“JUST THE MATHS”

UNIT NUMBER

11.5

DIFFERENTIATION APPLICATIONS 5
(Maclaurin’s and Taylor’s series)

by

A.J.Hobson

11.5.1 Maclaurin’s series

11.5.2 Standard series
11.5.3 Taylor’s series
11.5.4 Exercises
11.5.5 Answers to exercises
UNIT 11.5 - DIFFERENTIATION APPLICATIONS 5

MACLAURIN’S AND TAYLOR’S SERIES

11.5.1 MACLAURIN’S SERIES

One of the simplest kinds of function to deal with, in either algebra or calculus, is a polyno-
mial (see Unit 1.8). Polynomials are easy to substitute numerical values into and they are
easy to differentiate.

One useful application of the present section is to approximate, to a polynomial, functions

which are not already in polynomial form.

THE GENERAL THEORY

Suppose f (x) is a given function of x which is not in the form of a polynomial, and let us
assume that it may be expressed in the form of an infinite series of ascending powers of x;
that is, a “power series”, (see Unit 2.4).

More specifically, we assume that

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + . . .

This assumption cannot be justified unless there is a way of determining the “coefficients”,
a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , etc.; but this is possible as an application of differentiation as we now show:

(a) Firstly, if we substitute x = 0 into the assumed formula for f (x), we obtain f (0) = a0 ;
in other words,

a0 = f (0).

(b) Secondly, if we differentiate the assumed formula for f (x) once with respect to x, we
obtain

f 0 (x) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2 + 4a4 x3 + . . .

which, on substituting x = 0, gives f 0 (0) = a1 ; in other words,

a1 = f 0 (0).

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(c) Differentiating a second time leads to the result that

f 00 (x) = 2a2 + (3 × 2)a3 x + (4 × 3)a4 x2 + . . .

which, on substituting x = 0 gives f 00 (0) = 2a2 ; in other words,

1
a2 = f 00 (0).
2

(d) Differentiating yet again leads to the result that

f 000 (x) = (3 × 2)a3 + (4 × 3 × 2)a4 x + . . .

which, on substituting x = 0 gives f 000 (0) = (3 × 2)a3 ; in other words,

1 000
a3 = f (0).
3!

(e) Continuing this process with further differentiation will lead to the general formula

1 (n)
an = f (0),
n!

where f (n) (0) means the value, at x = 0 of the n-th derivative of f (x).

Summary

x2 00 x3
f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + f (0) + f 000 (0) + . . .
2! 3!

This is called the “Maclaurin’s series for f (x)”.

Notes:

(i) We must assume, ofcourse, that all of the derivatives of f (x) exist at x = 0 in the first
place; otherwise the above result is invalid.
It is also necessary to examine, for convergence or divergence, the Maclaurin’s series obtained

2
for a particular function. The result may not be used when the series diverges; (see Units
2.3 and 2.4).

(b) If x is small and it is possible to neglect powers of x after the n-th power, then Maclaurin’s
series approximates f (x) to a polynomial of degree n.

11.5.2 STANDARD SERIES

Here, we determine the Maclaurin’s series for some of the functions which occur frequently
in the applications of mathematics to science and engineering. The ranges of values of x for
which the results are valid will be stated without proof.

1. The Exponential Series

(i) f (x) ≡ ex ; hence, f (0) = e0 = 1.
(ii) f 0 (x) = ex ; hence, f 0 (0) = e0 = 1.
(iii) f 00 (x) = ex ; hence, f 00 (0) = e0 = 1.
(iv) f 000 (x) = ex ; hence, f 000 (0) = e0 = 1.
(v) f (iv) (x) = ex ; hence, f (iv) (0) = e0 = 1.
Thus,

x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
and it may be shown that this series is valid for all values of x.
2. The Sine Series
(i) f (x) ≡ sin x; hence, f (0) = sin 0 = 0.
0
(ii) f (x) = cos x; hence, f 0 (0) = cos 0 = 1.
(iii) f 00 (x) = − sin x; hence, f 00 (0) = − sin 0 = 0.
(iv) f 000 (x) = − cos x; hence, f 000 (0) = − cos 0 = −1.
(v) f (iv) (x) = sin x; hence, f (iv) (0) = sin 0 = 0.
(vi) f (v) (x) = cos x; hence, f (v) (0) = cos 0 = 1.
Thus,

x3 x5
sin x = x − + − ...
3! 5!
and it may be shown that this series is valid for all values of x.

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3. The Cosine Series
(i) f (x) ≡ cos x; hence, f (0) = cos 0 = 1.
(ii) f 0 (x) = − sin x; hence, f 0 (0) = − sin 0 = 0.
(iii) f 00 (x) = − cos x; hence, f 00 (0) = − cos 0 = −1.
(iv) f 000 (x) = sin x; hence, f 000 (0) = sin 0 = 0.
(v) f (iv) (x) = cos x; hence, f (iv) (0) = cos 0 = 1.
Thus,

x2 x4
cos x = 1 − + − ...
2! 4!
and it may be shown that this series is valid for all values of x.
4. The Logarithmic Series
It is not possible to find a Maclaurin’s series for the function ln x, since neither the
function nor its derivatives exist at x = 0.
As an alternative, we may consider the function ln(1 + x) instead.
(i) f (x) ≡ ln(1 + x); hence, f (0) = ln 1 = 0.
(ii) f 0 (x) = 1+x ;
1
hence, f 0 (0) = 1.
(iii) f 00 (x) = − (1+x)
1
2; hence, f 00 (0) = 1.
(iv) f 000 (x) = 2
(1+x)3
; hence, f 000 (0) = 2.
2×3
(v) f (iv) (x) = − (1+x) 4; hence, f (iv) (0) = −(2 × 3).
Thus,

x2 x3 x4
ln(1 + x) = x − + 2 − (2 × 3) + . . .
2! 3! 4!
which simplifies to

x2 x3 x4
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + ...
2 3 4
and it may be shown that this series is valid for −1 < x ≤ 1.
5. The Binomial Series
The statement of the Binomial Formula has already appeared in Unit 2.2; and it was
seen there that
(a) When n is a positive integer, the expansion of (1 + x)n in ascending powers of x is
a finite series;

4
 (b) When n is a negative integer or a fraction, the expansion of (1 + x)n in ascending
powers of x is an infinite series.
Here, we examine the proof of the Binomial Formula.
(i) f (x) ≡ (1 + x)n ; hence, f (0) = 1.
(ii) f 0 (x) = n(1 + x)n−1 ; hence, f 0 (0) = n.
(iii) f 00 (x) = n(n − 1)(1 + x)n−2 ; hence, f 00 (0) = n(n − 1).
(iv) f 000 (x) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(1 + x)n−3 ; hence, f 000 (0) = n(n − 1)(n − 2).
(v) f (iv) (x) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(1 + x)n−4 ; hence, f (iv) (0) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3).
Thus,

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) 4

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x + ...
2! 3! 4!
If n is a positive integer, all of the derivatives of (1 + x)n after the n-th derivative are
identically equal to zero; so the series is a finite series ending with the term in xn .
In all other cases, the series is an infinite series and it may be shown that it is valid
whenever −1 < x ≤ 1.

EXAMPLES

1. Use the Maclaurin’s series for sin x to evaluate

x + sin x
lim .
x→0 x(x + 1)

Solution
Substituting the series for sin x gives

x3 5
x+x− 3!
+ x5! − . . .
lim
x→0 x2 +x

x3 x 5
2x − 6
+ 120 − ...
= lim 2
x→0 x +x

x2 x 4
2− 6
+ 120 − ...
= lim = 2.
x→0 x+1

5
 √
2. Use a Maclaurin’s series to evaluate 1.01 correct to six places of decimals.
Solution
1
We shall consider the expansion of the function (1 + x) 2 and then substitute x = 0.01.
      
1
1 1 2
− 12 1
2
− 12 − 32
(1 + x) 2 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
2 2! 3!
That is,

1 1 1 1
(1 + x) 2 = 1 + x − x2 + x3 + . . .
2 8 16
Substituting x = 0.01 gives
√ 1 1 1
1.01 = 1 + × 0.01 − × 0.0001 + × 0.000001 − . . .
2 8 16

= 1 + 0.005 − 0.0000125 + 0.0000000625 − . . .

The fourth term will not affect the sixth decimal place in the result given by the first
three terms; and this is equal to 1.004988 correct to six places of decimals.
3. Assuming the Maclaurin’s series for ex and sin x and assuming that they may be multi-
plied together term-by-term, obtain the expansion of ex sin x in ascending powers of x
as far as the term in x5 .
Solution

x2 x3 x4 x3 x5
! !
x
e sin x = 1 + x + + + + ... x− + +. . .
2! 3! 4! 3! 120

x3 x5 x4 x3 x5 x4 x5
=x− + + x2 − + − + + + ...
6 120 6 2 12 6 24

x3 x5
= x + x2 + − + ...
3 30

11.5.3 TAYLOR’S SERIES

A useful consequence of Maclaurin’s series is known as Taylor’s series and one form of it may
be stated as follows:

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 x2 00 x3
f (x + h) = f (h) + xf 0 (h) + f (h) + f 000 (h) + . . .
2! 3!

Proof:

To obtain this result from Maclaurin’s series, we simply let f (x + h) ≡ F (x). Then,

x2 00 x3
F (x) = F (0) + xF 0 (0) + F (0) + F 000 (0) + . .
2! 3!

But, F (0) = f (h), F 0 (0) = f 0 (h), F 00 (0) = f 00 (h), F 000 (0) = f 000 (h),. . . which proves the
result.

Note: An alternative form of Taylor’s series, often used for approximations, may be obtained
by interchanging the symbols x and h to give

0 h2 00 h3 000
f (x + h) = f (x) + hf (x) + f (x) + f (x) + . . .
2! 3!

EXAMPLE

Given that sin π4 = cos π4 = √12 , use Taylor’s series to evaluate sin(x + h), correct to five
places of decimals, in the case when x = π4 and h = 0.01.

Solution

Using the sequence of derivatives as in the Maclaurin’s series for sin x, we have

h2 h3
sin(x + h) = sin x + h cos x − sin x − cos x + ......
2! 3!
π
Subsituting x = 4
and h = 0.01, we obtain

(0.01)2 (0.01)3
!
π 1
 
sin + 0.01 = √ 1 + 0.01 − − + ...
4 2 2! 3!

1
= √ (1 + 0.01 − 0.00005 − 0.000000017 + ......)
2

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The fourth term does not affect the fifth decimal place in the sum of the first three terms;
and so

π 1
 
sin + 0.01 ' √ × 1.00995 ' 0.71414
4 2

11.5.4 EXERCISES

1. Determine the first three non-vanishing terms of the Maclaurin’s series for the function
sec x.
2. Determine the Maclaurin’s series for the function tan x as far as the term in x5 .
3. Determine the Maclaurin’s series for the function ln(1 + ex ) as far as the term in x4 .
4. Use the Maclaurin’s series for the function ex to deduce the expansion, in ascending
powers of x of the function e−x and then use these two series to obtain the expansion,
in ascending powers of x, of the functions
(a)
ex + e−x
(≡ cosh x);
2
(b)
ex − e−x
(≡ sinh x).
2
5. Use the Maclaurin’s series for the function cos x and the Binomial Series for the function
1
1+x
to obtain the expansion of the function

cos x
1+x

in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x4 .

6. From the Maclaurin’s series for the function cos x, deduce the expansions of the functions
cos 2x and sin2 x as far as the term in x4 .

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 7. Use appropriate Maclaurin’s series to evaluate the following limits:
(a)
ex + e−x − 2
" #
lim ;
x→0 2 cos 2x − 2

(b)
sin2 x − x2 cos x
" #
lim .
x→0 x4
3
√
8. Use a Maclaurin’s series to evaluate 1.05 correct to four places of decimals.
9. Expand cos(x + h) as a series of ascending powers of h.
√
Given that sin π6 = 12 and cos π6 = 23 , evaluate cos(x + h), correct to five places of
decimals, in the case when x = π6 and h = −0.05.

11.5.5 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1.
x2 x4
1+ + + ..
2 8
2.
x3 2x5
x+ + + ...
3 15
3.
x x2 x4
ln 2 + + − + ...
2 8 192
4. (a)
x2 x4
cosh x = 1 + + + . . .;
2! 4!
(b)
x3 x5
sinh x = x + + + ..
3! 5!

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5.
x2 x3 13x4
1−x+ − + − ...
2 2 24
6.
2x4
cos 2x = 1 − 2x2 + − ...
3

x4
sin2 x = x2 − + ...
3

7. (a) − 14 , (b) 1
6

8. 1.0164
9. 0.74156

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