EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science

Transformer Differential Protection

Aniagboso John Onah, and Edwin Ejiofor Ezema

 temporary loading periods. Of course, every protection

Abstract—Overcurrent and earth fault protective equipment scheme should be selective in order to prevent unnecessary
that employ time grading and directional detection cannot outages [11]-[13]. The withstand capability of transformers
provide correct discrimination and speedy fault clearance on is specified according to the kilovolt-ampere rating of the
all power networks. In this case, differential protection is a
better alternative. It protects individual sections of networks or
transformer [14]. Differential protection provides the best
pieces of equipment, such as transformers, generators, e.t.c. It overall protection-it is selective and speedy in fault clearing
is normally applied where protection co-ordination cannot be [4], [15]. Since it protects only the equipment between the
readily achieved with time delayed over current and earth fault current transformers (CTs), back-up protection to other parts
protection, or where fast fault clearance is necessary. of the network is lacking. The transformer is highly reliable
Kirchhoff’s first law, which states that the sum of the currents because of its static nature. However, it can fail as a result of
flowing to a node is equal to the sum of the currents flowing
out from it is the basic principle of the differential protection
[1]:
scheme. The difference between the current entering a section (i) Failure of insulation of windings, laminations.
and that leaving it is detected by the differential protection (ii) Oil deterioration.
scheme. If the operating condition is normal (i.e. there is no (iii) Loss of oil by leakage.
fault within the protected section), the current leaving it will (iv) Tap changer faults.
always be equal to that entering it, and the protective (v) Cooling system faults.
equipment should not operate. If there is fault in the protected
(vi) Heavy through faults.
unit, the output current differs in either phase or magnitude
from the input current, and the protection should operate. This (vii) Overloads.
paper investigates how power transformers can be protected (viii) Switching surges.
using the current-differential protection schemes. ((ix) Lightning

Index Terms—Power transformers, current transformer,

differential protection, relay, fault clearance.
II. PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Since the primary current of a transformer is quite
I. INTRODUCTION different from the secondary current, current transformers
Transformers are sized according to the voltage applied to (CTs) are placed on the primary and secondary sides to
them. Small single-phase units are available for low-voltage compensate for this. These CTs must produce the same
application. Large and extremely large three-phase units are secondary currents. So, their ratios must be chosen
used for high and ultra-high voltages associated with accordingly. Their primary current ratings, however, make
alternators and transmission lines in power system networks. the magnetizing characteristics of the two CTs different
[1]. Transformers that supply distribution networks are from each other. As shown in Fig. 1 [1], the relay is
exposed to a greater number of through faults [2]. This connected to the centre point of a balanced system. If the
exposure reduces the life expectancy of the transformer [3]. currents in the two current CTs are not equal, the difference,
All transformers need protection from power system id between the CT secondary currents will flow through the
hazards. The size or cost of a transformer determines the relay for it to operate.
complexity and cost of its protective equipment. In other CT1 CT2
words, the protective scheme should be proportional to the Protected unit
A B C D
equipment being protected [4], [5]. When a fault occurs
within the transformer, the protective equipment must
disconnect that transformer from the network, to forestall E
any damaged to the transformer. Damage occurs if the fault
current remains longer than necessary on the network [6]-
R
[9]. If this happens, there will be loss of revenue since
energy will not be supplied, and the transformer will have to
F
be replaced or repaired. Safety of personnel working in the
Fig. 1. Current differential protection
substation under pressure to restore supply will also be
threatened [10]. So, protective relays are set to trip circuit When a fault occurs on the protected unit, as shown in
breakers to clear faults, but the settings must allow for the Fig. 2 [4], the output current would no longer be equal to the
normal range of currents due to energization and heavy input current.

Published on August 21, 2020.

A. J. Onah, Michael Okpara University, Nigeria.
E. E. Ezema, Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, Enugu
State Polytechnic, Iwollo, Nigeria

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healthy, hence the need for biasing arrangement. When high

ip1 if ip2 through current flows, biasing increases the current needed
CT1 CT2
Protected unit to operate the relay [4]. Differential elements compare a
differential or operating current id with a restraining current.
s np f s np f A restraining or bias coil is connected to carry a current
s ns f s proportional to the full system current and restrains the relay
is1 is2 ns f operation on large through-fault currents [16]. Fig. 4 [4]
shows a biased protective scheme. The relay has two
R iR restraining windings (1 and 2), and one operating winding,
3. As currents flow, the force in the restraining windings
Fig. 2. Internal fault opposes relay operation, while the force in operating
The input current would be given as: winding causes operation.

Protected unit ip2

i p1  i p 2  i f (1) CT1 ip1 CT2

s f s f
The CTs secondary currents will be:

i 
np np
i s1  i p1  p2 if (2) 3 id
ns ns is1 is2
1 2
np np
i s1  i p2  if (3) Relay
ns ns Fig. 4 biased protective scheme

Differential Current, i d  i s1  i s 2 (6)

np
is2  i p2 (4)
ns i s1  i s 2
Mean Through Current, i RT  (7)
The differential current is:
2
During through faults or stable operation, the restraining
np windings produce forces in the same direction when the
id  i R  if (5)
currents in them are in phase with each other. The
ns
electromagnetic forces produced in the relay windings are
proportional to the square of the magneto-motive forces. So,
If id flowing through the relay exceeds a certain minimum
the condition for relay operation is [17]:
level, circuit-breaker operation would be initiated instantly.
In the case of a fault occurring outside the protected unit, as 2
n n 
shown in Fig. 3, the same primary current will flow through
each CT, i.e. ip2 = ip1, and so there will be no differential n o i d  2
  RT i s1  RT i s 2  (8)
current flowing through the relay, and hence no relay
 2 2 
operation - ensuring correct fault discrimination.
Where
i p1
n o  Number of turns on the operating coil
i p2 if
CT1 Protected unit
CT2 n RT  Number of turns on the restraining coil

0  k  1
np np
s f s f If n RT  k n o , (9)
s ns f is1 is 2 s n f
s
2
kn 
  o i s1  i s 2  , i d  i s1  i s 2  (10)
k
R iR  0 no i d  2

 2  2
Fig. 3 External fault

i d  k i RT (11)
However, some difficulties arise in the use of this scheme
due to errors associated with current transformers.
id
A. Biased System Bias  (12)
Protection schemes for large transformers must operate i RT
speedily when faults occur within the protected zones, but The differential relay generates a tripping signal if the
must be restrained when the protected transformer is differential current, id, is greater than a percentage of the

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 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science

restraining current i RT [18]. Equation (12) is plotted as I1 I´2 I2 X2

shown in Fig. 5
Ie

id  k iRT XL
id V1 E2 Xe V2

Operate
N1 N2
Re strain Ideal
Fig.6. CT equivalent circuit

I1 = primary current
V1 = primary voltage
k E2 = secondary induced (excitation) voltage
V2 = secondary terminal voltage
Fig. 5. Operating diagram of biased differential scheme
I′2 = primary current referred to the secondary
Ie = secondary excitation current
III. FACTORS AFFECTING CURRENT-DIFFERENTIAL I2 = secondary current
PROTECTION Xe = excitation reactance referred to the secondary
X2 = leakage reactance referred to the secondary
A. Current Transformer (CT) Errors XL = reactance of load (burden)
The efficiency of current transformers plays vital role in
the effective protection of equipment, just as the incorrect From Fig. 6, we write
selection of current transformers can lead to the failure of a I1 N 2
protective scheme to perform its function correctly. In other  (13)
words, for a protection scheme to fulfill its obligation,
I 2 N1
current transformers must be carefully matched with the
I 1 , I 2  I 2  I e  I e  I 2  I 2 (14)
N1 ' '
relays. Current transformers enable differential-protection
I 2' 
schemes to compare the input and output currents of a N2
protected unit, and also isolate the relays and
interconnecting conductors from the high voltages
I 2'  I 2 Ie
associated with power systems. Because of transformation Ratio error = '
 (15)
errors associated with CTs, it is necessary to have identical I 2 I 2'
CTs at the input and output ends of a protected zone so that
their errors during healthy and through fault conditions will
always be the same [4]. Consequently, the secondary Φ
currents of the CTs would always be equal and zero current
would flow in the relays except when internal faults occur.
However, there will always be differences, no matter how I'2
small, in the magnetizing characteristics and this leads to
instability in the scheme during through fault conditions. Ie
CTs are usually driven into saturation by transient during I2
faults and this produces a high spill current. The transient
disappears in about 20 cycles. So, time delay of, say 0.5s is
needed to resolve the problem. If the core of one CT is E2 E1
saturated, while the other remains unsaturated the two CTs Fig. 7 Phasor Diagram
would be made to operate at different points on their
excitation characteristics during a later external fault, '
Equation (15) is the deviation of I2 from I 2 expressed as a
causing sufficient unbalance current to flow in the relay and '
operate incorrectly [4]. percentage of I 2 .
1) Ratio Error (Current Error) N2
E2  E1 (16)
In a current transformer the whole of the primary current N1
is not transformed into secondary current, a component of
E2  jI 2  X 2  X L 
the primary current is used to magnetize or excite the core.
In other words, the inductor Xe is such that it takes current (17)
equal to the exciting current of the CT [19], Fig. 6. The

 
exciting current, Ie is part of I'2 consumed in exciting the
core. The remainder, I2 is the true secondary current. Fig. 6 E2  j  X 2  X L  I 2'  I e (18)
is the equivalent circuit of a CT [17], [20].

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 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science

N  ia
E 2  j  X 2  X L  1 I 1  I e  (19)
 N2 

Since all impedance elements are inductive,

N 
E 2   X 2  X L  1 I 1  I e 
ic ib
(20)
 N2  (b) Secondary side currents

Fig. 9 Steady-state phasor diagram of currents in a delta-

Plotting equation (20) on the same coordinates as the star connected power transformer.
magnetization curve (E2 versus Ie), we can predict I2 for a
It can be observed that the currents –iCA and ia are in
given I1 with known termination, XL, The solution for E2 and
phase, likewise –iAB and ib; -iBC and ic
Ie is the intersection of the two plots, and I2 can now be
solved for.
i A  i AB  iCA  i AB  i AB 120o (24)

2) Phase angle error

3 3
The phase angle error is the angle difference between the i A  i AB   j   3 i AB   30o
 (25)
secondary current vector, when reversed, and the primary  2 2 
current [19]. This difference in phase angle between primary
and secondary currents is due to the winding connections of Thus iA lags iAB by 30o as shown in Fig.10
the power transformer, e.g. star/delta or delta/star Similarly,
transformers.

Power
ia
i B  3 i BC   30o
CT1 iA Transformer CT2
R
i AB
r
iC  3 iCA  30o (26)
iB ib
Y y
iBC Ns
iC ic i AB   ib
B b Np
iCA
Ns
iBC   ic
Np
(27)
Ns
iR R Y B Relays
iCA   ia
Fig. 8. Delta/Star transformer Np
For delta/star transformer, shown in Fig. 8 the currents in
Ns
the primary winding of the transformer are: iA  ia  ib 
Np
i A  i AB  iCA (21) (28)
N

 s ia  ia   120o
Np

i B  i BC  i AB (22)

iC  iCA  i BC Ns
(23) iA  3 i a 30o
Np
iA Ns
iB  3 ib 30o (29)
Np
 iCA i N
i AB BC
iC  s 3 ic 30o
Np
 i BC iB
That is i A leads ia by 30o – the primary line current
 i AB
leads the secondary line current by 30o as shown in Fig. 10.
iCA
iC
(a) Primary side currents

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Ns
iA  3 ia 30 o
Np

ia Φ

Ns
iB  3 ib 30 o
ic ib Np

t
Ns Fig. 11 Waveforms of flux
iC  3 ic 30 o
Np
Fig. 10 Primary and secondary currents phasors for steady-state operation.
Then the instantaneous value of induced e.m.f is given
by:
In other words the star-connected low-voltage line current d
lags the high-voltage line current by 30o i.e. the phase shift e   N1   N 1  m cos t =
is -30o. It is a Dyn1transformer. Because of the phase shift,
dt
 
phase correction is necessary in order to prevent mal-  N1 m sin  t   (31)
operation of the relay.  2
B. Mismatching caused by power transformer exciting
current surges (magnetizing inrush current) N1 is the number of turns on the primary winding
The exciting current of power transformers is usually very If the transformer is energized at the positive peak of the
small (2-5% of the rated current) when the operating flux, the induced e.m.f. can be represented in Fourier series
condition is stable. At the time of energizing the as:
ao
  a n cos nt  bn sin nt 
transformer, the exciting current may rise to values many (8-
30) times the rated current for significant period (typically e (32)
2
10 cycles) [4], [20]. Since these current flows in the primary
winding only and in the operating windings of the relays
used in the differential protection scheme, the relays would where
operate. Thus a time delay or effective biasing arrangement  32 5

a o N 1  m    2
  
   
 sin t   dt   sin t  dt  (33)
must be provided so as to prevent this mal-operation. The

magnetizing inrush current saturates the CT iron core, and 2 2 3  2 
the waveform is much distorted. The second harmonic 2 2 
component of the inrush current is very high, and can be
used to restrain relay operation when a time delay cannot be
tolerated. The CT goes into saturation beyond the knee-point 32 5

N 1 m     2
  
of the CT magnetization curve. In this region, the core flux an    sin t   cos nt dt   sin t   cos nt dt  (34)
is sustained by major part of the primary current. Thus, a    2  3  2 
disproportionate amount of the primary current is required 2 2 
to magnetize the core. There is drastic increase in the
magnetization current, Ie while the secondary current, I2 3 5

remains constant. In this condition, no matter the rise in N 1 m  2    2
  
bn    sin t   sin nt dt   sin t   sin nt dt  (35)
primary current, the flux and secondary induced voltage    2  3  2 
remain constant. Hence, core loss increases; both the
2 2 
exciting and secondary currents become non-sinusoidal,
since the shunt admittance is not linear. Ultimately, not all
Fig. 12 shows the induced voltage waveform, and the
of the primary current transforms into secondary current
magnetizing inrush current is shown in Fig. 13. Fig. 14 and
Let the instantaneous value of flux be:
Fig.15 show the harmonics of the inrush current during
energization.
   m sin t (30)

Fig. 11 shows the waveforms of the flux.

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C. Mismatching caused by tap-changing

Tap-changing switches are used to select a particular
Voltage (V)

e number of turns in either the primary or secondary winding

of a transformer, thereby varying the overall transformation
ratio to obtain the desired output voltage. The associated
CTs should also have tapped windings so as to maintain
balance in current-differential schemes which compare the
winding magneto motive forces. The CTs ratios must be
changed in accordance with power transformer tap-
changing. This scheme is complex, costly, and hardly
practicable. Therefore, a biased scheme is needed because
the differential relay will see out-of-balance, or spill current
t when a ratio other than the transformer nominal
Fig.12 Induced voltage waveform transformation ratio occurs [4].

IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

Current (A)

i
Fig. 16 shows the basic differential scheme, [1], [4],
where the CTs primary windings are in series with the
primary and secondary windings of the protected
transformer. The currents in the secondary windings of the
CTs flow around the loop formed with the interconnecting
conductors when the protected transformer is healthy. The
operating windings of the relay are connected between the
t mid-points of the interconnecting conductors to form a
symmetrical circuit. The currents into the differential
Fig. 13 magnetizing inrush current waveform
element of the relay must balance to ensure correct
operation when there is no abnormal condition. The HV and
LV CTs primary ratings do not usually match the power
transformer winding rated currents. This mismatch was
Amplitude

traditionally compensated for by the provision of physical

n=2
interposing current transformers (ICTs). However, CT ratio
correction factors are provided in modern relays. When
these factors are applied, the differential algorithm receives
correct signals to achieve the desired relay operation. The
correction factor can be adjusted from 0.05 to 2.0 in steps of
0.01 for each set of CT inputs [21].
n=4 CT2
n=6 n=8 CT1 15MVA, 33 / 11kV ia
iA 500/1 2600/1
R r
Harmonic order i AB
iab
Fig. 14 magnetizing inrush current harmonics iB ib
Y y
iBC
ibc
iC ic
n=2 B b
Current (A)

iCA
ica
n=4 n=8 i s1  0.525 A is 2  0.525 A

Relay
n=6

Fig. 16 ratio and phase-angle correction by delta connection of line CTs

t Fig.16 is a 15MVA, 33/11kV, Dyn1 transformer. The

relay is rated 1A.
Fig. 15 magnetizing inrush current harmonics
Transformer turns ratio is:

Second harmonic component of the inrush current flow N1 3 V1 3x33

through sensitive restraining coils incoporated in the relays, a=    5.2
and the relay is restrained from operating [16]. N2 V2 11

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The primary full-load current is: CT1

300/1 iA
15MVA 33/11kV
N1 : N 2 ia
CT2
1600/1
R r
i AB

15000
iA   262.43A
iB ib
Y y
i BC
3 x 33
iC ic
B b
iCA
The secondary full-load current is: is 2
is1  0.875 A
i n2 : n1
15000
ia   787.3 A Relay

3 x 11
ICT
Fig. 17 Ratio correction and phase-angle correction using one set
If CTs with ratios 262/1 for the primary side and 787/1 physically-connected ICT
for the secondary side of the power transformer can be
found, then there is no CT mismatch, and no need for ratio From Fig. 17
correction.
However, if the secondary side CT ratio is selected as N1
2600/1, then
ia  i A   30o (39)
3 N2
LV CT secondary current = 787.3  0.303 A
2600
ia
Primary side CT ratio is to be determined. The secondary is 2   0.492  30o (40)
current rating of the CT to be connected in delta must be 1600
0.5774 times the rating selected for the star-connected CT
and for the rating selected for the relay [1]. n1
i 3 i s 2 30o
Hence, primary side CT secondary current = 3 x n2
(41)
secondary side CT secondary current= 3 x 0.303 =
0.525A
n
 n
 1 3 0.492  30o 30o  1 0.852A
n2 n2

Primary side CT ratio = 262.43/0.525= 500/1
Because of the phase shift, phase correction is necessary CT1 iA
Power Transformer
ia CT2
N1 : N 2
in order to prevent mal-operation of the relay. This is R i AB r

achieved by connecting the CT secondary winding in star iB ib

where the power transformer winding is connected in delta, Y iBC y

and connecting the CT secondary winding in delta where the iC ic

B b
power transformer winding is connected in star as shown in iCA

Fig. 16 [1], [21]. From Fig. 16, we have:

N1
ia  i A   30o (36)
ICT
n1 : n2
ICT
n2 : n1
3 N2
Relay

ia
iab   0.303  30o (37)
Fig. 18 ratio and phase-angle correction using two sets physically-
connected ICTs
2600
Fig. 19 shows relay in-built ratio correction factors and
i s 2  3 iab 30o software ICTs [21]. Thus, from Fig 19:

 3 0.303  30o 30o  0.525A

(38) 1
HV ratio correction factor =  1.14 (setting
0.875
Ratio correction and phase correction can also be effected applied to relay)
1
by using one set of physical interposing current transformers LV ratio correction factor =  2.0 (setting
(ICT), connected as a replica of the power transformer 0.492
winding arrangement, as shown in Fig. 17. Fig. 18 shows applied to relay)
two sets of ICTs are in use. It can be noticed in Fig. 18 that
both the CTs at the primary and secondary sides of the
protected transformer are connected in star. However
modern relays have software interposing CTs built into them
for ratio correction, phase correction, and LV filtering of
zero sequence current [21].

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Dyn1 V. CONCLUSION
15MVA, 33/11kV
300/1
2620o A 787  30o A 1600/1 In this paper, transformer differential protection has been
presented. It protects a piece of equipment or a section of a
network from faults. With proper selection of CTs,
0. 8750o A differential protection provides faster clearance of faults,
0.492  30 o A
Relay and it is more effective in providing discrimination than
simple overcurrent relays. CT ratio correction and phase
Yy0 o
10 o A Differential 10 A Yd11 correction, and zero sequence current filtering can be
Software ICT element Software ICT implemented by externally connected ICTs or software ICTs
built into the differential relay. Biased differential schemes
Fig. 19 Application of software ICTs use restraining coils and second harmonic of magnetizing
inrush current to prevent unnecessary operation of the relay
Fig. 20 shows the distribution of current in the during transformer energization, and through fault
transformer windings for a phase-to-phase through fault. It conditions. However, overall differential protection may
can be shown that the positive-sequence fault current is only be justified for large transformers (typically > 5MVA)
given by:

Vf REFERENCES
I a1  (42)
Z1  Z 2 [1] T. Davies, Protection of Industrial Power Systems, Oxford: Newnes,
2001, pp 126-138.
[2] IEEE, “IEEE guide for protecting power transformers,” IEEE
Where, Standard C37, 91, 2008.
Vf= fault point voltage per unit. [3] IEEE, “IEEE guide for automatic reclosing of line circuit-breakers for
Z1= positive sequence impedance per unit. AC distribution and transmission line,” IEEE Standard C37, 104,
2002.
Z2=negative sequence impedance per unit. [4] C. Christopoulos, A. Wright, “Electrical Power System Protection”,
Z2=Z1. Phases “y” and “b” are assumed to be shorted. It Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, 1999, pp 107-134.
can be shown that I a 2   I a1 , and that the total fault
[5] G. Rockefeller, Transformer Protection Application Guide, Basler
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
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[18] http://electrical engineering-portal.com, Protective Relay.
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operation.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2020.5.8.2035 Vol 5 | Issue 8 | August 2020 898