CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

The interest of the scientific class in the study of compounds of plant origin is increasing

worldwide, especially in developing countries where the use of herbal medicines is widely used

for their basic health needs (Yadav, 2018). It is known that medicinal plants have been used

worldwide since ancient times for the treatment of various diseases, including asthma, abdominal

disorders, skin diseases, respiratory and urinary complications, and liver and cardiovascular

disease (Egamberdieva et al., 2016). -is empirical knowledge comes from the plant defense

system, which generates numerous compounds with diverse molecular structures, far superior to

those derived from synthetic products (Pradeepa et al., 2014), so the great interest in the

elucidation of new active principles.

Only in the last two decades, studies focused on natural compounds with antioxidant

activities have shown enormous growth, since a substantial amount of evidence has indicated

that cell damage caused by oxidative stress has been considered an important factor in aging and

in the development of a wide variety of pathologies, such as autoimmune diseases, infectious

and/or inflammatory diseases, and degenerative and neurodegenerative diseases (Ulewicz-

Magulska and Wesolowski, 2019). Thus, the importance of the search for natural products with

antioxidant effect is emphasized, as they are able to prevent, stabilize, or disable free radicals

before they attack biological targets in cells (DNA, proteins, and lipids) (Vasconcelos et al.,

2007). Often, people use plants to treat a variety of diseases, without knowing their toxic

potential, which can be harmful to human health. One of the main problems in the use of natural

1
products is the belief that products of plant origin are free from adverse reactions and toxic

effects (Clarke et al., 2007). Studies on the toxicity of medicinal plants are important, in order to

define the risk associated with phytotherapy, as well as guide research for the isolation of certain

compounds until the development of new drugs.

Mitracarpus scaber commonly known as “Girdlepod” is called “Ogwungwo or Obuobwa”

in Igbo, “Gududal” in Hausa and “Irawo Ile” in Yoruba. It belongs to the family of Rubiaceae

and commonly found in the Tropics and Orients (Oghenejobo et al., 2013). It is an annual plant

with erect stems of about 53 cm high and branches that are about 8 cm long. The plant has

lanceolate leaves of about 4.5 cm long with an upper scabrous surface. Its inflorescence consists

of clusters of small white flowers which turn yellowish as the plant matures. It also has dehiscent

capsulate fruits of about 1 mm long. The tap root grows to about 9.5 cm from the surface of the

soil down. It is perennial and grows where there is much water during the rainy season (Irodi and

Daramola, 2009). The plant is widely used traditionally in the treatment of skin diseases,

particularly infectious dermatitis, eczema, ringworm and scabies (Shinkafi, 2013). Mitracarpus

scaber has been reported to show antimicrobial efficacy against disease causing microorganisms

such as Salmonella enteritidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter sp., Escherichia coli,

Candida albicans and Aspergillus species. It has also been reported to cure urinary tract

infections, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory diseases and contagious infections (Irodi and

Daramola, 2009; Shinkafi, 2013).

1.2 Botany and distribution

The genus Mitracarpus belongs to the family Rubiaceae and is estimated to contain not

less than 50 species. This genus is native to Brazil, and thrives in tropical and subtropical forests.

2
Mitracarpus hirtus, found in the tropical and neotropical forests of India, Myanmar, Thailand,

and the United States of America (USA) , and is also found predominant in subtropical regions,

such as in East and West Africa, USA, and Malaysia. It is an erect plant with simple or many

branches and grows up to about 60 cm tall. In Guatemala, this plant is mostly found in coastal

plains with an elevation of up to 1,900 meters above sea level. Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. var.

sessilis var. nov., which is found mostly in India, is recognized by its greyish-brown seeds and

by its S-shaped bent calyx lobes (Dhruvan et al., 2014).

The other reported Mitracarpus species include Mitracarpus villosus (S.W) D.C, which

grows in the tropical forests of Africa, tropical climatic weather, Mitracarpus scaber (Zucc).,

which is known as the plant of the subtropical regions, and is found in Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria,

and Gambia. M. scabrum, a perennial annual herb that grows up to about 30 cm tall and is

characterized by its rough leaves (Abubakar et al., 2016) and Mitracarpus frigidus K. Shum, an

annual shrub that is distributed in Brazil as reported by (Fabri et al., 2012; Abiche, 2020).

Figure 1.1 Mitracarpus scaber (Girdlepod) (Yadav, 2018)

3
1.3 Botanical Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Division Charophyta

Class Equisetopsida

Order Gentianales

Family Rubiaceae

Genus Mitracarpus

Species Mitracarpus scaber

1.4 Justification of study

According to Sofowora (1993), eighty percent of the resources of poor African

population are channeled towards traditional medicines, which are mainly plants for their health

care needs. Plants have provided the basis for traditional treatment for different types of diseases

and still offer enormous potential sources of new chemotherapeutic agents in orthodox medicine.

Plant derived compounds, which are mainly secondary matabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids,

terpenes, and coumarins, are believed to be bioactive and produce definite physiological effects

such as analgesics, antimalarial, antiplasmodic and antifertility actions in animals and human

(Sofowora, 1993; Rates, 2001).

With interest in the demand for more plant-derived drugs gradually increasing, which are

sometimes considered safe when compared to synthetic drugs, phytochemicals analysis were

conducted with leaves of Mitracarpus scaber commonly known as “Girdlepod”, in order to

4
justify the phytochemicals constituents attributed to them. Thus, this report will validate folk of

the plant uses as to date; no studies of its phytochemical and mineral composition have been

1.5 Research Aim and Objectives

The general aim of this research is to investigate phytochemical indices of aqueous

extract of pawpaw Mitracarpus scaber.

The specific objectives of this research are:

i. To identify the phytochemical constituent (qualitative) of Mitracarpus scaber

leaves

ii. To analysis the mineral composition of the Mitracarpus scaber leaves and to

affirm them for nutritive and herbal usage.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 In vitro Antimicrobial Activity of the Extract of Mitracarpus scaber Leaves

Formulated as Syrup

The yearly Herbal Medicine Trade Fair in Nigeria and the increasing publicity and

patronage this attracts, irrespective of the social, educational or religious background of the

people are indicative of acceptance of herbal medical practice1 . The setting up of Traditional

Medicine Board by some State Governments in our country and the on-going registration of

herbal products by National Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) are

equally indicative of recognition by the Government. Some drugs of plant origin in conventional

medical practice are not pure compounds but direct extracts or plant materials that have been

suitably prepared and standardized. Recently the World Health Organization (WHO) has

recommended the use of Arthemisinin derivatives derived from Artemisia annua (Composite), a

Chinese herb, as a first line drug in the treatment of malaria. This is as a result of WHO’s

recognition that 80% of world population use herbal medicine for some aspect of Primary Health

Care5 . The plant family, Rubiaceae, which parades a long list of plants of medicinal importance,

has Mitracarpus scarber “Zucc” (Aber et al., 2017). It is claimed that it possesses antimicrobial

activities when crude extracts from the plant is used. Ahonkhai et al formulated the crude

extracts from the leaves as soap solution but it was observed that the availability of the

antimicrobial principle was hindered by the soap. This was attributed to uptake of the active

principle by the soap. This suggests that a new formulation is needed. This study, therefore, aims

at establishing a simple formulation that does not hinder the availability of the active principles

6
from the product. Considering that this extract is ingested in the treatment of sore throat and

other upper respiratory diseases, URD, despite its bitter taste, this study also aims at formulating

the crude extract into a pleasant oral dosage form (Abere et al., 2017; Ahonkhai et al., 2000).

The antimicrobial activity of the water extract (simple solution) of Mitracarpus scarber

“Zucc” was demonstrated. All the samples inhibited the growth of most of the organisms. It also

shows the sensitivity of the syrup samples prepared using the different extraction methods. It

therefore indicates that the method of extraction did not affect the sensitivity of the active

principles of the extract present in the formulation. Also formulating the extract as syrup did not

alter their sensitivity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extract in syrup was

also determined. Irrespective of the method of extraction of the crude extract, all the syrup

formulations were active at 75mg/ml against all organisms used except Pseudomonas aeruginosa

and Sarcina lutea which grew even at a high concentration of 300mg/ml. It is equally interesting

to note that Candida albicans was inhibited at 75mg/ml.

Reports have shown that the extract of Mitracarpus scarber “Zucc” has antibacterial and

antifungal activities. This work equally has confirmed such findings. Although Ahonkhai, et. al

stated that application of heat in the extraction method may have affected the potency of the

antifungal principle(s), this work has shown that application of heat to the various extracts did

not affect the activity of the extract to both bacterial and fungal organisms in the different

formulations. Rather the inhibition to growth of the organisms by the extracts can be attributed to

the potency of active principles as well as the strain and possibly, weakness in strength of

organism used. Previous work demonstrated that the extract had low activity over Pseudomonas

aeruginosa despite the fact that this organism is known to be a very recalcitrant gram-negative

organism. This work equally confirms that. This further confirms that heating may not be

7
responsible for the insensitivity shown. Formulating this extract, as Syrup did not hinder the

diffusion of the active principle(s) in the formulation hence the zones of inhibition at 75mg/ml

recorded for both the simple solution and the syrup were the same. Sucrose, a sweetening agent

and main content of syrup, has been used to mask the bitter taste of the extract and so, a

pleasantly tasting oral dosage form of the extract was easily formulated. Extract of Mitracarpus

scarber “Zucc” can, therefore, be formulated as simple syrup.

2.2 Chemical composition, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic assessment of Mitracarpus

scaber Zucc. (Rubiaceae) essential oil from southwestern Nigeria

The genus Mitracarpus (Rubiaceae) consists of about 30 species distributed in the

Neotropics (Mabberley, 2008). Mitracarpus scaber Zucc. [Syn. Mitracarpushirtus (L.) DC], an

African representative of the genus, is a perennial herbaceous shrub with rough leaves (Olorode,

1984). In Nigeria, the plant is known as ‘Obuobwa’ in Igbo, ‘Gududalin’ in Hausa, and ‘Irawole’

in Yoruba. Leaves of M. scaber have been widely used in traditional medicine in West Africa for

the treatment of headaches, toothaches, amenorrhea, dyspepsia, hepatic diseases, skin infections,

veneral diseases, as well as leprosy (Bisignano, 2000). Leaf extracts of M. scaber have shown

antimicrobial, antitrypanosomal, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory (Nok, 2002) effects.

Several bioactive components have been isolated from M. scaber extracts including

azaanthraguinone, gallic acid, 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid, 4-methoxyacetophenone, 3,4,5-

trimethoxyacetophenone, oleanolic acid, and ursolic acid. In this work, we expand the

pharmacognistic appraisal of M. scaber with an evaluation of the chemical composition,

antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of the leaf essential oil.

8
 The chemical composition of M. scaber leaf essential oil was investigated by gas

chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Twenty compounds were identified in the

volatile oil accounting for 95.1% of the composition. The oil was dominated by the long-chain

aldehyde pentadecanal (38.5%) and the polyunsaturated fatty acid ester methyl (7Z, 10Z, 13Z) -

hexadecatrienoate (11.8%), with lesser quantities of 2,3- dimethylnaphthoquinone (6.0%), and α-

pinene (5.4%). The composition of M. scaber leaf oil in this work is notably different from a

previous study (Germano et al., 1999) which showed to oil to be composed largely of saturated

fatty acids (64.0%) and no monoterpene or sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (Bisignano, 2000).

The essential oil of M. scaber was screened for antibacterial activity against B. cereus, S.

aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa, antifungal activity against A. niger, and in-vitro cytotoxic

activity against human MCF-7 breast tumor cells. The oil showed no antimicrobial activity

against S. aureus, E. coli, or P. aeruginosa (MIC = 1250 μg/mL) and only marginal activity

against B. cereus (MIC = 625 μg/mL) or A. niger (MIC = 313 μg/mL). In addition, M. scaber

leaf oil was only marginally cytotoxic to MCF-7 cells (58.5±7.6% kill at 100 μg/mL). 4.

Conclusions The leaf essential oil of Mitracarpus scaber showed only marginal antimicrobial or

cytotoxic activities. Thus, the ethnobotanical uses and the bioactivity of the plant must be due to

non-volatile constituents (see above) rather than essential oil components (Ekpendu et al., 1994,

Moses et al., 2013).

2.3 Pharmacognostic evaluation of the leaves of Mitracarpus scaber Zucc (Rubiaceae)

The family Rubiaceae, popularly known as Madder family belongs to the Gentianales

order, recently called Rubiales order. The family, consists of about 500 genera and 6,000 species

distributed all over the world. Some of them are tropical trees and shrubs (erect, struggling or

9
twining) while few members are herbs (erect or decumbent). Mitracarpus scaber is a perennial

annual herb of about 30cm tall or much smaller and possess rough leaves, in Nigeria, it is known

as Obuobwa in Igbo language, Gududal in Hausa language and Irawo lle in Yoruba language

(Benjamin et al., 1986).

The leaf extracts of Mitracarpus scaber is widely used in traditional medicine practices in

West Africa for the treatment of headaches, toothaches, amenorrhoea, dyspepsia, hepatic

diseases, veneral diseases as well as leprosy, it is claimed that the plant has both antibacterial and

antifungal activities (Abere et al., 2007). In Senegal, the plant is used for the treatment of sore

throat and also for leprosy in the same way as Cola cordifolia and in Nigeria, the juice from the

crushed plant is known to be applied topically for the treatment of skin diseases such as

ringworm, lice, itching, craw – craw and other fungi diseases or applied to dressings for fresh

cuts, wounds and ulcers.

It is also used as an ingredient in fish poison by some pagan tribes, the methanolic extract

and isolated constituents of the aerial parts of Mitracarpus scaber were reported to exhibit both

antibacterial and antimycotic activities, the methanolic extract was subsequently fractionated and

monitored by bioassay leading to the isolation of seven compounds screened for antibacterial and

antimycotic activities. The crude extract also compared favourably with 0.5% Hibitane at

concentrations of 30 % w/v and 100 % w/v against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton tonsurans, though when a

35 % w/v of the extract was incorporated into a liquid soap formulation, the antimicrobial

activity was reduced. Extracts from the leaves of Mitracarpus scaber have been successfully

formulated into a pleasantly tasting oral dosage form despite its taste for the treatment of sore

throat and other upper respiratory diseases. Evaluation of the effect of Mitracarpus scaber on

10
carbon tetrachloride–induced acute liver damage in rat showed significant hepatoprotection both

in vivo and in vitro. Some drugs of plant origin in conventional medical practice are not pure

compounds but direct extracts or plant materials that have been suitably prepared and

standardized (Bisignano, 2000).

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended the use of arthemisinin

derivatives from Artemisia annua (Composite), a Chinese herb with established pharmacognostic

data, as a first line drug in the treatment of malaria. Establishment of the pharmacognostic profile

of the leaves of Mitracarpus scaber will assist in standardization, which can guarantee quality,

purity and identification of samples (WHO, 2010).

Macroscopically, the leaf is simple in composition, opposite in arrangement, apex and

base are acute, margin is entire, venation is parallel, shape lanceolate and average leaf size is

2.7cm + 0.9 (length) and 1.5cm + 0.2 (breadth). Fresh leaves are green in colour, odourless with

a slightly acrid taste. Micromorphological features revealed that anticlinal walls are thin and

wavy and contains numerous calcium oxalate crystals. There are two, three and sometimes four

epidermal cells which are not different from each other surrounding the stoma (Anomocytic

arrangement). Uniseriate covering trichomes are present on both surfaces (Abere et al., 2007).

Transverse section of the leaf across the mid – rib shows an upper epidermis consisting of

straight (5 -6 sided) polygonal cells and a lower epidermis of smaller cells (It has Isobilateral leaf

arrangement). The mid – rib bundle is surrounded by a zone of pericyclic fibres. On these

pericyclic fibres are parenchymatous cells which contain prisms of calcium oxalate. Chemo

microscopic examination of the leaves revealed the presence of lignin, starch, mucilage, calcium

oxalate crystals and cellulose. Phytochemical evaluation revealed the presence of alkaloids,

11
tannins, cardiac glycosides and saponins. These secondary plant metabolites are known to

possess various pharmacological effects and may be responsible for the various actions of

Mitracarpus scaber (Abere et al., 2007).

Mitracarpus scaber “Zucc” is currently being used in the treatment of various disease

conditions without standardization. The standardization of a crude drug is an integral part of

establishing its correct identity. Before any crude drug can be included in a herbal

pharmacopoeia, pharmacognostic parameters and standards must be established. Mitracarpus

scaber is a plant that has been confused with other species due to their relative similarities. The

results of these investigations could, therefore, serve as a basis for proper identification,

collection and investigation of the plant. The macro – and micro – morphological features of the

leaf described, distinguishes it from other members of the genera. Chemomicroscopy, numerical

data and quantitative leaf microscopy are parameters that are unique to the plant and are required

in its standardization. Phytochemical evaluation revealed the presence of tannins which have

been claimed to be responsible for its antimicrobial activity (Abere et al., 2007).

Parameters which are being reported, could be useful in the preparation of the herbal

section of proposed Nigerian Pharmacopoeia. Any crude drug which is claimed to be

Mitracarpus scaber but whose characters significantly deviate from the accepted standard above

would then be rejected as either contaminated, adulterated or downright fake (Abere et al.,

2007).

12
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Sample collection

Plant Material Mitracarpus scaber species were collected manually from biological

garden Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State, the plant was identified and authenticated at

Herbarium Unit of Botany Department, University of Ilorin, Kwara state, and brought into

chemistry laboratory, Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State.

3.2 Sample preparation

The leaves of Mitracarpus scaber edible portions were removed and were thoroughly air

dried and pulverized to fine powder with the aid of motar and pestle. The powder was stored in

air tight individual zip locked plasticized containers in 20 g working portions for subsequent

uses.

3.3 Materials/Apparatus

250ml beaker, conical flask, Mortar and pestle, Spatula, Soxhlet extractor, Filter paper,

Conical flasks, Soxhlet extractor, Reflux condenser, Round bottom flask, Timer, Muffle-furnace,

Dessicator, Crucible, Bunsen burner, Retort stand, Burette, Pipette.

3.4 Reagents

N-hexane, Ethanol, Potassium hydroxide, Starch solution, Glacial acetic acid,

Phenolphthalein, Chloroform, Hydrochloric acid, Beaker, Measuring cylinder, Weighing

13
balance, FeCl3 solution (5% w/v), 10% lead acetate solution, 1% HCl, Wagner‟s reagents,

Chloroform, Sulphuric acid, Ethanol, Boric acid, methylred indicator.

3.5.1 Qualitative phytochemical screening

20g of the powder leaves of Mitracarpus scaber was homogenized in 70% ethanol and

then refluxed for 30 min. After cooling, the liquid was filtered and the plant material was washed

with methanol. The combined extracts and washing with ethanol were made up to 500 mL.

Test for Flavonoids:

1ml of extract in a test tube was mixed with 5ml of dilute ammonia and 1ml of

concentrated sulfuric acid was added to the mixture. A yellow color indicated the presence of

flavonoids.

Test for Tannins

1ml of extract in a test tube was heated for 5 minutes to boil. Thereafter, 2 drops of 15%

ferric chloride was added. A blue black coloration indicated the presence of tannins.

Test for Cardiac Glycosides:

1ml of extract in a test tube was mixed with 2 ml of glacial acetic acid, after which1 drop

of 15% ferric chloride and 1ml of concentrated sulfuric acid were added to the mixture. A brown

coloration formed at the interface confirmed the presence of cardiac glycosides.

Test for Saponins:

1ml of extract in a test tube was mixed with 5ml of distilled water. The mixture was

shaken vigorously and observed for frothing which indicated the presence of saponins. Test for

14
Steroids: 1ml of the extract in a test tube was mixed with 2ml of acetic acid and 2ml of

concentrated sulfuric acid. A color change from violet to blue-green indicated the presence of

steroids.

Test for Terpenoids:

This test was done using Salkwoski test. 1ml of extract in attest tube was mixed with 2ml

of chloroform and 3ml of concentrated sulfuric acid. A reddish brown coloration at the interface

confirmed the presence of terpenoids.

Test for Alkaloids:

Hager’s Test: 1ml of filtrate in a test tube was mixed with 3 drops of Hager’s reagent

(picris’s). Formation of a yellow precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids. Wagner’s Test:

1ml of extract in a test tube was mixed with 3drops of Wagner’s reagent (2g of iodine and 6g of

potassium iodide dissolved in 100ml of distilled water). A reddish brown coloration confirmed

the presence of alkaloids.

3.5.2 Determination of Mineral Content of Mitracarpus scaber

Methods

The sample (0.2 g) was digested with 3 cm 3 aqua regia (75 vol% hydrochloric acid and

25 vol% nitric acid) at a temperature of 100˚C. The digest was filtered into a 250 ml volumetric

flask and made up to the mark with distilled water. The mixture was stirred and filtered using

whatman filter paper. The filtrate was analyzed for Ca, Mg, K, Fe and Na using Atomic

Absorption Spectrophotometer Varian AA 280. The results are shown in Table 4.2

15
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

The result of the qualitative analysis of samples of girdlepod is presented in table 4.1.

The result reveals the prescence of Alkaloids, Glycosides, flavonoids, tannin, terpenoids, cardiac

glycoside and absence of steroids in ethanol extract used.

Table 4.1 Phytochemical compounds determined in Mitracarpus scaber leaves

Phytochemical constituent Inference

Tannin +
Flavonoids +
Cardiac Glycoside +
Steroids -
Terpenoids +
Alkaloids +
Saponins +
(+), presence; (−), absence.

Table 1. Element analysis of Mitracarpus scaber leaves.

Parameters Composition (mg/l)

Calcium (Ca) 44.12
Potassium (K) 12.3
Magnesium (Mg) 4.11
Sodium (Na) 1.85
Iron (Fe) 1.42

4.2 Discussion

The phytochemical analysis of girdlepod (Mitracarpus scaber ) leave is presented in table

4.1, herbal medicine is gaining popularity in developing countries. Herbal treatments involve

16
mainly the use of plant extracts and other plant products which contain bioactive substances.

These phytochemicals have potentials to prevent or cause adverse effects. For example, alkaloids

are used medicinally as analgesics or anaesthetics (e.g morphine and codeine). They are also

used as antimalarial, anti-hypertension and local anaesthesia in ophthalmology. Alkaloids are

also central nervous system stimulants. They have anthelmintic properties and serve as

aphrodisiacs in the treatment of erectile disfunction. Our study identified alkaloid as one of the

major constituents in both the leaves of Mitracarpus scaber and we hypothesise that this may

form the basis for its being use in the management of erectile related dysfunction and several

other disorders.

The results of the phytochemical screening are presented in Table 4.1 ascertain the

presence of different phytochemical components present in leave. The result revealed that

saponin terpenoid, tannin, alkaloid, and cardiac glycoside were present in the ethanol extract of

the leave only steroids are absent in the extracts. This demonstrated the presence of bioactive

components in extracts of girdle pod. Saponin has relationship with sex hormones like oxytocin.

Oxytocin is a sex hormone involved in controlling the onset of labor in women and the

subsequent release of milk (Okwu and Okwu, 2004). According to David (1983), saponins has

expectorant action through the stimulation of a reflex of the upper digestive tract. Also, saponins

cause a reduction of blood cholesterol by preventing its re-absorption. They also have antitumor

and antimutagenic activities and can lower the risk of human cancers by preventing cancer cells

from growing (Esan, 2014). Presence of tannin also showed that the extract is rich in

polyphenolic compounds and antioxidants which could prevent cellular damage. Terpenoids has

been found to be potent antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-hyperglycemic, antispasmodic and anti-

allergic properties in the prevention of several diseases, including cancer. (Roslin, 2011). Cardiac

17
glycosides are significantly present in the extracts. This indicated that the difference in activity

could be due to the differences in the phytochemical composition of the extracts.

Minerals are required for normal growth, activities of muscles and skeletal development,

The concentrations of heavy metals in the girdlepod is presented in Table 4.2. The heavy metals

such as Ca, K, Fe, Na and Mg were analyzed mg/l. Most cellular activity and oxygen transport

are improved by presence of copper and iron, chemical reaction in the body and intestinal

absorption by magnesium, fluid balance and nerve transmission sodium and potassium. Iron is

useful in prevention of anemia and other related diseases (Oluyemi et al., 2006). Deficiency of

these nutrients and minerals are known to affect the performance and health in both humans and

livestocks (Merck, 2005). Since most of the selected presented mineral is present in the gridlepod

plant, the plant can be usually eaten in combination with other dietary components, some of

which may be better sources of the minerals under consideration, hence could be of value in

supplementing the minerals availability.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Plants have played immense roles in the medical field. They are major source of most

drugs used for treating infections in human and plants. The plant (Mitracarpus scaber) used in

this study was found to contain the important constituent needed to combat various kinds of

18
infection in human. The distribution of mineral nutrients in the Mitracarpus scaber leaves

studied has proven to support good animal and human health

It could be concluded that Mitracarpus scaber can be of nutritional and medicinal

benefits to justify its wide consumption.

5.2 Recommendations

This revealed that the leave of Mitracarpus scaber contain an appreciable amount of

phytoconstituents which contribute significantly to the nutrient requirement and health

management of man and should be recommended in our diet. This study shows that Mitracarpus

scaber is rich in mineral constituents and their utilization is recommended for good animal and

human health.

19
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