Common Writing Assignments

Understanding Writing Assignments

How to Decipher the Paper Assignment

Many instructors write their assignment prompts differently. By following a few steps, you can
better understand the requirements for the assignment. The best way, as always, is to ask the
instructor about anything confusing.

1. Read the prompt the entire way through once. This gives you an overall view of what
is going on.

2. Underline or circle the portions that you absolutely must know. This information may
include due date, research (source) requirements, page length, and format (MLA, APA,
CMS).

3. Underline or circle important phrases. You should know your instructor at least a little
by now - what phrases do they use in class? Does he repeatedly say a specific word? If
these are in the prompt, you know the instructor wants you to use them in the assignment.

4. Think about how you will address the prompt. The prompt contains clues on how to
write the assignment. Your instructor will often describe the ideas they want discussed
either in questions, in bullet points, or in the text of the prompt. Think about each of these
sentences and number them so that you can write a paragraph or section of your essay on
that portion if necessary.

5. Rank ideas in descending order, from most important to least important. Instructors

may include more questions or talking points than you can cover in your assignment, so
rank them in the order you think is more important. One area of the prompt may be more
interesting to you than another.

6. Ask your instructor questions if you have any.

After you are finished with these steps, ask yourself the following:

1. What is the purpose of this assignment? Is my purpose to provide information without

forming an argument, to construct an argument based on research, or analyze a poem and
discuss its imagery?

2. Who is my audience? Is my instructor my only audience? Who else might read this?
Will it be posted online? What are my readers' needs and expectations?

3. What resources do I need to begin work? Do I need to conduct literature (hermeneutic

or historical) research, or do I need to review important literature on the topic and then
 conduct empirical research, such as a survey or an observation? How many sources are
required?

4. Who - beyond my instructor - can I contact to help me if I have questions? Do you

have a writing lab or student service center that offers tutorials in writing?

Examples

(Notes on prompts made in blue)

Poster or Song Analysis: Poster or Song? Poster!

Goals: To systematically consider the rhetorical choices made in either a poster or a song. She
says that all the time.

Things to Consider: ah- talking points

Poster:

 how the poster addresses its audience and is affected by context I'll do this first - 1.

 general layout, use of color, contours of light and shade, etc.

 use of contrast, alignment, repetition, and proximity C.A.R.P. They say that, too. I'll do
this third - 3.

 the point of view the viewer is invited to take, poses of figures in the poster, etc. any text
that may be present

 possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing I'll cover this second -
2.

 ethical implications

 how the poster affects us emotionally, or what mood it evokes

 the poster's implicit argument and its effectiveness said that was important in class, so
I'll discuss this last - 4.

Song:

 how the song addresses its audience

 lyrics: how they rhyme, repeat, what they say

 use of music, tempo, different instruments

 possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing

  ethical implications

 emotional effects

 the implicit argument and its effectiveness

These thinking points are not a step-by-step guideline on how to write your paper; instead, they
are various means through which you can approach the subject. I do expect to see at least a few
of them addressed, and there are other aspects that may be pertinent to your choice that have not
been included in these lists. You will want to find a central idea and base your argument around
that. Additionally, you must include a copy of the poster or song that you are working
with. Really important!

I will be your audience. This is a formal paper, and you should use academic conventions
throughout.

Length: 4 pages Format: Typed, double-spaced, 10-12 point Times New Roman, 1 inch

margins I need to remember the format stuff. I messed this up last time =(

Academic Argument Essay

5-7 pages, Times New Roman 12 pt. font, 1 inch margins.

Minimum of five cited sources: 3 must be from academic journals or books

 Design Plan due: Thurs. 10/19

 Rough Draft due: Monday 10/30

 Final Draft due: Thurs. 11/9

Remember this! I missed the deadline last time

The design plan is simply a statement of purpose, as described on pages 40-41 of the book, and
an outline. The outline may be formal, as we discussed in class, or a printout of an Open Mind
project. It must be a minimum of 1 page typed information, plus 1 page outline.

This project is an expansion of your opinion editorial. While you should avoid repeating any of
your exact phrases from Project 2, you may reuse some of the same ideas. Your topic should be
similar. You must use research to support your position, and you must also demonstrate a fairly
thorough knowledge of any opposing position(s). 2 things to do - my position and the
opposite.

Your essay should begin with an introduction that encapsulates your topic and indicates 1 the
general trajectory of your argument. You need to have a discernable thesis that appears early in
your paper. Your conclusion should restate the thesis in different words, 2 and then draw some
additional meaningful analysis out of the developments of your argument. Think of this as a "so
what" factor. What are some implications for the future, relating to your topic? What does all this
(what you have argued) mean for society, or for the section of it to which your argument
pertains? A good conclusion moves outside the topic in the paper and deals with a larger issue.

You should spend at least one paragraph acknowledging and describing the opposing position in
a manner that is respectful and honestly representative of the opposition’s 3 views. The
counterargument does not need to occur in a certain area, but generally begins or ends your
argument. Asserting and attempting to prove each aspect of your argument’s structure should
comprise the majority of your paper. Ask yourself what your argument assumes and what must
be proven in order to validate your claims. Then go step-by-step, paragraph-by-paragraph,
addressing each facet of your position. Most important part!

Finally, pay attention to readability. Just because this is a research paper does not mean that it
has to be boring. Use examples and allow your opinion to show through word choice and
tone. Proofread before you turn in the paper. Your audience is generally the academic
community and specifically me, as a representative of that community. Ok, They want this to
be easy to read, to contain examples I find, and they want it to be grammatically correct. I
can visit the tutoring center if I get stuck, or I can email the OWL Email Tutors short
questions if I have any more problems.

Argument Paper
Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper

Introduction

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1. What is this?

2. Why am I reading it?

3. What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions by doing the following:

1. Set the context –provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation
so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support

2. State why the main idea is important –tell the reader why he or she should care and keep
reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want
to read and act upon
 3. State your thesis/claim –compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support
with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal),
and ethos (author credibility).

For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis statement so
that the audience understands why you began your inquiry. An overview of the types of sources
you explored might follow your research question.

If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your thesis by
outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the opposition to your
position. You can forecast your paper in many different ways depending on the type of paper you
are writing. Your forecast could read something like this:

First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background of the
situation. Next, I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain why I support
one of these positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss why these positions
are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future
research.

When writing a research paper, you may need to use a more formal, less personal tone. Your
forecast might read like this:

This paper begins by providing key terms for the argument before providing background of the
situation. Next, important positions are outlined and supported. To provide a more thorough
explanation of these important positions, opposing positions are discussed. The paper concludes
with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future research.

Ask your instructor about what tone you should use when providing a forecast for your paper.

These are very general examples, but by adding some details on your specific topic, a forecast
will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more easily follow your
ideas.

Thesis checklist

Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a clear
position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the checklist below to
help you create a thesis.

This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and
Sarah Skwire:

Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:
  A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate more in
the education of their children (good thesis).

 A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the

Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George
W. Bush in the 2000 election.

 A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and
Prejudice.

 A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-

solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences.

 Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research

Papers, Seventh Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both
your topic and your point of view" (Gibaldi 42). However, if your paper is more complex
and requires a thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of sentences.

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

 A good thesis is unified:

o NOT: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people have always
been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with them

(floppy). vs.

o BETTER: Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise).

 A good thesis is specific:

o NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good. vs.

o BETTER: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with
the unconscious.

 Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your
thesis:

o NOT: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the
unconscious. vs.
 o BETTER: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with
the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing
the techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.

Quick Checklist:

_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above

_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment

_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable

_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs: Moving from general to specific information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information.
Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - The broadest range of
information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more
and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim.
Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and
supports her thesis (a brief wrap-up or warrant).

Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic

sentence, specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as
a warrant) –TTEB!

1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading.

This acts as a hand-off from one idea to the next.

2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.

3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a
deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.

4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the
paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important
to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it
shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)

INDUCTION

Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When
you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you
have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The
following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument:

Facts:

There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m.
and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left
in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith
home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smith’s death. A coworker heard Smith and Jones
arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died.

Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.

Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

 Conclusion: Jones killed Smith

 Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime,
Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
  Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend,
justifying the conclusion drawn.

DEDUCTION

When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific
conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is
called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in
three steps:

1. Major premise

2. Minor premise

3. Conclusion

In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two
premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic
reasoning:

Socrates

1. Major premise: All men are mortal.

2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.

3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Lincoln

1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great
leaders.

2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in
a crisis.

3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that (1) all
men are mortal (they all die); and (2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these
premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But
when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose,
and great), the connections get tenuous.

For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into
the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.
The following is a clear example of deduction gone awry:

1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.

2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.

3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a
good pet is invalid.

Enthymemes

When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes

can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions.
Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an
enthymeme:

If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.

The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part
of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. Therefore, the unstated premise is “Only
rich people have plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people
who own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs
who are poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:

 Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).

 Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.

 Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid
argument, you may want to look at the United States Declaration of Independence. The first
section of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an
inductive list of examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together in a
compelling conclusion.

Rebuttal Sections

In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and
outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the situation
(purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the
rebuttal section of your essay.
It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be
fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to
support.

People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your
position. People who are completely against your argument—perhaps for ethical or religious
reasons—will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you
provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who
haven't decided which side of the argument they will support—the fence-sitters.

In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see
value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair
manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or
discussion opposing positions at all.

Organizing your rebuttal section

Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information
that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions
addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding
Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.

When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:

The opponent’s argument: Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or
remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus, at the beginning of your paragraph, you need
to state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.

Your position: Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position
you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his
assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with
fallacies.

Your refutation: The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your
disagreement. If you challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent
evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up. If your
position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.

Conclusions

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to
specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin
pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument.
Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline
may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

 Restate your topic and why it is important,

 Restate your thesis/claim,

 Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,

 Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor,
you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!)
conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is
best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

1. Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).

2. Tell them (body).

3. Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

Writing a Research Paper

The Research Paper
There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such
an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in
procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from
the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never
fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a
research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's
anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding
experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do
research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.
Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of
practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the
most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point
in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to
make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can
achieve great things through their research and writing.
The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a
research paper:

 Genre- This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between
an analytical and argumentative research paper.
 Choosing a Topic- This section will guide the student through the process of choosing
topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses
themselves.
 Identifying an Audience- This section will help the student understand the often times
confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
 Where Do I Begin- This section concludes the handout by offering several links to
resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a
research paper.

Genre and the Research Paper

Research: What it is.
A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical
thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition. It is, perhaps, helpful to think of the
research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores, interprets, and
evaluates sources related to a specific topic. Primary and secondary sources are the heart of a
research paper, and provide its nourishment; without the support of and interaction with these
sources, the research paper would morph into a different genre of writing (e.g., an encyclopedic
article). The research paper serves not only to further the field in which it is written, but also to
provide the student with an exceptional opportunity to increase her knowledge in that field. It is
also possible to identify a research paper by what it is not.
Research: What it is not.
A research paper is not simply an informed summary of a topic by means of primary and
secondary sources. It is neither a book report nor an opinion piece nor an expository essay
consisting solely of one's interpretation of a text nor an overview of a particular topic. Instead, it
is a genre that requires one to spend time investigating and evaluating sources with the intent to
offer interpretations of the texts, and not unconscious regurgitations of those sources. The goal of
a research paper is not to inform the reader what others have to say about a topic, but to draw on
what others have to say about a topic and engage the sources in order to thoughtfully offer a
unique perspective on the issue at hand. This is accomplished through two major types of
research papers.
Two major types of research papers.
Argumentative research paper:
The argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly
introduces the topic and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take; this stance
is often identified as the thesis statement. An important goal of the argumentative research
paper is persuasion, which means the topic chosen should be debatable or controversial. For
example, it would be difficult for a student to successfully argue in favor of the following stance.
Cigarette smoking poses medical dangers and may lead to cancer for both the smoker and those
who experience secondhand smoke.

Perhaps 25 years ago this topic would have been debatable; however, today, it is assumed that
smoking cigarettes is, indeed, harmful to one's health. A better thesis would be the following.
Although it has been proven that cigarette smoking may lead to sundry health problems in the
smoker, the social acceptance of smoking in public places demonstrates that many still do not
consider secondhand smoke as dangerous to one's health as firsthand smoke.

In this sentence, the writer is not challenging the current accepted stance that both firsthand and
secondhand cigarette smoke is dangerous; rather, she is positing that the social acceptance of the
latter over the former is indicative of a cultural double-standard of sorts. The student would
support this thesis throughout her paper by means of both primary and secondary sources, with
the intent to persuade her audience that her particular interpretation of the situation is viable.
Analytical research paper:
The analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research
question) on which he has taken no stance. Such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and
evaluation. For example, perhaps one is interested in the Old English poem Beowulf. He has read
the poem intently and desires to offer a fresh reading of the poem to the academic community.
His question may be as follows.
How should one interpret the poem Beowulf?

His research may lead him to the following conclusion.

Beowulf is a poem whose purpose it was to serve as an exemplum of heterodoxy for tenth- and
eleventh-century monastic communities.

Though his topic may be debatable and controversial, it is not the student's intent to persuade the
audience that his ideas are right while those of others are wrong. Instead, his goal is to offer a
critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources throughout the paper--sources that
should, ultimately, buttress his particular analysis of the topic. The following is an example of
what his thesis statement may look like once he has completed his research.
Though Beowulf is often read as a poem that recounts the heroism and supernatural exploits of
the protagonist Beowulf, it may also be read as a poem that served as an exemplum of
heterodoxy for tenth- and eleventh-century monastic communities found in the Danelaw.

This statement does not negate the traditional readings of Beowulf; instead, it offers a fresh and
detailed reading of the poem that will be supported by the student's research.
It is typically not until the student has begun the writing process that his thesis statement begins
to take solid form. In fact, the thesis statement in an analytical paper is often more fluid than the
thesis in an argumentative paper. Such is one of the benefits of approaching the topic without a
predetermined stance.

Annotated Bibliographies
Definitions

A bibliography is a list of sources (books, journals, Web sites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for
researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "References" or "Works Cited"
depending on the style format you are using. A bibliography usually just includes the
bibliographic information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).

An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation. Therefore, an annotated bibliography includes

a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources. Depending on your project or the
assignment, your annotations may do one or more of the following.

 Summarize: Some annotations merely summarize the source. What are the main
arguments? What is the point of this book or article? What topics are covered? If
someone asked what this article/book is about, what would you say? The length of your
annotations will determine how detailed your summary is.

For more help, see our handout on paraphrasing sources.

 Assess: After summarizing a source, it may be helpful to evaluate it. Is it a useful source?
How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography? Is the information
reliable? Is this source biased or objective? What is the goal of this source?

For more help, see our handouts on evaluating resources.

 Reflect: Once you've summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into
your research. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your
 argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it changed how
you think about your topic?

Your annotated bibliography may include some of these, all of these, or even others. If you're
doing this for a class, you should get specific guidelines from your instructor.

Why should I write an annotated bibliography?

To learn about your topic: Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a
research project. Just collecting sources for a bibliography is useful, but when you have to write
annotations for each source, you're forced to read each source more carefully. You begin to read
more critically instead of just collecting information. At the professional level, annotated
bibliographies allow you to see what has been done in the literature and where your own research
or scholarship can fit. To help you formulate a thesis: Every good research paper is an argument.
The purpose of research is to state and support a thesis. So, a very important part of research is
developing a thesis that is debatable, interesting, and current. Writing an annotated bibliography
can help you gain a good perspective on what is being said about your topic. By reading and
responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the issues are, what people
are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop your own point of view.

To help other researchers: Extensive and scholarly annotated bibliographies are sometimes
published. They provide a comprehensive overview of everything important that has been and is
being said about that topic. You may not ever get your annotated bibliography published, but as a
researcher, you might want to look for one that has been published about your topic.

Format

The format of an annotated bibliography can vary, so if you're doing one for a class, it's
important to ask for specific guidelines.

The bibliographic information: Generally, though, the bibliographic information of the source
(the title, author, publisher, date, etc.) is written in either MLA or APA format. For more help
with formatting, see our MLA handout. For APA, go here: APA handout.

The annotations: The annotations for each source are written in paragraph form. The lengths of
the annotations can vary significantly from a couple of sentences to a couple of pages. The
length will depend on the purpose. If you're just writing summaries of your sources, the
annotations may not be very long. However, if you are writing an extensive analysis of each
source, you'll need more space.

You can focus your annotations for your own needs. A few sentences of general summary
followed by several sentences of how you can fit the work into your larger paper or project can
serve you well when you go to draft.
Annotated Bibliography Breakdown

Stem Cell Research: An Annotated Bibliography

Holland, Suzanne. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy.
Boston: MIT P, 2001.

This is the annotation of the above source, which is formatted according to MLA 2016 (8th ed.)
guidelines for the bibliographic information listed above. If one were really writing an annotation
for this source, one would offer a brief summary of what this book says about stem cell research.

After a brief summary, it would be appropriate to assess this source and offer some criticisms of
it. Does it seem like a reliable and current source? Why? Is the research biased or objective? Are
the facts well documented? Who is the author? Is she qualified in this subject? Is this source
scholarly, popular, some of both?

The length of your annotation will depend on the assignment or on the purpose of your annotated
bibliography. After summarizing and assessing, you can now reflect on this source. How does it
fit into your research? Is this a helpful resource? Too scholarly? Not scholarly enough? Too
general/specific? Since "stem cell research" is a very broad topic, has this source helped you to
narrow your topic?

Senior, K. "Extending the Ethical Boundaries of Stem Cell Research." Trends in Molecular

Medicine, vol. 7, 2001, pp. 5-6.

Not all annotations have to be the same length. For example, this source is a very short scholarly
article. It may only take a sentence or two to summarize. Even if you are using a book, you
should only focus on the sections that relate to your topic.

Not all annotated bibliographies assess and reflect; some merely summarize. That may not be the
most helpful for you, but, if this is an assignment, you should always ask your instructor for
specific guidelines.

Wallace, Kelly. "Bush Stands Pat on Stem Cell Policy." CNN. 13 Aug. 2001.

Using a variety of sources can help give you a broader picture of what is being said about your
topic. You may want to investigate how scholarly sources are treating this topic differently than
more popular sources. But again, if your assignment is to only use scholarly sources, then you
will probably want to avoid magazines and popular web sites.

The bibliographic information above is proper MLA format (use whatever style is appropriate in
your field) and the annotations are in paragraph form. Note also that the entries are alphabetized
by the first word in the bibliographic entry. If you are writing an annotated bibliography with
many sources, it may be helpful to divide the sources into categories. For example, if putting
together an extensive annotated bibliography for stem cell research, it might be best to divide the
sources into categories such as ethical concerns, scholarly analyses, and political ramifications.

For more examples, a quick search at a library or even on the Internet should produce several
examples of annotated bibliographies in your area.

Annotated Bibliography Samples

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different
research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should
reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some
annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the
source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these
steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions
when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be
indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its
insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer,
the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from
plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal
critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun.
Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main
project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and
struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical
handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest
perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class.
Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate
discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing
exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students
should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.
In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation
of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 2016 Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. New York, NY: Henry
Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich

attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a
minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a
Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her
relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and

the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in
the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences
with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of
living in America. Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph
provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the
work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and
presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or
usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the
numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in
hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author
discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous
research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant
artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise
description of the project and the book's project and its major features.
 Writing a Book Review
Book reviews typically evaluate recently-written works. They offer a brief description of the
text’s key points and often provide a short appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of the work.

Readers sometimes confuse book reviews with book reports, but the two are not identical. Book
reports commonly describe what happens in a work; their focus is primarily on giving an account
of the major plot, characters, and/or main idea of the work. Most often, book reports are a K-12
assignment and range from 250 to 500 words. If you are looking to write a book report, please
see the OWL resource, Writing a Book Report.

By contrast, book reviews are most often a college assignment, but they also appear in many
professional works: magazines, newspapers, and academic journals. They typically range from
500-750 words, but may be longer or shorter. A book review gives readers a sneak peek at what
a book is like, whether or not the reviewer enjoyed it, and details on purchasing the book.

Before You Read

Before you begin to read, consider the elements you will need to included in your review. The
following items may help:

 Author: Who is the author? What else has s/he written? Has this author won any awards?
What is the author’s typical style?

 Genre: What type of book is this: fiction, nonfiction, romance, poetry, youth fiction,
etc.? Who is the intended audience for this work? What is the purpose of the work?

 Title: Where does the title fit in? How is it applied in the work? Does it adequately
encapsulate the message of the text? Is it interesting? Uninteresting?

 Preface/Introduction/Table of Contents: Does the author provide any revealing

information about the text in the preface/introduction? Does a “guest author” provide the
introduction? What judgments or preconceptions do the author and/or “guest author”
provide? How is the book arranged: sections, chapters?

 Book Jacket/Cover/Printing: Book jackets are like mini-reviews. Does the book jacket
provide any interesting details or spark your interest in some way? Are there pictures,
maps, or graphs? Do the binding, page cut, or typescript contribute or take away from the
work?

As You Read

As you read, determine how you will structure the summary portion or background structure of
your review. Be ready to take notes on the book’s key points, characters, and/or themes.
  Characters: Are there characters in the work? Who are the principle characters? How do
they affect the story? Do you empathize with them?

 Themes/Motifs/Style: What themes or motifs stand out? How do they contribute to the

work? Are they effective or not? How would you describe this author’s particular style?
Is it accessible to all readers or just some?

 Argument: How is the work’s argument set up? What support does the author give for
her/findings? Does the work fulfill its purpose/support its argument?

 Key Ideas: What is the main idea of the work? What makes it good, different, or
groundbreaking?

 Quotes: What quotes stand out? How can you demonstrate the author’s talent or the feel
of the book through a quote?

When You Are Ready to Write

Begin with a short summary or background of the work, but do not give too much away. Many
reviews limit themselves only to the first couple of chapters or lead the reader up to the rising
action of the work. Reviewers of nonfiction texts will provide the basic idea of the book’s
argument without too much detailed.

The final portion of your review will detail your opinion of the work. When you are ready to
begin your review, consider the following:

 Establish a Background, Remember your Audience: Remember that your audience

has not read the work; with this in mind, be sure to introduce characters and principles
carefully and deliberately. What kind of summary can you provide of the main points or
main characters that will help your readers gauge their interest? Does the author’s text
adequately reach the intended audience? Will some readers be lost or find the text too
easy?

 Minor principles/characters: Deal only with the most pressing issues in the book. You
will not be able to cover every character or idea. What principles/characters did you agree
or disagree with? What other things might the author have researched or considered?

 Organize: The purpose of the review is to critically evaluate the text, not just inform the
readers about it. Leave plenty room for your evaluation by ensuring that your summary is
brief. Determine what kind of balance to strike between your summary information and
your evaluation. If you are writing your review for a class, ask your instructor. Often the
ratio is half and half.

 Your Evaluation: Choose one or a few points to discuss about the book. What worked
well for you? How does this work compare with others by the same author or other books
 in the same genre? What major themes, motifs, or terms does the book introduce, and
how effective are they? Did the book appeal to you on an emotional or logical way?

 Publisher/Price: Most book reviews include the publisher and price of the book at the
end of the article. Some reviews also include the year published and ISBN.

Revising

When making the final touches to your review, carefully verify the following:

 Double-check the spelling of the author name(s), character names, special terms, and
publisher.

 Try to read from the vantage point of your audience. Is there too much/enough summary?
Does your argument about the text make sense?

 Should you include direct quotes from the reading? Do they help support your
arguments? Double-check your quotes for accuracy.