multicast transmission is designed to conserve the bandwidth of the IPv4 network. It reduces
traffic by allowing a host to send a single packet to a selected set of hosts. To reach multiple
destination hosts using unicast communication, a source host would need to send an individual
packet addressed to each host. With multicast, the source host can send a single packet that can
reach thousands of destination hosts.

Some examples of multicast transmission are:

 Video and audio distribution

 Routing information exchange by routing protocols
 Distribution of software
 News feeds

X.10. Reserved IPv4 Address Ranges

Expressed in dotted decimal format, the IPv4 address range is 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. As
you have already seen, not all of these addresses can be used as host addresses for unicast
communication.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 70

X.11. Public and Private Addresses

Although most IPv4 host addresses are public addresses designated for use in networks that are
accessible on the Internet, there are blocks of addresses that are used in networks that require
limited or no Internet access. These addresses are called private addresses.

A. Private Addresses

The private address blocks are:

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0 /8)

172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0 /12)

192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0 /16)

Private space address blocks, as shown in the figure, are set aside for use in private networks.
The use of these addresses need not be unique among outside networks. Hosts that do not require
access to the Internet at large may make unrestricted use of private addresses. However, the
internal networks still must design network address schemes to ensure that the hosts in the
private networks use IP addresses that are unique within their networking environment.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 71

  Network Address Translation (NAT)

With services to translate private addresses to public addresses, hosts on a privately addressed
network can have access to resources across the Internet. These services, called Network
Address Translation (NAT), can be implemented on a device at the edge of the private network.

NAT allows the hosts in the network to "borrow" a public address for communicating to outside
networks. While there are some limitations and performance issues with NAT, clients for most
applications can access services over the Internet without noticeable problems.

B. Public Addresses

The vast majority of the addresses in the IPv4 unicast host range are public addresses. These
addresses are designed to be used in the hosts that are publicly accessible from the Internet. Even
within these address blocks, there are many addresses that are designated for other special
purposes.

X.12. Special IPv4 Addresses

There are certain addresses that cannot be assigned to hosts for various reasons. There are also
special addresses that can be assigned to hosts but with restrictions on how those hosts can
interact within the network.

A. Network and Broadcast Addresses

As explained earlier, within each network the first and last addresses cannot be assigned to hosts.
These are the network address and the broadcast address, respectively.

B. Default Route

Also presented earlier, we represent the IPv4 default route as 0.0.0.0. The default route is used as
a "catch all" route when a more specific route is not available. The use of this address also
reserves all addresses in the 0.0.0.0 - 0.255.255.255 (0.0.0.0 /8) address block.

C. Loopback

One such reserved address is the IPv4 loopback address 127.0.0.1. The loopback is a special
address that hosts use to direct traffic to themselves. The loopback address creates a shortcut
method for TCP/IP applications and services that run on the same device to communicate with
one another. By using the loopback address instead of the assigned IPv4 host address, two
services on the same host can bypass the lower layers of the TCP/IP stack. You can also ping the
loopback address to test the configuration of TCP/IP on the local host.

Although only the single 127.0.0.1 address is used, addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 are
reserved. Any address within this block will loop back within the local host. No address within
this block should ever appear on any network.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 72

 D. Link-Local Addresses

IPv4 addresses in the address block 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0 /16) are
designated as link-local addresses. These addresses can be automatically assigned to the local
host by the operating system in environments where no IP configuration is available. These
might be used in a small peer-to-peer network or for a host that could not automatically obtain an
address from a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server.

Communication using IPv4 link-local addresses is only suitable for communication with other
devices connected to the same network, as shown in the figure. A host must not send a packet
with an IPv4 link-local destination address to any router for forwarding and should set the IPv4
TTL for these packets to 1.

Link-local addresses do not provide services outside of the local network. However, many
client/server and peer-to-peer applications will work properly with IPv4 link-local addresses.

E. TEST-NET Addresses

The address block 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0 /24) is set aside for teaching and learning
purposes. These addresses can be used in documentation and network examples. Unlike the
experimental addresses, network devices will accept these addresses in their configurations. You
may often find these addresses used with the domain names example.com or example.net in
RFCs, vendor, and protocol documentation. Addresses within this block should not appear on the
Internet.

X.5 IPv4 Classes

Historically, RFC1700 grouped the unicast ranges into specific sizes called class A, class B, and
class C addresses. It also defined class D (multicast) and class E (experimental) addresses, as
previously presented.

The unicast address classes A, B, and C defined specifically-sized networks as well as specific
address blocks for these networks, as shown in the figure. A company or organization was
assigned an entire class A, class B, or class C address block. This use of address space is referred
to as class-full addressing.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 73

X.6. Assigning Addresses

X.6.1 Planning to address the network

The allocation of Network layer address space within the corporate network needs to be well
designed. Network administrators should not randomly select the addresses used in their
networks. Nor should address assignment within the network be random.

The allocation of these addresses inside the networks should be planned and documented for the
purpose of:

 Preventing duplication of addresses

 Providing and controlling access
 Monitoring security and performance

IP addresses can be assigned either statically or dynamically.

X.6.2 Static Assignment of Addresses

With a static assignment, the network administrator must manually configure the network
information for a host. At a minimum, this includes entering
 the host IP address,
 subnet mask,
 default gateway.

Static addresses have some advantages over dynamic addresses. For instance, they are useful for
printers, servers, and other networking devices that need to be accessible to clients on the
network. If hosts normally access a server at a particular IP address, it would cause problems if
that address changed. Additionally, static assignment of addressing information can provide
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 74
increased control of network resources. However, it can be time-consuming to enter the
information on each host.

When using static IP addressing, it is necessary to maintain an accurate list of the IP address
assigned to each device. These are permanent addresses and are not normally reused.

X.6.3 Dynamic Assignment of Addresses

Because of the challenges associated with static address management, end user devices often
have addresses dynamically assigned, using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

DHCP enables the automatic assignment of addressing information such as IP address, subnet
mask, default gateway, and other configuration information. The configuration of the DHCP
server requires that a block of addresses, called an address pool, be defined to be assigned to the
DHCP clients on a network. Addresses assigned to this pool should be planned so that they
exclude any addresses used for the other types of devices.

DHCP is generally the preferred method of assigning IP addresses to hosts on large networks
because it reduces the burden on network support staff and virtually eliminates entry errors.

Another benefit of DHCP is that an address is not permanently assigned to a host but is only
"leased" for a period of time. If the host is powered down or taken off the network, the address is
returned to the pool for reuse. This feature is especially helpful for mobile users that come and
go on a network.

X.7. Who Assign the Different Addresses?

A company or organization that wishes to have network hosts accessible from the Internet must
have a block of public addresses assigned. The use of these public addresses is regulated and the
company or organization must have a block of addresses allocated to it. This is true for IPv4,
IPv6, and multicast addresses.

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) (http://www.iana.net) is the master holder of the
IP addresses. The IP multicast addresses are obtained directly from IANA. Until the mid-1990s,
all IPv4 address space was managed directly by the IANA. At that time, the remaining IPv4
address space was allocated to various other registries to manage for particular purposes or for
regional areas. These registration companies are called Regional Internet Registries (RIRs).
When a RIR requires more IP addresses for allocation or assignment within its region, the IANA
allocates IPv6 addresses to the RIRs according to their established needs.

The major registries are:

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 75

  AfriNIC (African Network Information Centre) - Africa Region http://www.afrinic.net

 APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre) - Asia/Pacific Region

http://www.apnic.net

 ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers) - North America Region

http://www.arin.net

 LACNIC (Regional Latin-American and Caribbean IP Address Registry) - Latin America

and some Caribbean Islands http://www.lacnic.net

 RIPE NCC (Reseaux IP Europeans) - Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia
http://www.ripe.net

X.8. ISPs

A. The Role of the ISP

Most companies or organizations obtain their IPv4 address blocks from an ISP. An ISP will
generally supply a small number of usable IPv4 addresses (6 or 14) to their customers as a part of
their services. Larger blocks of addresses can be obtained based on justification of needs and for
additional service costs.

In a sense, the ISP loans or rents these addresses to the organization. If we choose to move our
Internet connectivity to another ISP, the new ISP will provide us with addresses from the address
blocks that have been provided to them, and our previous ISP returns the blocks loaned to us to
their allocation to be loaned to another customer.

B. ISP Services
To get access to the services of the Internet, we have to connect our data network to the Internet
using an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 76

C. ISP Tiers
ISPs are designated by a hierarchy based on their level of connectivity to the Internet backbone.
Each lower tier obtains connectivity to the backbone via a connection to a higher tier ISP, as
shown in the figure.

Tier 1
At the top of the ISP hierarchy are Tier 1 ISPs. These ISPs are large national or international
ISPs that are directly connected to the Internet backbone. The customers of Tier 1 ISPs are either
lower-tiered ISPs or large companies and organizations. Because they are at the top of Internet
connectivity, they engineer highly reliable connections and services. Among the technologies
used to support this reliability are multiple connections to the Internet backbone.

The primary advantages for customers of Tier 1 ISPs are reliability and speed. Because these
customers are only one connection away from the Internet, there are fewer opportunities for
failures or traffic bottlenecks. The drawback for Tier 1 ISP customers is its high cost.

Tier 2
Tier 2 ISPs acquire their Internet service from Tier 1 ISPs. Tier 2 ISPs generally focus on
business customers. Tier 2 ISPs usually offer more services than the other two tiers of ISPs.
These tier 2 ISPs tend to have the IT resources to operate their own services such as DNS, e-mail
servers, and web servers. Other services that Tier 2 ISPs may offer include website development
and maintenance, e-commerce/e-business, and VoIP.

The primary disadvantage of Tier 2 ISPs, as compared to Tier 1 ISPs, is slower Internet access.
Because Tier 2 ISPs are at least one more connection away from the Internet backbone, they also
tend to have lower reliability than Tier 1 ISPs.

Tier 3
Tier 3 ISPs purchase their Internet service from Tier 2 ISPs. The focus of these ISPs is the retail
and home markets in a specific locale. Tier 3 customers typically do not need many of the
services required by Tier 2 customers. Their primary need is connectivity and support.

These customers often have little or no computer or network expertise. Tier 3 ISPs often bundle
Internet connectivity as a part of network and computer service contracts for their customers.
While they may have reduced bandwidth and less reliability than Tier 1 and Tier 2 providers,
they are often good choices for small to medium size companies.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 77

X.9. Overview of IPv6
In the early 1990s, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) grew concerned about the
exhaustion of the IPv4 network addresses and began to look for a replacement for this protocol.
This activity led to the development of what is now known as IPv6.

Creating expanded addressing capabilities was the initial motivation for developing this new
protocol. Other issues were also considered during the development of IPv6, such as:

 Improved packet handling

 Increased scalability and longevity
 QoS mechanisms
 Integrated security

To provide these features, IPv6 offers:

 128-bit hierarchical addressing - to expand addressing capabilities
 Header format simplification - to improve packet handling
 Improved support for extensions and options - for increased scalability/longevity and
improved packet handling
 Flow labeling capability - as QoS mechanisms
 Authentication and privacy capabilities - to integrate security

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 78

X.10. The subnet Mask:

X.10.1 Defining the Network and Host Portions

To define the network and host portions of an address, the devices use a separate 32-bit pattern
called a subnet mask, as shown in the figure. We express the subnet mask in the same dotted
decimal format as the IPv4 address. The subnet mask is created by placing a binary 1 in each bit
position that represents the network portion and placing a binary 0 in each bit position that
represents the host portion.

The prefix and the subnet mask are different ways of representing the same thing - the network
portion of an address.

a /24 prefix is expressed as a subnet mask as 255.255.255.0

(11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000). The remaining bits (low order) of the subnet mask
are zeroes, indicating the host address within the network.

The subnet mask is configured on a host in conjunction with the IPv4 address to define the
network portion of that address.

There are a limited number 8 bit patterns used in address masks.

These patterns are:

00000000 = 0
10000000 = 128
11000000 = 192
11100000 = 224
11110000 = 240
11111000 = 248
11111100 = 252
11111110 = 254
11111111 = 255

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 79

To determine the network address having the host address and subnet mask, AND is used.

X.10.2 Calculating Addresses – Basic subnetting

Class-full subnetting

Subnetting allows for creating multiple logical networks from a single address block. Since we
use a router to connect these networks together, each interface on a router must have a unique
network ID. Every node on that link is on the same network.

We create the subnets by using one or more of the host bits as network bits. This is done by
extending the mask to borrow some of the bits from the host portion of the address to create
additional network bits. The more host bits used, the more subnets that can be defined. For each
bit borrowed, we double the number of subnetworks available. For example, if we borrow 1 bit,
we can define 2 subnets. If we borrow 2 bits, we can have 4 subnets. However, with each bit we
borrow, fewer host addresses are available per subnet.

Formula for calculating subnets

Use this formula to calculate the number of subnets:

2^n where n = the number of bits borrowed

In this example, the calculation looks like this:

2^1 = 2 subnets

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 80

The number of hosts

To calculate the number of hosts per network, we use the formula of 2^n - 2 where n = the
number of bits left for hosts.

Applying this formula, (2^7 - 2 = 126) shows that each of these subnets can have 126 hosts.

For each subnet, examine the last octet in binary. The values in these octets for the two networks
are:

Subnet 1: 00000000 = 0

Subnet 2: 10000000 = 128

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 81

Example with 3 subnets

Next, consider an internetwork that requires three subnets. See the figure.

Again we start with the same 192.168.1.0 /24 address block. Borrowing a single bit would only
provide two subnets. To provide more networks, we change the subnet mask to 255.255.255.192
and borrow two bits. This will provide four subnets.

Calculate the subnet with this formula:

2^2 = 4 subnets

The number of hosts

To calculate the number of hosts, begin by examining the last octet. Notice these subnets.

Subnet 0: 0 = 00000000

Subnet 1: 64 = 01000000

Subnet 2: 128 = 10000000

Subnet 3: 192 = 11000000

Apply the host calculation formula.

2^6 - 2 = 62 hosts per subnet

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 82

Example with 6 subnets

Consider this example with five LANs and a WAN for a total of 6 networks. See the figure.

To accommodate 6 networks, subnet 192.168.1.0 /24 into address blocks using the formula:

2^3 = 8

To get at least 6 subnets, borrow three host bits. A subnet mask of 255.255.255.224 provides the
three additional network bits.

The number of hosts

To calculate the number of hosts, begin by examining the last octet. Notice these subnets.

0 = 00000000

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 83

32 = 00100000

64 = 01000000

96 = 01100000

128 = 10000000

160 = 10100000

192 = 11000000

224 = 11100000

Apply the host calculation formula:

2^5 - 2 = 30 hosts per subnet.

See the figure for the addressing scheme for these networks.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 84

X.11. Dividing Networks into Right Sizes
Every network within the internetwork of a corporation or organization is designed to
accommodate a finite number of hosts.

Some networks, such as point-to-point WAN links, only require a maximum of two hosts. Other
networks, such as a user LAN in a large building or department, may need to accommodate
hundreds of hosts. Network administrators need to devise the internetwork addressing scheme to
accommodate the maximum number of hosts for each network. The number of hosts in each
division should allow for growth in the number of hosts.

X.11.1 Determine the Total Number of Hosts

First, consider the total number of hosts required by the entire corporate internetwork. We must
use a block of addresses that is large enough to accommodate all devices in all the corporate
networks. This includes end user devices, servers, intermediate devices, and router interfaces.

Consider the example of a corporate internetwork that needs to accommodate 800 hosts in its
four locations.

X.11.2 Determine the Number and Size of the Networks

Next, consider the number of networks and the size of each required based on common
groupings of hosts.

We subnet our network to overcome issues with location, size, and control. In designing the
addressing, we consider the factors for grouping the hosts that we discussed previously:

 Grouping based on common geographic location

 Grouping hosts used for specific purposes

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 85

  Grouping based on ownership

Each WAN link is a network. We create subnets for the WAN that interconnect different
geographic locations. When connecting the different locations, we use a router to account for the
hardware differences between the LANs and the WAN.

Although hosts in a common geographic location typically comprise a single block of addresses,
we may need to subnet this block to form additional networks at each location. We need to create
sub-networks at the different locations that have hosts for common user needs. We may also
have other groups of users that require many network resources, or we may have many users that
require their own sub-network. Additionally, we may have sub-networks for special hosts such
as servers. Each of these factors needs to be considered in the network count.

We also have to consider any special security or administrative ownership needs that require
additional networks.

One useful tool in this address planning process is a network diagram. A diagram allows us to
see the networks and make a more accurate count.

To accommodate 800 hosts in the company's four locations, we use binary arithmetic to allocate
a /22 block (2^10-2=1022).

X.11.3 Allocating Addresses

Now that we have a count of the networks and the number of hosts for each network, we need to
start allocating addresses from our overall block of addresses.

This process begins by allocating network addresses for locations of special networks. We start
with the locations that require the most hosts and work down to the point-to-point links. This
process ensures that large enough blocks of addresses are made available to accommodate the
hosts and networks for these locations.

When making the divisions and assignment of available subnets, make sure that there are
adequately-sized address blocks available for the larger demands. Also, plan carefully to ensure
that the address blocks assigned to the subnet do not overlap.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 86

X.12. Subneeting a Subnet - Variable length subnet masking (VLSM)
Subnetting a subnet, or using Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) was designed to
maximize addressing efficiency. When identifying the total number of hosts using traditional
subnetting, we allocate the same number of addresses for each subnet. If all the subnets have the
same requirements for the number hosts, these fixed size address blocks would be efficient.
However, most often that is not the case.

Example

In Figure 1, we will look at addressing from another view. We will consider subnetting based on
the number of hosts, including router interfaces and WAN connections. This scenario has the
following requirements:

 AtlantaHQ 58 host addresses

 PerthHQ 26 host addresses
 SydneyHQ 10 host addresses
 CorpusHQ 10 host addresses
 WAN links 2 host addresses (each)

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 87

It is clear from these requirements that using a standard subnetting scheme would, indeed, be
wasteful. In this internetwork, standard subnetting would lock each subnet into blocks of 62
hosts, which would mean a significant waste of potential addresses. This waste is especially
evident in figure 2 where we see that the PerthHQ LAN supports 26 users and the SydneyHQ
and CorpusHQ LANs routers support only 10 users each.

When creating an appropriate addressing scheme, always begin with the largest requirement. In
this case, the AtlantaHQ, with 58 users, has the largest requirement. Starting with 192.168.15.0,
we will need 6 host bits to accommodate the requirement of 58 hosts, this allows 2 additional bits
for the network portion. The prefix for this network would be /26 and a subnet mask of
255.255.255.192.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 88

Let's begin by subnetting the original address block of 192.168.15.0 /24. Using the Usable hosts
= 2^n - 2 formula, we calculate that 6 host bits allow 62 hosts in the subnet. The 62 hosts would
meet the required 58 hosts of the AtlantaHQ company router.
Address: 192.168.15.0
In Binary: 11000000.10101000.00001111.00000000
Mask: 255.255.255.192
26 Bits in binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000

The steps for implementing this subnetting scheme are described here.

Assigning the AtlantaHQ LAN

The first step shows a network-planning chart. The second step in the figure shows the entry for
the AtlantaHQ. This entry is the results of calculating a subnet from the original 192.168.15.0
/24 block to accommodate the largest LAN, the AtlantaHQ LAN with 58 hosts. Doing this
required borrowing an additional 2 host bits, to use a /26 bit mask.

By comparison, the following scheme shows how 192.168.15.0 would be subnetted using fixed
block addressing to provide large enough address blocks:
Subnet 0: 192.168.15.0 /26 host address range 1 to 62

Subnet 1: 192.168.15.64 /26 host address range 65 to 126

Subnet 2: 192.168.15.128 /26 host address range 129 to 190

Subnet 3: 192.168.15.192 /26 host address range 193 to 254

The fixed blocks would allow only four subnets and therefore not allow enough address blocks
for the majority of the subnets in this internetwork. Instead of continuing to use the next
available subnet, we need to ensure we make the size of each subnet consistent with the host
requirements. Using an addressing scheme directly correlated to the host requirements requires
the use of a different method of subnetting.

Assigning the PerthHQ LAN

In the third step, we look at the requirements for the next largest subnet. This is the PerthHQ
LAN, requiring 26 host addresses including the router interface. We should begin with next
available address of 192.168.15.64 to create an address block for this subnet. By borrowing one
more bit, we are able to meet the needs of PerthHQ while limiting the wasted addresses. The
borrowed bit gives us a /27 mask with the following address range:

192.168.15.64 /27 host address range 65 to 94

This block of address provides 30 addresses, which meets the requirement of 28 hosts and allows
room for growth for this subnet.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 89

Assigning the SydneyHQ LAN and CorpusHQ LAN

The fourth and fifth steps provide the addressing for the next largest subnets: SydneyHQ and
CorpusHQ LANs. In these two steps, each LAN has the same need for 10 host addresses. This
subnetting requires us to borrow another bit, to extend the mask to /28. Starting with address
192.168.15.96, we get the following address blocks:

Subnet 0: 192.168.15.96 /28 host address range 97 to 110

Subnet 1: 192.168.15.112 /28 host address range 113 to 126

These blocks provide 14 addresses for the hosts and router interfaces on each LAN.

Assigning the WANs

The last three steps show subnetting for the WAN links. With these point-to-point WAN links
only two addresses are required. To meet the requirement, we borrow 2 more bits to use a /30
mask. Using the next available addresses, we get the following address blocks:

Subnet 0: 192.168.15.128 /30 host address range 129 to 130

Subnet 1: 192.168.15.132 /30 host address range 133 to 134

Subnet 2: 192.168.15.136 /30 host address range 137 to 138

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 90

XI Server Roles
XI.1. DHCP
DHCP short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a protocol which helps to dynamically
assign IP addresses, instead of having static IP addresses. When a machine connects to a network
it receives an IP address.

The server that manages this dynamically assigned IP addresses is called Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server.

In these arrangements the workstations are called DHCP clients. The DHCP software resides
both in the server and the workstation.

Installing the DHCP Service

1. Select start>Control Panel>Add or Remove Programs.

2. Click the Add/Remove windows components icon. The windows components wizard opens
and lists all of the available components.
3. Select the Networking services item from the component list and click the Details button.
4. When the subcomponents of network services list appears, make sure Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is selected and click the OK button.
5. Click the next button to continue the windows components wizard.
6. If prompted, enter the path to the windows server 2003 distribution files.
7. Click finish to close the windows components wizard. Close the Add or remove programs
window.

Authorizing a DHCP Server in an active directory

1. Select start>Administrative tools>DHCP to open the DHCP snap-in.

2. Right-click the server you want to authorize and choose the authorize command.
3. Wait a short time to allow the authorization to take place.
4. Right-click the server again. Verify that the unauthorized command appears in the pop-up
menu, this indicates that the server is now authorized.
5. Leave the window open for the next lab.

Several packets are sent between a DHCP server and a client machine:

 DHCPDISCOVER (to locate the available DHCP servers)

 DHCPOFFER (Response of the server on the packet DHCPDISCOVER, it contains the first
parameters)
 DHCPREQUEST (Request of client for instance when it needs the extension of its lease)
 DHCPACK (Response of the server which contain the parameters and client IP address)
 DHCPNAK (Response of the server to indicate to the client that its lease period is expired or
the client announce the bad network configuration)
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 91
 DHCPDECLINE (The client announce to the server that the address is already used)
 DHCPRELEASE (the client release its IP address)
 DHCPINFORM (The client asks the local parameters, he already has his IP address)
The first packet sent by a client is a DHCPDISCOVER. The server responds by DHCPOFFER,
in particular for submitting an IP address to the client. A client establishes its configuration and
delivers a DHCPREQUEST to validate its IP address (The request is in broadcast because
DHCPOFFER doesn‘t have its own IP address). The server Answers simply with a DHCPACK
with the IP address for confirming the delivery.

X.13.1 Lease
Lease a period of IP address validity, this period is set for the network resources optimization.
When a client finds that its IP lease is over, it may asks the server to extend its lease period.

XI.2. DNS configuration

A DNS (Domain Name Server) is a device (which is on your ISP) which associate an IP address
to the address which easy to remember. For example the IP 207.68.137.65 is associated with
http://www.microsoft.com in case you type that IP you will have the same result.

X.14.1 Steps for configuring a DNS

 Start > Control panel > Network and internet connection > Network connection > Right click
on Local area network > properties>Select Internet protocol (TCP/IP)> properties>Use the
following DNS server addresses.

X.15. Router configuration

X.15.1 Routers are Computers

A router is a computer, just like any other computer including a PC. The very first router, used
for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was the Interface Message
Processor (IMP). The IMP was a Honeywell 316 minicomputer; this computer brought the
ARPANET to life on August 30, 1969.

Note: The ARPANET was developed by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the
United States Department of Defense. The ARPANET was the world's first operational packet
switching network and the predecessor of today's Internet.

Routers have many of the same hardware and software components that are found in other
computers including:

 CPU
 RAM
 ROM
 Operating System
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 92
X.15.2 Role of the Router
The router is a special-purpose computer that plays a key role in the operation of any data
network. Routers are primarily responsible for interconnecting networks by:

 Determining the best path to send packets

 Forwarding packets toward their destination

Routers perform packet forwarding by learning about remote networks and maintaining routing
information. The router is the junction or intersection that connects multiple IP networks. The
routers primary forwarding decision is based on Layer 3 information, the destination IP address.

The router's routing table is used to find the best match between the destination IP of a packet
and a network address in the routing table. The routing table will ultimately determine the exit
interface to forward the packet and the router will encapsulate that packet in the appropriated
data link frame for that outgoing interface.

X.15.3 Router Components and their Functions

Like a PC, a router also includes:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)

CPU

The CPU executes operating system instructions, such as system initialization, routing functions,
and switching functions.

RAM

RAM stores the instructions and data needed to be executed by the CPU. RAM is used to store
these components:
 Operating System: The Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System) is copied into RAM
during boot up.
 Running Configuration File: This is the configuration file that stores the configuration
commands that the router IOS is currently using. With few exceptions, all commands
configured on the router are stored in the running configuration file, known as running-
config.
 IP Routing Table: This file stores information about directly connected and remote
networks. It is used to determine the best path to forward the packet.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 93

  ARP Cache: This cache contains the IPv4 address to MAC address mappings, similar to
the ARP cache on a PC. The ARP cache is used on routers that have LAN interfaces such
as Ethernet interfaces.
 Packet Buffer: Packets are temporarily stored in a buffer when received on an interface or
before they exit an interface.

RAM is volatile memory and loses its content when the router is powered down or restarted.
However, the router also contains permanent storage areas, such as ROM, flash and NVRAM.

ROM

ROM is a form of permanent storage. Cisco devices use ROM to store:

 The bootstrap instructions
 Basic diagnostic software
 Scaled-down version of IOS
ROM uses firmware, which is software that is embedded inside the integrated circuit. Firmware
includes the software that does not normally need to be modified or upgraded, such as the bootup
instructions. Many of these features, including ROM monitor software, will be discussed in a
later course. ROM does not lose its contents when the router loses power or is restarted.

Flash Memory

Flash memory is nonvolatile computer memory that can be electrically stored and erased. Flash
is used as permanent storage for the operating system, Cisco IOS. In most models of Cisco
routers, the IOS is permanently stored in flash memory and copied into RAM during the bootup
process, where it is then executed by the CPU. Some older models of Cisco routers run the IOS
directly from flash. Flash consists of SIMMs or PCMCIA cards, which can be upgraded to
increase the amount of flash memory.

Flash memory does not lose its contents when the router loses power or is restarted.
NVRAM

NVRAM (Nonvolatile RAM) does not lose its information when power is turned off. This is in
contrast to the most common forms of RAM, such as DRAM, that requires continual power to
maintain its information. NVRAM is used by the Cisco IOS as permanent storage for the startup
configuration file (startup-config). All configuration changes are stored in the running-config file
in RAM, and with few exceptions, are implemented immediately by the IOS. To save those
changes in case the router is restarted or loses power, the running-config must be copied to
NVRAM, where it is stored as the startup-config file. NVRAM retains its contents even when
the router reloads or is powered off.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 94

ROM, RAM, NVRAM, and flash are discussed in the following section which introduces the
IOS and the bootup process. They are also discussed in more detail in a later course relative to
managing the IOS.

It is more important for a networking professional to understand the function of the main internal
components of a router than the exact location of those components inside a specific router. The
internal physical architecture will differ from model to model.

X.15.3 Router Interface

X.15.3.1 Management Ports

Routers have physical connectors that are used to manage the router. These connectors are
known as management ports.
Unlike Ethernet and serial interfaces, management ports are not used for packet forwarding.
The most common management port is the console port. The console port is used to connect a
terminal, or most often a PC running terminal emulator software, to configure the router without
the need for network access to that router. The console port must be used during initial
configuration of the router.

Another management port is the auxiliary port. Not all routers have auxiliary ports. At times the
auxiliary port can be used in ways similar to a console port. It can also be used to attach a
modem.

X.15.3.2 Router Interfaces

The term interface on Cisco routers refers to a physical connector on the router whose main
purpose is to receive and forward packets.

Router interfaces can be divided into two major groups:

 LAN interfaces - such as Ethernet and FastEthernet
 WAN interfaces - such as serial, ISDN, and Frame Relay

The router in the figure has four interfaces. Each interface has a Layer 3 IP address and subnet
mask that configures it for a different network. The Ethernet interfaces also have Layer 2
Ethernet MAC addresses.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 95

X.15.4 Router configuration

X.15.4.1 Basic Router Configuration

When configuring a router, certain basic tasks are performed including:

 Naming the router

 Setting passwords
 Configuring interfaces
 Configuring a banner
 Saving changes on a router
 Verifying basic configuration and router operations

X.15.4.2 Access Methods

There are several ways to access the CLI environment. The most usual methods are:
 Console
 Telnet or SSH
 AUX port

The CLI uses a hierarchical structure for the modes. In order from top to bottom, the major
modes are:

 User executive mode

 Privileged executive mode
 Global configuration mode
 Other specific configuration modes

Each mode is used to accomplish particular tasks and has a specific set of commands that are
available when in that mode.

X.15.4.3 Command Prompts

When using the CLI, the mode is identified by the command-line prompt that is unique to that
mode. The prompt is composed of the words and symbols on the line to the left of the entry area.
The word prompt is used because the system is prompting you to make an entry.

By default, every prompt begins with the device name. Following the name, the remainder of the
prompt indicates the mode. For example, the default prompt for the global configuration mode
on a router would be:

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 96

Router(config)#

As commands are used and modes are changed, the prompt changes to reflect the current
context, as shown in the figure.

Primary Modes

The two primary modes of operation are:

 User EXEC
 Privileged EXEC

Each mode has similar commands. However, the privileged EXEC mode has a higher level of
authority in what it allows to be executed.

The user executive mode, or user EXEC for short, has limited capabilities but is useful for some
basic operations. The user EXEC mode is at the top of the modal hierarchical structure. This
mode is the first entrance into the CLI of an IOS router.

The user EXEC mode allows only a limited number of basic monitoring commands. This is often
referred to as view-only mode.
The user EXEC mode is identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the > symbol. This is an
example that shows the > symbol in the prompt:

Switch>
Router>

Privileged EXEC Mode

The execution of configuration and management commands requires that the network
administrator use the privileged EXEC mode, or a specific mode further down the hierarchy.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 97

The privileged EXEC mode can be identified by the prompt ending with the # symbol.

Switch#
Router#

Moving between the User EXEC and Privileged EXEC Modes

The enable and disable commands are used to change the CLI between the user EXEC mode and
the privileged EXEC mode, respectively.

In order to access the privileged EXEC mode, use the enable command. The privileged EXEC
mode is sometimes called the enable mode.

The syntax for entering the enable command is:

Router>enable

This command is executed without the need for an argument or keyword. Once <Enter> is
pressed, the router prompt changes to:

Router#

The # at the end of the prompt indicates that the router is now in privileged EXEC mode.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 98

If password authentication has been configured for the privileged EXEC mode, the IOS prompts
for the password.

For example:

Router>enable
Password:
Router#

The disable command is used to return from the privileged EXEC to the user EXEC mode.

For example:

Router#disable
Router>

Basic IOS Command Structure

Each IOS command has specific format or syntax and is executed at the appropriate prompt. The
general syntax for a command is the command followed by any appropriate keywords and
arguments.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 99

After entering each complete command, including any keywords and arguments, press the
<Enter> key to submit the command to the command interpreter.

Global Configuration Mode

The primary configuration mode is called global configuration or global config. From global
config, CLI configuration changes are made that affect the operation of the device as a whole.

We also use the global config mode as a precursor to accessing specific configuration modes.

The following CLI command is used to take the device from privileged EXEC mode to the
global configuration mode and to allow entry of configuration commands from a terminal:

Router#configure terminal

Once the command is executed, the prompt changes to show that the router is in global
configuration mode.

Router(config)#

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 100

Configure IOS Hostname

From the privileged EXEC mode, access the global configuration mode by entering the configure
terminal command:

 Router#configure terminal

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

 Router(config)#

In the global mode, enter the hostname:

 Router(config)#hostname AtlantaHQ

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

 AtlantaHQ(config)#

Notice that the hostname appears in the prompt. To exit global mode, use the exit command.

For example, to remove the name of a device, use:

 AtlantaHQ(config)# no hostname

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 101

  Router(config)#

Physically limiting access to network devices with closets and locked racks is a good practice;
however, passwords are the primary defense against unauthorized access to network devices.
Every device should have locally configured passwords to limit access.

The passwords introduced here are:

 Console password - limits device access using the console connection

 Enable password - limits access to the privileged EXEC mode
 Enable secret password - encrypted, limits access to the privileged EXEC mode
 VTY password - limits device access using Telnet

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 102

As good practice, use different authentication passwords for each of these levels of access.

Backing Up Configurations Offline

Configuration files should be stored as backup files in the event of a problem.


To erase the startup configuration file use erase NVRAM:startup-config or erase startup-config
at the privileged EXEC mode prompt:

 Router#erase startup-config

Once the command is issued, the router will prompt you for confirmation:

Erasing the nvram filesystem will remove all configuration files! Continue? [confirm]

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 103

Confirm is the default response. To confirm and erase the startup configuration file, press the
Enter key. Pressing any other key will abort the process.

Enabling the Interface

By default, interfaces are disabled. To enable an interface, enter the no shutdown command from
the interface configuration mode. If an interface needs to be disabled for maintenance or
troubleshooting, use the shutdown command.

Serial interfaces require a clock signal to control the timing of the communications. In most
environments, a DCE device such as a CSU/DSU will provide the clock. By default, Cisco
routers are DTE devices, but they can be configured as DCE devices.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 104

X.16. Proxy configuration
A proxy server is a server which resides between a computer and another internet server with the
function of filtering internet requests for the security purpose, ameliorate the performance, share
connection between client machine and the server. It increases the speed of obtaining pages by
creating a local database of the most accessed objects. In most cases proxy servers have
integrated cache which allows navigating quickly the internet.

Functions of a proxy server are described below:

-When you try to connect to a web server, the browser sent the request to the cache server.

-Cache server (or proxy) verify if the page is not already stored on the disk of your computer, in
case it is there it send directly to your computer in other case it asks the page to the web server.

-The web server sent the requested page and the cache server does the copy and stores it for the
future request.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 105

Having a proxy server present double interest:

-In 30% cases, the objects you load are delivered immediately because they exist on the cache
server thus you gain time because pages are available quickly.

-It reduces the bandwidth you use on the internet because it allows you to access many pages.

Configuration on internet explorer French version 4.

-Choose format on the menu bar,

-Choose internet option,

-In the window which come find connection the click on configure,

-another window appear and type the following ULR :

http://www.univ-tln.fr/services/cri/cache.pac

-Click on ok and again ok. The configuration is over.

Summarized steps :

Tools->internet explorer->connections->LAN settings->write the proxy server address)

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 106

CHAPTER XI. NETWORK TOOLS

XI.1 Ping tool

Ping tool verify the IP connectivity of a computer using the TCP/IP protocol in sending
messages. It counts in milliseconds (ms) the necessary time for packets to go the server and
come back to the client.

This tool is used to solve connectivity, access and name resolution problems. The less the time in
milliseconds is short the more is the speed of receiving and sending packets.

Example :

Ping www.yahoo.fr

XI.2 Tracert tool

Tracert tool not only allow to know the time used to send a packet to the serving and having it
back, includes also the time it used from one node to another till it reaches the destination and
come back.

Example : tracert www.yahoo.fr

XI.3 Netstart tool

Netstart tool (netsh.exe) helps to automate the start and stop of a service using commands.
Examples of its use:
Start a service
Net start name-of-a-service

Stop a service
Net stop name-of-a-service
Pause a service
Net pause name-of-a-service
Continue a service
Net continue name-of-a-service

XI.4 Winipcfg tool

Winipcfg tool is used on some Microsoft operating systems such as windows 95 and windows
98. Graphically it displays IP configuration information including the IP address, subnet mask,
default gateway and DNS IP address.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 107

XI.5 Ipconfig tool
Ipconfig tool is a tool which helps to display or change the computer IP address, mask, default
gateway, and other settings

XI.6 WHOIS tool

Whois is a network tool that provide information about the owner of any second-level domain
name who has registered it with Verisign (Verisign is a company which manages database which
determine the interpretation of internet domain like .com and .net).

Whois can also be used to find out whether a domain name is available or has already been
taken.

XI.7 Nslookup tool

Nslookup tool is a network tool which responds by default with the primary IP address
associated with a domain specified. To query the primary address of about.com, for
example:\>about.com

Address: 67.215.65.132

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 108

CHAPTER XII. INTERNET, INTRANET, EXTRANET

XII .1 Internet, intranet and extranet definition

- The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks, cooperating with each other to
exchange data using a common software standard.

- An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to securely
share any part of an organization's information or network operating system within that
organization.

- An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for specific
business or educational purposes. An extranet can be viewed as an extension of a company's
intranet that is extended to users outside the company, usually partners, vendors, and suppliers.

XII.1.1 Internet
The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks, cooperating with each other to
exchange data using a common software standard. Through telephone wires and satellite links,
Internet users can share information in a variety of forms.

Internet allows users to:

- connect easily through ordinary personal computers and local phone numbers;
- exchange electronic mail (E-mail) with friends and colleagues with accounts on the Internet;
- post information for others to access, and update it frequently;
- access multimedia information that includes sound, photographic images and even video; and
- access diverse perspectives from around the world.

The Internet began as ARPAnet, a U.S. Department of Defense project to create a nationwide
computer network that would continue to function even if a large portion of it were destroyed in
a nuclear war or natural disaster. The nature of the Internet changed abruptly in 1992, when the
U.S. government began pulling out of network management, and commercial entities offered
Internet access to the general public for the first time.

Information available on internet

Text documents, graphics files (digitized photographs and artwork), files that contain digitized
sound and video.

Services

E-mail, for exchange of electronic mail messages.

USENET newsgroups (Interactive forums), for posting and responding to public "bulletin
board" messages.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 109

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a system for storing and retrieving data files on large computer
systems.

Gopher, a method of searching for various text-based Internet resources (largely obsolete).

TELNET, a way of connecting directly to computer systems on the Internet.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC), a system for sending public and private messages to other users in
"real time"—that is, your message appears on the recipient's screen as soon as you type it.

CU-SeeMe, a videoconferencing system that allows users to send and receive sound and pictures
simultaneously over the Internet.

The World Wide Web.

Download of software,

Chats in which you and other users type (and, in some cases, speak) messages that are received
by the chat participants instantly,

E-commerce, E-learning, etc.

XII.1.2 Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to securely
share any part of an organization's information or network operating system within that
organization.

Use of intranet

Intranets are being used to deliver tools and applications, e.g., collaboration (to facilitate working
in groups and teleconferencing), sales and customer relationship management tools, project
management etc., to advance productivity.

Benefits

Workers productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and
improve the services provided to the users.

Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-needed

basis;

Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an

organization, vertically and horizontally.

Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for
developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the
internetworked enterprise.
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 110
Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining
physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This
can potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating documents

Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorized users, which enables
teamwork.

Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac,
and UNIX.

Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same information
within the Intranet.

Immediate updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity, laws, specifications, and
parameters can change. Intranets make it possible to provide your audience with "live" changes
so they are kept up-to-date, which can limit a company's liability.

XII.1.3 Extranet
An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for specific
business or educational purposes. An extranet can be viewed as an extension of a company's
intranet that is extended to users outside the company, usually partners, vendors, and suppliers.

Advantages

Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

Share product catalogs exclusively with trade partners

Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts

Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies

Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies, such as an
online banking application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated banks

Disadvantages

Extranets can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organization (e.g., hardware,
software, employee training costs), if hosted internally rather than by an application service
provider.

Security of extranets can be a concern when hosting valuable or proprietary information.

Difference between internet, intranet and extranet

1). Intranet is shared content accessed by members within a single organization.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 111

Extranet is shared content accessed by groups through cross-enterprise boundaries.

Internet is global communication accessed through the Web.

2). The Internet, extranets, and intranets all rely on the same TCP/IP technologies.

However, they are different in terms of the levels of access they allow to various users inside and
outside the organization and the size of the network.

An intranet allows for restricted access to only members of an organization;

an extranet expands that access by allowing non-members such as suppliers and customers to use
company resources.

The difference between the Internet and extranets is that while the extranet allows limited access
to non-members of an organization, the Internet generally allows everyone to access all network
resources.

Similarities between intranet and extranet

Intranets and extranets all have three things in common:

They both use secured Internet access to the outside world.

Both can drastically save your company or organization a lot of money.

Both need a user ID & password to control access to the whole system.

Differences between intranet and extranet

An Intranet is owned by a single group while an Extranet extends to users outside the group

Intranet users have more access to resources than extranet users

Intranets do not usually go through the Internet while typical Extranets do

Intranets are easier to secure than Extranets

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 112

CHAPTER XIII . INTERNET CONNECTION
The technologies used to connect to the Internet are different than those used for connecting
devices on local area network. DSL, cable modem and fiber provide fixed broadband Internet
service, while Wi-Max and LTE additionally support mobile connectivity. In geographic areas
where these high-speed options are unavailable, subscribers are forced to use older cellular
services, satellite or even dial-up Internet instead.

 DSL vs. Cable Modem Internet

 Types of DSL
 T1 and T3 Lines
 Fiber Optic Cable
 LTE
 Wi-Max
 Satellite Internet
 Dial-up Internet

Before you create an Internet connection, check with your ISP to verify the required connection
settings. A connection to your ISP may require one or more of the following settings:

o An account with an ISP including setup information.

o A phone number to call your ISP.
o A specific IP address.
o An IP address for the default gateway.
o DNS addresses and domain names.

With Network Connections, connecting to the Internet is easy. For example, to create a dial-up
connection, you can use the following components to gain access to the Internet:

 The TCP/IP protocol that is enabled for your network connection.

 A modem or other connection to an Internet service provider (ISP).
 An account with an ISP.

XIII.1 Network connection types

There are five types of network: LAN, Virtual Private Network, Direct connections, Incoming
connections and dial-up connections.

XIII.2 Internet service provider(ISP)

An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides Internet access. There are Internet
service providers around the world. To connect to the Internet, you dial a phone number and log
on to the remote system. Once connected, you have access to the Internet and any other services,
such as e-mail, that are provided by the ISP. Fees usually apply for commercial ISPs. ISP present
in Rwanda: MTN, TIGO, AIRTEL, New Artel.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 113

XIII.3 Connect to the internet using a modem
A modem is a device that transmits data over telephone wires. The most common way to connect
to the Internet is with a modem and an account with an Internet service provider (ISP).

Dial-up is an analog connection because data is sent over an analog, public telephone network.
The modem converts received analog data to digital and vice versa. Because dial-up access uses
normal telephone lines the quality of the connection is not always good and data rates are
limited.

 Typical Dial-up connection speeds range from 2400 bps to 56 Kbps.

The following table describes the different types of:

Type Explanation

28.8 or 56
The most common way to connect to the Internet, internal modems plug into a
kilobits per
PCI slot inside a computer. External modems plug into a serial, parallel, or USB
second (Kbps)
port on a computer.
modem

ISDN is a high-speed digital line installed by a telephone company or

ISDN modem telecommunications provider. ISDN connects to a regular phone line, and ISDN
modems can be internal or external.

Cable modems use a broadband connection to the Internet through cable

Cable modem television infrastructure. These modems use frequencies that do not interfere
with television transmission.

DSL modems use a broadband connection to the Internet through existing

telephone lines, and can be internal or external. Internal DSL modems are
DSL modem plugged into an expansion slot in the computer and do not require a network
adapter. External DSL modems use a network adapter to connect to the
computer.

To make a dial-up connection to your workplace by using a phone line

1. Open Network Connections.

2. Under Network Tasks, click Create a new connection, and then click Next.
3. Click Connect to the network at my workplace, and then click Next.
4. Click Dial-up connection, click Next, and then follow the instructions in the New
Connection Wizard.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 114

XIII.4 Connect to internet using a wireless
Wireless Internet, or wireless broadband is one of the newest Internet connection types. Instead
of using telephone or cable networks for your Internet connection, you use radio
frequency bands. Wireless Internet provides an always-on connection which can be accessed
from anywhere as long as you geographically within a network coverage area.

To manually add a wireless network to the Preferred Networks list

1. Open Network Connections.

2. Click the wireless network connection icon, and then, in Network Tasks, click View
available wireless networks.
3. Under Related Tasks on the left, click Change the order of preferred networks.
4. Click Add.
5. In Network name (SSID), type a name for the wireless network.
6. In Network Authentication, click an item in the list.
7. If this is a security-enabled network, in Data encryption, select the encryption method.
8. In Network key, type the network key, and then in Confirm network key, retype the key.

Note:

 If the network that you are adding provides a network key automatically, make sure that
the key is provided for me automatically check box is selected.
 If the wireless network that you are adding does not have an access point or a router,
select this is a computer-to-computer (ad hoc) network; wireless access points are not
used check box.
 For the network authentication method, we recommend that you choose Open. When the
open method is combined with a wired equivalent privacy (WEP) network key, all network
traffic is encrypted. If you choose Shared, a network key is still required, and even if you use
a WEP network key, network traffic is not encrypted, which makes your network more
vulnerable to intrusions.

XIII.5 DSL

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a family of technologies that provides digital data transmission
over the wires of a local telephone network.

This technology enables telephone companies to offer broadband service without major network
rewiring and can be implemented quickly and profitably, especially because it stands to benefit
both the consumer (with faster data rates) and the service providers (with new revenues from old
cables). Here‘s how it works. Nearly all existing telephone lines can carry frequencies up to 1
MHz. But analog telephone service only requires a maximum frequency of 3.3 KHz, leaving a
large amount of the bandwidth unused. xDSL makes use of this otherwise wasted space by
piggybacking high-speed data traffic onto the unused bandwidth.

By filtering the frequencies at each end of this wide-open range (4 KHz to 2.2 MHz) and
isolating them from the voice-bandwidth channel, the local telco can transport both traditional
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 115
telephone signals and high-speed DSL signals over the same old four-wire telephone line that
already links your home or business to their central office (CO).

XIII.6 other types

XIII.6.1 OC3
Short for Optical Carrier, level 3 it is used to specify the speed of fiber optic networks
conforming to the SONET standard. OC3 is typically used as a fiber optic backbone for large
networks with large voice, data, video, and traffic needs.

 Speeds are 155.52 Mbps, or roughly the speed of 100 T1 lines.

XIII.6.2 Satellite
Internet over Satellite (IoS) allows a user to access the Internet via a satellite that orbits the earth.
A satellite is placed at a static point above the earth's surface, in a fixed position. Because of the
enormous distances signals must travel from the earth up to the satellite and back again, IoS is
slightly slower than high-speed terrestrial connections over copper or fiber optic cables.

Typical Internet over Satellite connection speeds (standard IP services) average around 492 up to
512 Kbps.

Chapter XIV. Server management

Windows Server is a network manager that can function like a domain controller. It uses the
controls of DHCP, DNS, and Active Directory to manage the network from the software side.

In this course we will use windows server 2003. Microsoft's Server 2003 is an operating system
that functions in various capacities, Domain controller, DNS server, DHCP server, and Active
Directory server. Each of these server operations helps manage the network that server 2003 is
responsible for.

XIV.1 Server Roles

XIV.1.1 A domain controller

A Domain Controller is a computer that manages the network in several ways. The computer
domain presents a collection of computers that are governed and controlled by the Domain
Controller, a central server. This server has certain responsibilities to make sure the network is
operating properly.

Domain controller differ from the Workgroup network on that a workgroup is a peer-to-peer type
of network that has no central computer that acts like a network manager. Each computer can
interact with the others provided that they are on the same subnet. If so, they can share files or
network devices like printers.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 116

XIV.1.2 The DNS Server

One of the functions of the Domain Controller is that network names and the IP addresses are
resolved properly. Instead of using IP addresses there is a use of name resolution, the IP address
is associated with a computer. That is what the DNS server routinely does.

XIV.1.3 The DHCP Server

The DHCP server performs leasing operations. It takes a group of IP addresses that have been
created for the network and hands them out to computers that are joining the network. They are
leased because, normally, the handout lasts 72 hours, and then it expires. However, it is typically
renewed, so the same computer will receive the same IP address.

The other items that a DHCP server provides are the gateway, the subnet mask, and the IP
address that belongs to the current DNS server, even if it belongs to the Domain Controller itself.

The gateway is a route to another network or to the DNS server. The subnet mask is a binary set
of numbers that helps define what network the IP address belongs to.

XIV.1.4 Active directory

Active directory is an administrative tool designed to perform day-to-day Active Directory

administration tasks. Active Directory is implemented on the Domain Controller and is used as
the (software) manager on the computer

The administration tasks performed by the active directory include creating, deleting, modifying,
moving, and setting permissions on objects stored in the directory.

These objects include organizational units, users, contacts, groups, computers, printers, and
shared file objects.

The Active Directory tool is used for a variety of different management functions.

One function is to define who enters the network, both as a user or as a computer. Users are
given login names and passwords and memberships to certain groups, like the administrators
group. Computers are controlled with the DHCP server.

Another function involves Organizational Units. These are units where individuals are put into to
control what they can and cannot access.

XIV.2 User, account and password

With users divided in groups there is a need of control. For instance, a user might be a part of the
IT department group, but not part of the Accounting department group. In this matter, the active
directory will specify the security towards the network by controlling when a user can have
access to the network. He will have an account created on him, login name and password.
S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 117
XIV.3 Permissions

Permissions are controls that make the network manageable in terms of the users, and computers,
and the security privileges that are presented. It controls who can access the network, when, and
what privileges are available.

One way is security. That means that users can only access the network if they have permission
through a login and password account.

Another way is through computer control. This means that only certain devices can be part of the
computer network. Adding a computer to the network means that controls on it come by way of
the domain controller.

S6 CEL COMPUTER NETWORKING Page 118