Gratulent Publications

UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION

MEANING
Research means to search back. In common parlance it means search for knowledge. Any individual belonging
to any field can undertake research activity. It is not exclusive for a few experts or professional.

DEFINITION

In the words of Redman & Mory research is , “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
Fred Kerlinger, “research is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving a
problem”
Burns defines research as “systematic investigation to find answer to a problem”
Form the above definition the following can be the implications derived :
1. Research is a systematic procedure.
2. It provides solutions to problems.
3. It results in acquiring new knowledge.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to have deep understanding of the situation.
2. To describe exactly the characteristics of a situation or particular individual or group.
3. To determine the number of times (frequency) a phenomenon occurs
4. To discover the truth and fact.
5. To test hypothesis of cause and effect relationship between variables
6. To study and resolve contradiction in the area of a study.
7. To put forward an entirely new theory.
8. To explain unexplained horizon of knowledge.
9. To reach more conclusions from available data.
10. To find new conclusion with old data.
11. To know old conclusions with new data.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research activities are conducted with sole objective of finding to problems.
Research activities are broadly classified as:

I. On the basis of intent

II. On the basis of nature of data
III. On the basis of method of study

I. On the basis of intent :

a. Pure research : It is called as Fundamental research. This is conducted
with a view for the sake of knowledge and not it’s application. Pure research
helps in offering solutions to practical problems.
Example: Law of Gravity by Newton, Need hierarchy theory by Maslow.
b. Applied research : This research is carried out when immediate
solutions are required for social problems which can be helpful in policy

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formulation by the concerned agency. There is vast scope in the field of Technology, Management, Commerce
and Economics.
Example : Invention of aeroplane on the basis of Law of Gravity.
c. Descriptive research : This includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business
research we quite often use.
d. Exploratory research : In this research , on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, develop hypothesis and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
e. Conceptual research : Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

II. On the basis of nature of data :

a. Quantitative research : Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
b. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.

III. On the basis of method of study :

a. Analytical research : The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
b. Empirical research : Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard
for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis.
c. Formalized Research : When a hypothesis is framed and it is tested then it is called as Formalized research.
d. Survey research : A survey is conducted to understand a specific aspect in defined population. A sample is
taken from the population to draw conclusion regarding the population.
e. Case Study : It is a method of in depth study of an organization. It is done for intensive study of business
situation. Case study uses methods like interview, questionnaire, for data collection a report is prepared containing
facts and opinion.
f. Library research : When secondary data is enough to supplement the conclusions of a study, library research is
conducted. The data is generally available from books, periodicals and journals available in the library.

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RESEARCH APPROACH

From the description of the types of research brings it can be inferred that there are two basic approaches to
research
a. Quantitative Approach b. Qualitative Approach

a) Quantitative Approach : This approach involves the generation of data in numerical form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. This approach can be further sub-classified into experimental inferential
and simulation approaches.
Inferential Approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed)
to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
Experimental Approach, in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation Approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated. This permits an observation of the changing behaviour of a system (or its sub-system)
under controlled conditions. Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions.

b) Qualitative Approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach to research
generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are
used in this approach.

RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process consists of steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of
these steps. Research process is represented in the following chart :

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1. Formulating the research problem : At the very beginning, the researcher must identify the problem he
wants to study, i.e., he must decide the subject-matter that he would like to inquire into There are two steps are
involved in formulating the research problem, - understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same
into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with one’s own colleagues or some experts in the matter.
2. Extensive literature survey : Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
Here the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the researcher initially read journals and published or unpublished biographies. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be gone through depending on the nature of the problem. A
good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses : After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research
in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.
4. Preparing the research design : After formulating the research problem, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design : All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample which is called as the sample design. In
other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. Probability
samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area
sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and
quota sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data : In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey.

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(i) By observation : This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation,
without interviewing the respondents.
(ii) Through personal interview : The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-
conceived questions through personal interviews.
(iii) Through telephone interviews : This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents
on telephone itself.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires : Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after
completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
(v) Through schedules : Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided
with schedules containing relevant questions.
7. Execution of the project : Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
8. Analysis of data : After the data have been collected, the researcher analyzes them. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing : After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
certain tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for
the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis : Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows :

(i) The preliminary pages (ii) The main text (iii) The end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then
there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts :
(a) Introduction : It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should
as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings : After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in
non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report : The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion : Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research
clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report , appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of
books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a
published research report.

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RELEVANCE & SCOPE OF RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT

Although Research has wider scope & it is performed almost all areas of knowledge. But there, are notifying main
areas of management in which research is conducted.
• Environment level
• Organizational level
• Marketing level

1. Scope of Research Methodology in management at of Research Methodology in management at Environmental

level- Research is conducted to know environmental changes reactively & proactively like
a. Technological innovations : Research is conducted to know & adapt new technological innovations,
developments in machinery , method, etc. used . For e.g. To know level of use of information technology e.g.
Networking, Tally, SAP, etc. in the organization.
b. Research is also done to know the characteristics, complexity, dynamism of socio-Cultural, economical,
political- legal, which ultimately gives the idea of the potential, feasibility, viability etc. of the market. Companies
conducts research for studying the strategic patterns of competitors, their strengths & weaknesses for making
better strategies for competing effectively in order to survive & thrive in the market.
c. Industry fears : Research is conducted sometimes to know the survival & growth opportunities of an industry.
It may be due to the extinction of raw material/sources of raw material. E.g. Finishing stock of Petrolium, coal may
cause the extinction for automobile & power industry thus research for alternative sources/solutions is conducted.
For the above e.g. the solutions are electric car(automobile), CNG gas generated Automobile, Battery driven
Automobiles. New Market entry Before making any entry into any new market , companies conduct research/pilot
survey to know market potential, commercial feasibility, growth rate for the acceptance level of the consumers.
d. New product development: Research is mainly conducted to know needs, wants, desires, tastes, preference,
problems, demography, psychography, etc. of consumers. On the basis of which Organizations may develop
new products & Services.

2. Scope of Research Methodology in management at Organizational level -

• Human Resource Management : It is related to efficiency, productivity, effectiveness, performance, Satisfaction
level etc. of Employees, structure, culture etc. of the organization.
• Finance : It may be related to any operation like financial analysis, Capital structure, Ratio analysis etc. research
is done to evaluate the performance or viability of the existing systems/procedures/approaches for the same, in
order to improve the existing one or develop new methods for the same. Ultimately the motive remains for reducing
loss & increase profitability.
• Production : Here research is related to know & improve the efficiency, Productivity, effectiveness level of
workers , process planning, materials planning, layout, purchasing etc. (like work study, time study etc.) which
ultimately have objectives of cost minimization & Profit maximization.
• Organizational Effectiveness & Success : It is related to effectiveness, efficiency, Rationality, viability of
general management, administration, systems, procedures, operations, Policies, Rules, Regulations etc. prevailing
currently in the organization.

3. Scope of Research Methodology in management at Marketing Level : Research in management is

mainly done in marketing level in the areas like Product, Price , Place, Promotion, Sales, Customer etc.

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a. Product : Research is conducted to improve .quality, features, design, packaging, labeling, and differentiation
etc. of the products or services.
b. Price Research is conducted for the cost minimization, determining Pricing methods(strategies), develop new
pricing strategies etc. for the product in order to attract & retain the customers.
c. Place Research is also conducted for evaluating & improving the performance, satisfaction, effectiveness of
the distribution channels ( Retailers, Dealers, agents etc.) Promotion Research is also conducted to determine &
develop appropriate & new approaches/methods for Advertising, Sales promotion as per the target market.
d. Sales : Research is conducted to know the sales performance(sales audit), effectiveness & efficiency of the
sales force, Determination of Sales Quota, defining Sales Territory, developing innovative & effective sales training
& motivating techniques.
e. Customer : Current trend of shopping & Consumption patterns of consumers Scope:

CONCLUSION :
Thus research is a growing and widely used business activity as the sellers need to know more about
their final consumers but are generally widely separated from those consumers. Research is a necessary link
between decision makers and the markets in which they operate.

RESEARCH DESIGN

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design. The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted;
it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

THE DESIGN DECISIONS INCLUDE :

(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGN :

• The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered
a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
• A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects
of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.
• Good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the
problem to be studied.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Different research designs can be conveniently categorized as:

(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
(3) Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such
studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses
from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
The following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about :

(a) The survey of concerning literature : happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating
precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed
and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already
stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work
already done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the
available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.

(b) The experience survey : happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated
hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already
done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available
material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.

(c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples : This method consists of the intensive study of selected
instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be
examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the
investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a
unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

Descriptive and diagnostic research studies : Descriptive research studies are those studies which are
concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. Most of the
social research comes under this category. Most of the social research comes under this category. The design in
such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be
related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure
that the data collected are relevant. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to
be obtained. In other words, techniques for collecting the information must be devised. Several methods (viz.,
observation, questionnaires, interviewing, examination of records, etc.), with their merits and limitations, are
available for the purpose and the researcher may user one or more of these methods. The data collected must be
processed and analysed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the

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data; and performing several statistical computations. Coding should be done carefully to avoid error in coding
and for this purpose the reliability of coders needs to be checked and accuracy of tabulation may be checked by
having a sample of the tables re-done. Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of
communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the report
needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research study may be well presented in simple and
effective style.

Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies : Hypothesis-testing research studies

(generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Professor
R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. The study of experimental designs has its origin in
agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and
then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and inferences drawn
from them, happens to be more reliable.

CONCLUSION : To conclude it can be said that researcher has to pre-plan the steps his going to undertake in his
research in the form of Research Design. Hence, he has to think proactively and conduct the research.

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UNIT - II

SAMPLING DESIGN

SAMPLING DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique
or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design is determined
before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points :

Type of universe : The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically
called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is
certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the
total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of
finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a
dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.

Sampling unit : A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or
it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to
decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.

Source list : It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all
items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list
to be as representative of the population as possible.

Size of sample : This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This
is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It
should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as
also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population must be kept in view for this also
limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the
size of the sample. Costs also dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

Parameters of interest : In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific
population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristic in the population.

Budgetary constraint : Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions
relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a
non-probability sample.

Sampling procedure : Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide
about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands
for the sample design itself. There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which

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the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample
size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

The characteristics of a good sample design as under:

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.

PROBABILITY & NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING : Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford
any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-
probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and
judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher;
his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the organisers
of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the
small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages
may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state.
Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an important part in this sampling design. Quota sampling
is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to
be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual
selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer ’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient
and is relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random
samples.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING : Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to
say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some
mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The
results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure
the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the
superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of
Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have
the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered
as the best technique of selecting a representative sample. Random sampling from a finite population refers to
that method of sample selection which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
picked up and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This
applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the
sample again (Sampling with replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element selected for
the sample is returned to the population before the next element is selected. In such a situation the same element
could appear twice in the same sample before the second element is chosen).

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RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS : Some of the popular complex random sampling designs are as follows:

(i) Systematic sampling : In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a
list. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced into this kind
of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. For instance, if a 4 per cent sample
is desired, the first item would be selected randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item
would automatically be included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly
and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals. Although a systematic sample is not a
random sample in the strict sense of the term, but it is often considered reasonable to treat systematic sample as
if it were a random sample.

(ii) Stratified sampling : If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample. Under stratified
sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the
total population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to
constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more
precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component parts, we get a
better estimate of the whole. In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information.

(iii) Cluster sampling : If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample
can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly select a
number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of)
units in these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of
relatively small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these clusters
are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.

(iv) Area sampling : If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is
better known as area sampling. In other words, cluster designs, where the primary sampling unit represents a
cluster of units based on geographic area, are distinguished as area sampling. The plus and minus points of
cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling.

(v) Multi-stage sampling : Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.
Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalised banks in India and we want to take a sample
of few banks for this purpose. The first stage is to select large primary sampling unit such as states in a country.
Then we may select certain districts and interview all banks in the chosen districts. This would represent a two-
stage sampling design with the ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts. If instead of taking a census of
all banks within the selected districts, we select certain towns and interview all banks in the chosen towns. This
would represent a three-stage sampling design. If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
towns, we randomly sample banks from each selected town, then it is a case of using a four-stage sampling plan.
If we select randomly at all stages, we will have what is known as ‘multi-stage random sampling design’.

(vii) Sequential sampling : This sampling design is somewhat complex sample design. The ultimate size of the
sample under this technique is not fixed in advance, but is determined according to mathematical decision rules
on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This is usually adopted in case of acceptance sampling
plan in context of statistical quality control. When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the basis of a
single sample, it is known as single sampling; when the decision is to be taken on the basis of two samples, it is
known as double sampling and in case the decision rests on the basis of more than two samples but the number
of samples is certain and decided in advance, the sampling is known as multiple sampling. But when the number
of samples is more than two but it is neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system is often referred
to as sequential sampling. Thus, in brief, we can say that in sequential sampling, one can go on taking samples
one after another as long as one desires to do so.

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NON-PROBABILITY / NON-RANDOM SAMPLING

This type of sampling technique does not provide every element in the population with the equal chance of being
selected in the sample. The researcher decides which sample element should be chosen.The major forms of
non- probability sampling are described as follows.

(1) CONVENIENCE SAMPLING :

It is also known as accidental or unsystematic sampling. In this method the researcher interviews that
population which is selected neither by judgment nor by probability. Shortly, the researcher studies all those
people who accidentally come in his contact during research period or who are available most conveniently.
Generally, the results obtained by this method are unsatisfactory and biased. This method may be used when
complete list of the source is not available, when sample unit is not clear and when population/universe is not well
defined.

MERIT / ADVANTAGES :
(1) For making pilot studies, convenience sampling is useful.
(2) It is economical and a quick method of sampling.

DEMERIT / DISADVANTAGES :
(1) Mostly, the results, obtained by this method are unsatisfactory and biased.

(2) QUOTA SAMPLING :

It is another version of stratified sampling. There is little difference between stratified and quota sampling.
In stratified sampling population is divided by strata and then the researcher chooses the respondents, but in
quota sampling it works on ‘quota’ fixed by the researcher. Like stratified sampling, in quota sampling the researcher
specifies the groups. The groups are prepared on the basis of sex, age, income, education or other characteristics
much like the ‘strata’ in stratified sampling.

MERIT/ADVANTAGES :
(1) Compared to other sampling techniques it is an economical method.
(2) It is less time consuming sampling method.

DEMERIT/DISADVANTAGES :
(1) In this method, there is a possibility of interviewer’s bias influencing the sample selection.
(2) It is not possible to estimate the error.
(3) Quota sampling is not a representative sampling technique

(3) SNOWBALL SAMPLING :

In this sampling method, the researcher begins his research with few known and available respondents.
This technique is used by the researcher when the population is rarely found and not easily accessible. In this
method, when the first respondent is found to the researcher then the researcher can ask respondent to provide
contact details of other individuals who fall in the same population. This process is followed by the researcher until
adequate number of respondents is interviewed or no more respondents are discovered.

MERITS / ADVANTAGES :
(1) This technique is useful in case of rare population.
(2) This technique reduces the sample size.
(3) Comparatively it is an economical sampling technique.

DEMERITS/ DISADVANTAGES :
(1) It is very difficult to track the respondents at a time and in time.

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(2) Sometimes this technique’s cost is going to be very high.

HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION
Hypothesis is a statement of proposed assumption in research. Hypothesis is a statement which can be
proved or disproved. It is a statement capable of being tested. Hypothesis aids the researcher a great deal while
collecting, tabulating and analyzing data and other relevant information. Hypothesis thus is inevitable in any kind of
research, if it is to be carried out successfully.

DEFINITION:-
W. J. Goode and P. K. Hatt :-
Hypothesis is ‘a proposition which can be put to a test to determine validity and is useful for further research.’
C. T. Kurein :-
Hypothesis is ‘a possible explanation of the phenomenon under observation.’
Max Black :-
Hypothesis is ‘a proposition not known to be definitely true or false, examined for the sake of determining the
consequences which would follow from its truth.’

MEANING:-
1. At the primary level, a hypothesis is the possible and probable explanation of the sequence of happenings or
data.
2. Sometimes, hypothesis may emerge from an imagination, common sense or a sudden event.
3. Hypothesis can be a probable answer to the research problem undertaken for study.
4. Hypothesis may not always be true. It can get disproven. In other words, hypothesis need not always be a true
proposition.
5. Hypothesis, in a sense, is an attempt to present the interrelations that exist in the available data or information.
6. Hypothesis is not an individual opinion or community thought. Instead, it is a philosophical means which is to be
used for research purpose.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

There are 6 different types of hypothesis as follows:

1) Simple Hypothesis : A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
Example: - Smoking leads to cancer.
2) Composite Hypothesis or Multiple Hypothesis : A composite hypothesis examines the relationship between
two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables.
Example: - Smoking and other drugs leads to cancer, tension, chest infections etc
3) Statistical Hypothesis : A hypothesis which can be verified statistically is called as statistical hypothesis. The
statement would be logical or illogical but if statistic verifies it, it will be statistical hypothesis.
4) Directional Hypothesis : Directional Hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable.

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Example: -
• High quality of nursing education will lead to high quality of nursing practice skills.
• Girls ability of learning moral science is better than boys.
5) Non Directional Hypothesis:-Non -directional Hypothesis predicts the relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable but does not specific the directional of the relationship.
Example: - Teacher student relationship influence student’s learning.
6) Null and Alternative Hypothesis: A null hypothesis can be defined as a statistical hypothesis, which is stated
for acceptance. It is the original hypothesis. Any other hypothesis other than null hypothesis is called Alternative
hypothesis. When null hypothesis is rejected we accept the alternative hypothesis.
Null hypothesis is denoted by H0 and alternative hypothesis is denoted by H1.
Example: There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea only or protein
shake only
My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to protein shake only.

PROCESS - FORMATION AND & TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis testing is one of the most important concepts in statistics. A statistical hypothesis is an
assumption about a population parameter. This assumption may or may not be true. The methodology employed
by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used and the goals of the analysis. The goal is to either accept
or reject the null hypothesis.

1) Setting up Hypothesis : Sometimes we cannot survey or test all persons or objects; therefore, we have to
take a sample. From the results of analysis from the sample data, we can predict the results from the population.
Some questions that one may want to answer are :
1. Are unmarried workers more likely to be absent from work than married workers?
2. Are the sixth graders in a certain school significantly less skilled in their mathematical abilities than the average
student in the district?
3. Is there any difference between the strengths of steel wire produced by the XY Company and Bob’s Wire
Company?
In a research study hypothesis is of two types i.e., null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis. The hypothesis
that is put to test is null hypothesis. Hence it should be stated in clear terms. Null hypothesis is represented as H0
and alternate hypothesis is represented as H1

The following are the consideration for stating hypothesis:-

1. It must be simple 2. It must be stated in clear terms
3. It must be testable 4. It must not use vague or ambiguous terms
5. It should be related to available techniques
Null Hypothesis : For the testing purpose, a null hypothesis is formed based on the statistical data. The null
hypothesis is also called as the hypothesis with no difference. In other words, null hypothesis states that there is
no difference between the variables involved in the hypothesis or the variables are not related.
Example : If the research hypothesis is that the commerce graduates are more employable than the arts graduates,
then the null hypothesis will be that both are equally employable or that there is no difference in the employment
opportunities available to both.
If in research hypothesis, price and demand are said to be inversely related, the null hypothesis assumes
them independent or states that price and demand are not related.

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Alternate Hypothesis : After the formulation of null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis can be derived. Alternative
hypothesis is the negation of null hypothesis and can be more than one and conform to the research hypothesis.
In the example of employability, the alternative hypothesis can be
1) Two sided- commerce graduates are more employable or arts graduates are more employable
2) One sided- a) commerce graduates are having more employability b) arts graduates are having more
employability.

2) Selection of Test Statistic : The next step in the hypothesis testing exercise is that of selecting an appropriate
statistical test. It can be chi-square test, t-test or f-test or any other test. Such a test is carried out at a given level
of significance.
a. If the sample size is less than 30 then t-test is used.
b. If the sample size is more than 30 then z-test is used
c. If difference between samples has to be analysed then F-test is used
d. If association between attributes has to done, then chi-square is used.
3) Selecting significance level : As stated in the above step a statistical test is conducted at a given level of significance
(). A level of significance indicates the probability of rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis. Significance level is
normally expressed in terms of percentage.it can be 5% or 1%, it means that researcher can be wrong in his conclusions
in 5 out of 100 occasions/units of data. Hence level of significance must be adequate.
4) Critical Value : Critical value is the value that divides the regions into two-Acceptance region and rejection region.
If the computed test statistic falls in the rejection region, we reject the hypothesis. Otherwise, we accept the hypothesis.
The critical value depends upon the level of significance and alternative hypothesis.
5) Determining the sampling distribution : The next step is to determine the sampling distribution which can
be normal or‘t’- distribution. The sampling distribution of a given population is the distribution of frequencies that
could possibly occur for a statistic of a population.
6) Selecting Sample, Collecting data and Value : Random sample is selected and from the sample data value
is computed using the statistic.
7) Decision : The last step in testing hypothesis is
that of taking a decision on the basis of the given level
of significance (). It is seen whether the null
hypothesis falls in the accepting region or in rejecting
region and accordingly a decision is taken. There can
be two types of errors committed by the researcher:

CONCLUSION
From the above description of the various sample designs presented, it can be said that normally one
should resort to simple random sampling because under it bias is generally eliminated and the sampling error
can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered more appropriate when the universe happens to be
small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. There are situations in real life under which
sample designs other than simple random samples may be considered better (say easier to obtain, cheaper or
more informative) and as such the same may be used. In a situation when random sampling is not possible, then
we have to use necessarily a sampling design other than random sampling. At times, several methods of sampling
may well be used in the same study.

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UNIT - III
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

Measurement means the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level of
measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned. Measurement is a relatively
complex and demanding task, especially when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena. Properties like
weight, height, etc., can be measured directly with some standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to
measure properties like motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the like.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

A researcher must be aware about the sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible
sources of error in measurement.
(a) Respondent : At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it is just
possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to
result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the
respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation : Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition which places
a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if someone
else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that
anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) Measurer : The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His behaviour, style
and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may
distort the findings. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical
calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.
(d) Instrument : Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex words,
beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies,
response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result
in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of items of
concern. Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the problems
listed above.

TEST OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

Content validity is the extent to which the elements within a measurement procedure
are relevant and representative of the .Establishing content validity is a necessarily initial task in the construction
of a new measurement procedure (or revision of an existing one).
For example, we can suggest measuring the construct height using centimeters, or a
person’s weight using kilograms.
Again, measurement involves assigning scores to individuals so that they represent some characteristic
of the individuals. But how do researchers know that the scores actually represent the characteristic, especially
when it is a construct like intelligence, self-esteem, depression, or working memory capacity? The answer is that
they conduct research using the measure to confirm that the scores make sense based on their understanding

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of the construct being measured. This is an extremely important point. Researchers do not simply assume that
their measures work. Instead, they collect data to demonstrate that they work. If their research does not demonstrate
that a measure works, they stop using it.
For example, imagine that you have been dieting for a month. Your clothes seem to be fitting more loosely, and
several friends have asked if you have lost weight. If at this point your bathroom scale indicated that you had lost
5 kgs, this would make sense and you would continue to use the scale. But if it indicated that you had gained 5
kgs, you would rightly conclude that it was broken and either fix it or get rid of it.
Thus in evaluating a measurement method, Researchers consider three general dimensions: reliability,
validity and practicality.

1] RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Researchers consider three types of consistency: over time
(test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (inter-rater reliability).
a. Test-Retest Reliability : Test-Retest reliability refers to the test’s consistency among different administrations.
To determine the coefficient for this type of reliability, the same test is given to a group of subjects on at least two
separate occasions. If the test is reliable, the scores that each student receives on the first administration should
be similar to the scores on the second. We would expect the relationship between the first and second
administration to be a high positive correlation.
b. Internal Consistency : The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as psychometric
tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is
being measured. In the split-half method, testing is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the
results from the other half. A test can be split in half in several ways, e.g. first half and second half, or by odd and
even numbers. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal
reliability. The split-half method is a quick and easy way to establish reliability. However it can only be effective with
large questionnaires in which all questions measure the same construct. This means it would not be appropriate
for tests which measure different constructs.
c. Inter-Rater Reliability : Whenever observations of behavior are used as data in research, we want to assure
that these observations are reliable. One way to determine this is to have two or more observers rate the same
subjects and then correlate their observations. If, for example, rater A observed a child act out aggressively eight
times, we would want rater B to observe the same amount of aggressive acts. If rater B witnessed 16 aggressive
acts, then we know at least one of these two raters is incorrect. If there ratings are positively correlated, however,
we can be reasonably sure that they are measuring the same construct of aggression.

2] VALIDITY
Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are intended to. Researchers
make this judgment with the help of test of validity.
Construct validity is the term given to a test that measures a construct accurately and there are different types
of construct validity that we should be concerned with. Three of these, concurrent validity, content validity, and
predictive validity are discussed belowConcurrent Validity.
a. Concurrent Validity refers to a measurement device’s ability to vary directly with a measure of the same
construct or indirectly with a measure of an opposite construct. It allows you to show that your test is valid by
comparing it with an already valid test.
b. Content Validity Content validity is concerned with a test’s ability to include or represent all of the content of a
particular construct. The question “1 + 1 = ___” may be a valid basic addition question. Would it represent all of
the content that makes up the study of mathematics? It may be included on a scale of intelligence, but does it
represent all of intelligence? The answer to these questions is obviously no. To develop a valid test of intelligence,
not only must there be questions on math, but also questions on verbal reasoning, analytical ability, and every

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other aspect of the construct we call intelligence. There is no easy way to determine content validity aside from
expert opinion.
c. Predictive Validity In order for a test to be a valid screening device for some future behavior, it must have
predictive validity. The SAT is used by college screening committees as one way to predict college grades. The
GMAT is used to predict success in business school. And the LSAT is used as a means to predict law school
performance. The main concern with these, and many other predictive measures is predictive validity because
without it, they would be worthless.
We determine predictive validity by computing a correlational coefficient comparing SAT scores, for
example, and college grades. If they are directly related, then we can make a prediction regarding college grades
based on SAT score. We can show that students who score high on the SAT tend to receive high grades in
college.

3] TEST OF PRACTICALITY
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy, convenience
and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it
should be economical, convenient and interpretable.
a. Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the ideal research project and that
which the budget can afford. The length of measuring instrument is an important area where economic pressures
are quickly felt. Although more items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting the
interview or observation time, we have to take only few items for our study purpose. Similarly, data-collection
methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors.
b. Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For this purpose
one should give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument. For instance, a questionnaire, with
clear instructions (illustrated by examples), is certainly more effective and easier to complete than one which
lacks these features.
c. Interpretability consideration is especially important when persons other than the designers of the test are to
interpret the results.

MEASUREMENT SCALE

The most widely used classification of measurement scales are:

(a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale;
(c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

(a) Nominal scale : Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them. The
counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed.

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(b) Ordinal scale : The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The ordinal
scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule.
Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A
student’s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale.
(c) Interval scale : In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a
basis for making the units equal. Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales.
(d) Ratio scale : Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as
weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all
manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale values.

SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Measurement means assigning numbers or

other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain
prescribed rules. Properties like Weight, height- 50 kgs,
165",Motivation, satisfaction -?. Properties like weight, height, etc.,
can be measured directly with some standard unit of
measurement, but it is not that easy to measure properties like
motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the like.
Scaling involves creating a range upon which measured objects
are located. There are basically four types of Scales :

TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES :

I) Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be
interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.
In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting
data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

COMPARATIVE SCALING TECHNIQUES :

1) Paired Comparison Scaling : A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according
to some criterion. Respondent has to select one and reject the other. Respondent selects one from each of the
options/pairs given .The higher the number of times the item is selected , the higher it is preferred over the other
items . The data obtained are ordinal in nature. Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative
scaling technique.With n options, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required.

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Example :
• Online shopping problems

A. Damaged in transit
B. Delay in delivery
C. Wrong product
D. Security

If data has to be collected from 100 respondents, then Pairs will be [n(n - 1) /2] – 4(4-1)/2=6 pairs and one of the
questions can be

The Total responses would be 6X100=600 and can be displayed as follows :

2) Rank Order Scaling : Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or
rank them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may like the brand ranked 1 in an
absolute sense. Here instead of comparing, ranking is done where scores are assigned to ranks Furthermore,
rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. Limitation is that the respondents may be careless in assigning
ranks.
Example :
Instructions : Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference.
Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1.
Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue
this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of
preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 6

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3) Constant Sum Scaling : Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a
product to reflect their importance. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an
attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points
is 100. Hence, the name of the Constant sum scale. This method cannot be used with uneducated people and
large number of people.
Example :
Instructions : There are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that
your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives,
the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice
as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

4) Q-Sorting : Used when number of object attributes or items to be ranked is large in number .It becomes
cumbersome for the respondent to answer and researcher to analyze. In this scaling the respondent rather than
ranking, segregates the items into various groups
Example :
Preference of magazines using Q-Sort Scale.If
respondent has to give feedback about 100 magazines,
then he may be given cards and asked to stack into five
groups.Instructions- the bag given to you contains 100
magazines. Please choose 10 magazine you prefer
most,20 magazines you like, 30 magazines to which
you are neutral , 20 magazines you dislike and 10
magazines you prefer least

II) Non-Comparative Scaling Techniques :

1) Continuous rating scale : Also called as Graphic Scale. Respondent is asked to put a mark on the scale.
Various points are put along a continuum and the rater indicates his rating by putting a mark on it. Scale points
may be given with brief description for the rater to understand.
Limitation- respondent may check almost any point of line which becomes difficult for analysis.
Example :

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2) Itemized Rating Scales :

A) Likert Scale : The Likert scale consists of a series of statements that express either a favorable or an
unfavorable attitude toward the concept under study. Requires respondent to indicate degree of agreement or
disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude object It is called as Summated Scale as Scores
on individual items are summed to give total score for respondents.
Example :

• For positive statements the score will be 1 to 5 and vice versa for negative statements
• Instrument contains 3 positive statements
• Then
3X 5=15 - strongly agree
3X 3=9 – neutral
3X1=3 - strongly disagree
If the total individual score is above 9 then respondent agrees otherwise disagrees

B) Semantic differential scale : Developed by Charles E. Osgood, G.J. Suci and P.H. Tannenbaum. Measures
the psychological meanings of an object to an individual. Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of
five or seven-point rating scales bounded bipolar adjectives or phrases. With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a
neutral point with 7 point rating scale .Based on the proposition that an a concept can have several implied
meanings in a multidimensional semantic space . Useful in brand image, personalities, study of emotions ….
Example – leadership

C) Stapel Scale : This was developed by John Stapel .Uses one pole rather than two opposite poles.Respondents
select a numerical response category.This scale does not have a Zero.High positive score reflects good fit between
adjective and object.Easy to administer and construct.No need to assure bipolarity.
Example :

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ATTTITUDE MEASUREMENT AND SCALES

Introduction to Attitude

An attitude is a person’s feeling towards and evaluation of some object or event. Attitudes have two
important aspects: Direction (positive/negative, for or against) and Intensity (strength of feeling). For example,
a person might like sportscar - thus, his attitude towards sportscar has a positive direction. If he is crazy about
sportscar, his attitude toward them has a high level of intensity. He would be intensely positive toward sportscar.
Because attitudes are so much a part of human behavior, researchers have spent a great deal of time
figuring out ways to measure attitudes.

VARIOUS METHODS TO MEASURE ATTITUDE

Attitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories

1. Direct Measurement (Likert scale and semantic differential) (already discussed in the previous topic)
2. Indirect Measurement (projective techniques)
An attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or accurate, measure of an individual’s social attitude.
However, there are various problems that affect the validity of attitude scales. However, the most common problem
is that of social desirability.
Socially desirability refers to the tendency for people to give “socially desirable” to the questionnaire items.
People are often motivated to give replies that make them appear “well adjusted”, unprejudiced, open minded and
democratic. Self report scales that measure attitudes towards race, religion, sex etc. are heavily affected by
socially desirability bias.
Respondents who harbor a negative attitude towards a particular group may not wish be admit to the
experimenter (or to researcher) that they have these feelings. Consequently, responses on attitude scales are
not always 100% valid. To avoid the problem of social desirability, various indirect measures of attitudes have
been used.

INDIRECT METHODS - PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

Indirect methods typically involve the use of a projective test. A projective test involves presenting a
person with an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) or incomplete stimulus (e.g. picture or words). The stimulus
requires interpretation from the person. Therefore, the person’s attitude is inferred from their interpretation of the
ambiguous or incomplete stimulus.
The assumption about these measures of attitudes it that the person will “project” his or her views, opinions
or attitudes into the ambiguous situation, thus revealing the attitudes the person holds. However, indirect methods
only provide general information and do not offer a precise measurement of attitude strength since it is qualitative
rather than quantitative.

Examples of projective techniques include:

1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
2. Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT)
3. Draw a Person Task

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1. Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective psychological test created in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist
named Hermann Rorschach.
Procedure to conduct test :
1. The Rorschach test consists of 10 inkblot images, some of which are black, white or gray and some of which
are color.
2. A psychologist who has been trained in the use, scoring and interpretation of the test shows each of the ten
cards to the respondent.
3. The subject is then asked to describe what he or she thinks the card looks like.
4. The respondents are free to interpret the ambiguous image however they want. They can focus on the image
as a whole, on certain aspects of the image or even on the white space that surrounds the image.
5. Once the subject has provided a response, the psychologist will then ask further questions to get the subject to
further elaborate on his or her initial impressions.
6. The psychologist also rates the reactions on a large number of variables such as whether the subject looked at
the whole image.
7. These observations are then interpreted and compiled into a profile of the individual.

2. Thematic Apperception Test

The thematic apperception test (TAT) taps into a person’s unconscious mind to reveal the repressed aspects of
their personality.
Procedure to conduct test :
1. Here a person is presented with an ambiguous picture which he has to
interpret.
2. The person must look at the picture(s) and tell a story. For example:
What has led up to the event shown?
What is happening at the moment?
What the characters are thinking and feeling?
What the outcome of the story was?
3. His responses are recorded by the researcher
Although the picture, illustration, drawing or cartoon that is used must be
interesting enough to encourage discussion, it should be vague enough not
to immediately give away what the project is about.
TAT can be used in a variety of ways, from eliciting qualities associated with
different products to perceptions about the kind of people that might use certain products or services.

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4. Draw a Person Test

Figure drawings are projective diagnostic techniques in which an individual is instructed to draw a
person, an object, or a situation so that cognitive, interpersonal, or psychological functioning can be assessed.
The test can be used to evaluate children and adolescents for a variety of purposes (e.g. self-image, family
relationships, cognitive ability and personality).
While other projective tests, such as the Rorschach Technique and Thematic Apperception Test,
ask the test taker to interpret existing pictures, figure drawing tests require the test taker to create the pictures
themselves.
Despite the flexibility in administration and interpretation of figure drawings, these tests require skilled and
trained administrators familiar with both the theory behind the tests and the structure of the tests themselves.
Interpretations should be made with caution and the limitations of projective tests should be considered.

EVALUATION OF INDIRECT METHODS

The major criticism of indirect methods is their lack of objectivity. Such methods are unscientific and do
not objectively measure attitudes in the same way as a Likert scale.
There is also the ethical problem of deception as often the person does not know that their attitude is
actually being studied when using indirect methods.
The advantages of such indirect techniques of attitude measurement are that they are less likely to produce
socially desirable responses, the person is unlikely to guess what is being measured and behavior should be
natural and reliable.

CONCLUSION : Thus, there are various methods of Scaling Techniques. As such the researcher must judiciously
select the method/methods for his own study.

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UNIT - IV
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

INTRODUCTION

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design. While deciding
about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz.,
primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to
be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

PRIMARY DATA – QUESTIONNAIRE AND INTERVIEWS

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important
ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) questionnaires, (iv) schedules other methods which
include (a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical
devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.

OBSERVATION METHOD

The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead
of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of
this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained
under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview
or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents)
who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION METHODS

Types of
Observation
Methods

Structured

Unstructured

Participlant

Non-
Participlant

Controlled

Un-
Controlled

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1. Structured observation : In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection
of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. Structured observation
is considered appropriate in descriptive studies.
2. Unstructured observation : But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought
of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation. In an exploratory study the observational procedure
used is relatively unstructured.
3. Participant observation : If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group
he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called
as the participant observation.
4. Non-participant observation : When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on
his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-
participant observation.
5. Uncontrolled observation : If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation. In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major aim of
this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness
and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
6. Controlled observation : When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation. In this method use of mechanical (or
precision) instruments provides accuracy and standardisation. Such observation has a tendency to supply
formalised data upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of assurance

INTERVIEW METHOD

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-
verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.

Personal Interviews : Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview may be in the form of
direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.

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1. Direct Personal Investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method
is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
Advantages :
i. The information obtained is more reliable and accurate.
ii. There is direct contact between investigator and respondents.
iii. It is possible to collect supplementary information.
iv. The questions can be put in their own language and according to education level.
v. When the respondent is approached personally by the investigator, the response is likely to be more
encouraging.

Disadvantages :
i. Not suitable if the field of study is too wide.
ii. It is perfectly subjective
iii. There may be personal prejudice and bias of the investigator.

2. Indirect Personal Investigation : In certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the
persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique
may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has
to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to
carry on investigations make use of this method.
Advantages :
i. This method is widely used to supply information on a continuing basis.
ii. In case of skilled and experienced local agents, the data obtained are of good quality.
Disadvantages :
i. The result is bound to be biased due to personal prejudices.
ii. The data obtained will not be very reliable.
Interview methods also of the following types. Even if they are Direct Personal Interview or Indirect Personal
Interview they can classified as follows :

1. Structured interviews : Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording. Structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions
in a form and order prescribed. Structured interviews are used in of descriptive studies.

2. Unstructured interviews : Such interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised
techniques of recording information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom
to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording the

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responses to include some aspects and exclude others. But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability
of one interview with another. Unstructured interviews are used in of exploratory studies.

3. Focussed interview : These are meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its
effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions
would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of the interviewer in
case of a focussed interview is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks familiarity.
Such interviews are used generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured
interviews.

4. The clinical interview : It is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s
life experience. The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.

5. Non-directive interview : In case of non-directive interview the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage
the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

PROCEDURE FOR INTERVIEW METHOD

1. Interview Schedule : The first step to interviewing is to create an interview schedule that lists all the people
who will be interviewed, when, and for what purpose. The schedule can be an informal list that is used to help set
up meeting times or a formal list that is incorporated into the work plan. The people who appear on the interview
schedule are selected on the basis of the researchers’ information needs. These people are listed on the interview
schedule in the order in which they should be interviewed.
2. Design Questions : The next step is to design questions. There are three types of interview questions
closed-ended questions, open-ended questions, and probes. Closed-ended questions are those that require a
specific answer similar to multiple choice or arithmetic questions on an exam . Closed-ended questions are used
when the researcher is looking for specific, precise information (e.g., how many credit card requests are received
per day). In general, the more precise the question the better. For example, rather than asking “Do you handle a lot
of requests?” it is better to ask “How many requests do you process per day?”
3. Preparing for Interview : It is important to prepare for the interview in the same way that one would prepare
to give a presentation. Researcher should have a general interview plan that lists the questions that will be asked
in the appropriate order, that anticipates possible answers and how the follow up will be done with them. Confirm
the areas in which the interviewee has knowledge so one does not ask questions that he or she cannot answer.
Review the topic areas, the questions, and the interview plan, and clearly decide which have the greatest priority
in case reseracher runs out of time.
4. Conducting Interview : When researcher starts the interview, the first goal is to build rapport with the interviewee
so that he or she trusts and is willing to tell the whole truth, not just give the answers that he or she thinks the
researcher wants. The interview should start with an explanation of why researcher is there and why the person
has been chosen for interview .
It is critical to carefully record all the information that the interviewee provides. In our experience, the best
approach is to take careful notes write down everything the interviewee says, even if it does not appear immediately
relevant. the respondent can be asked to slow down or to pause while reseacher writes, because this is a clear
indication that the interviewee’s information is important .
5. Follow-up : After the interview is over, the interviewer needs to prepare an interview report that describes the
information from the interview. The report contains interview notes, information that was collected over the course of
the interview and is summarized in a useful format. In general, the interview report should be written within 48 hours
of the interview because the longer one waits, the more likely one can forget information.

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The interview report is sent to the interviewee with a request to read it and inform any clarifications or
updates needed. Usually there are few changes, but the need for any significant changes suggests that a second
interview will be required.

MERITS OF INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES :

(i) More information in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions
than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
(vii) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person interviewed and
as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
(viii) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics and
environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

DEMERITS OF INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES :

(i) It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also remains the
headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income groups may
not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent
that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
(v) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and frank responses.
This is often a very difficult requirement.

TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS :
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely
used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.

MERITS OF SUCH A SYSTEM ARE:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

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DEMERITS OF SUCH A SYSTEM ARE :

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes
in most cases.
2. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions.
3. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this method
a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and
return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on
a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents
have to answer the questions on their own.

PROCEDURE FOR QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

1. Selecting Participants :
As with interviews, the first step is to select the individuals to whom to send the questionnaire. However,
it is not usual to select every person who could provide useful information. The standard approach is to select a
sample of people who are representative of the entire group. The important point, however, in selecting a sample
is to realize that not everyone who receives a questionnaire will actually complete it. On average, only 30% to 50%
of paper and e-mail questionnaires are returned. Response rates for Web-based questionnaires tend to be
significantly lower (often only 5% to 30%).

2. Designing the Questionnaire :

Developing good questions is more important for questionnaires than for interviews sessions because
the information on a questionnaire cannot be immediately clarified for a confused respondent. Questions on
questionnaires must be very clearly written and leave little room for misunderstanding, so closed-ended questions
tend to be most commonly used. Questions must enable the researcher to clearly separate facts from opinions.
Opinion “questions” most often are statements for which the respondents are asked to note the extent to which
they agree or dis-agree (e.g., “Network problems are common.”), whereas fact-oriented questions seek more
precise values (e.g., “How often does a network problem occur: once an hour, once a day, or once a week?”

Good Questionnaire design :

1. Begin with no threatening and interesting questions.
2. Group items into logically coherent sections.
3. Do not put important items at the very end of the questionnaire. Do not crowd a page with to many items.
4. Avoid abbreviations.
5. Avoid biased or suggestive items or terms.
6. Number questions to avoid confusion.
7. Pretest the questionnaire to identify confusing questions.
8. Provide anonymity to respondents.

3. Administrating the Questionnaire :

The key issue in administering the questionnaire is getting participants to complete the questionnaire and
send it back. Commonly used techniques include clearly explaining why the questionnaire is being conducted
and why the respondent has been selected, stating a date by which the questionnaire is to be returned, offering an
inducement to complete the questionnaire (e.g., a free pen), and offering to supply a summary of the questionnaire
responses. Researchers have additional techniques to improve responses rates inside the organization, such as

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personally handing out the questionnaire and personally contacting those who have not returned them after 1 or
2 weeks, as well as requesting the respondents’ supervisors to administer the questionnaires in a group meeting.
4. Follow-up :
As with interviews, it is helpful to process the returned questionnaires and develop a questionnaire report soon
after the questionnaire deadline. This ensures that the research process proceeds in a timely fashion and that
respondent who requested copies of the results receive them promptly.

MERITS OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

DEMERITS OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been
despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected
and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various
sources from where he can obtain them.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in:
(a) Various publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
(c) Technical and trade journals;
(d) Books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.;
(f) Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields
(g) Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.
The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organisations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY DATA :

1. Reliability of data : The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data: (a) Who
collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using proper methods (d) At
what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t) What level of accuracy was desired?
Was it achieved ?

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2. Suitability of data : The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another
enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher. In this
context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and units of collection used
at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the
original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable
for the present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data : If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the present
enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be
considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the
present enquiry.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION : Secondary sources of information may be divided into two categories :
INTERNAL SOURCES AND EXTERNAL SOURCES :
1. Internal Sources of Secondary Information :
Sales Data : All organizations collect information in the course of their everyday operations. Orders are received
and delivered, costs are recorded, sales personnel submit visit reports, invoices are sent out, and returned
goods are recorded and so on. Much of this information is of potential use in marketing research but a surprising
amount of it is actually used. Organizations frequently overlook this valuable resource by not beginning their
search of secondary sources with an internal audit of sales invoices, orders, inquiries about products not stocked,
returns from customers and sales force customer calling sheets.
For example, consider how much information can be obtained from sales orders and invoices :
Sales by territory
Sales by customer type
Prices and discounts
Average size of order by customer, customer type, geographical area
Average sales by sales person and
Sales by pack size and pack type, etc.
This type of data is useful for identifying an organization’s most profitable product and customers. It can also
serve to track trends within the enterprise’s existing customer group.

• Financial Data : An organization has a great deal of data within its files on the cost of producing, storing,
transporting and marketing each of its products and product lines. Such data has many uses in research including
allowing measurement of the efficiency of marketing operations. It can also be used to estimate the costs attached
to new products under consideration, of particular utilization (in production, storage and transportation) at which
an organization’s unit costs begin to fall.

• Transport Data : Companies that keep good records relating to their transport operations are well placed to
establish which are the most profitable routes, and loads, as well as the most cost effective routing patterns.
Good data on transport operations enables the enterprise to perform trade-off analysis and thereby establish
whether it makes economic sense to own or hire vehicles, or the point at which a balance of the two gives the
best financial outcome.

• Storage Data :The rate of stock turn, stock handling costs, assessing the efficiency of certain marketing
operations and the efficiency of the marketing system as a whole. More sophisticated accounting systems assign
costs to the cubic space occupied by individual products and the time period over which the product occupies the
space. These systems can be further refined so that the profitability per unit, and rate of sale, are added. In this
way, the direct product profitability can be calculated.

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2. External Sources of Secondary Information :

The main sources of external secondary sources are :
(i) Government (Central, State and Local) (ii) Trade Associations
(iii) Commercial Services (iv) National and International institutions

Government These may include all or some of the following :

Statistics
• Population censuses
• Social surveys, family expenditure surveys
• Import / export satistics
• Production statistics
• Agricultural statistics
Trade Trade associations differ widely in the extent of their data collection
Associations and information dissemination activities. However, it is worth checking
with them to determine what they do publish. At the very least one
would normally expect that they would produce a trade directory and
perhaps, a yearbook.
Commercial Published market research reports and other publications are available
Services from a wide range of organizations which charge for their information.
Typically, marketing people are interested in media statistics and
consumer information which has been obtained from large scale con
sumer or farmer panels. The commercial organization funds the
collection of the data, which is wide ranging in its content, and hopes to
make its money from selling this data to interested parties.

National and Bank economic reviews, university research reports, journals and
International articles are all useful sources to contact. International agencies such
Institutions as World Bank, IMF, UNDP, ITC, FAO and ILO produce a
overabundance of secondary data which can prove extremely useful to
the researcher.

Advantages of Secondary Data :

1. Economy is clearly the greatest advantage of secondary data.
2. Secondary data can be quickly obtained.
3. Secondary data provides information that could not be obtained by typical organization.
4. They are less subject to the biases of the researcher.

Drawbacks of Secondary Data :

1. Secondary data doesn’t satisfy immediate needs because they have been compiled for other purposes.
2. Secondary data can be inaccurate and their reliability needs to be checked.
3. Secondary data must be used with caution.

Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select the method/
methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors :

1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry : This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a
particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by
the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are
to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.

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2. Availability of funds : Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be
used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select
a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method. Finance,
in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation.
3. Time factor : Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data
collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the
method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required : Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting
the method of collection of data.

CONCLUSION :
Thus a researcher can use combination of both the data collection methods as both the methods supplement
each other. Relying on only one source may provide incomplete information which may detriment the objectives
of researcher.

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INTERPRETATION OF DATA

INTRODUCTION

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing inferences
(interpretation) followed by report writing. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected
facts after an analytical and/or experimental study Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that
seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and
it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.

DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis is placing the collected data in some order or format so that the data acquire a meaning. Raw data
become information only when they are placed in a meaningful form. Interpretation involves drawing conclusions
from the gathered data.
The analysis may be descriptive analysis and casual analysis.

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS :
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. This analysis is in other words called one
dimensional analysis.
Example : The management of a nationalised bank wanted to study the size of their savings account. The
frequency distribution of the Savings Bank Account is shown in the following table :
Frequency Distribution of Savings Account by Size of Account

Account Size Number of Accounts

(Rs.)
1 - 999 4000
1000 - 1999 3000
2000 - 2999 2000
3000 - 3999 1500
4000 - 4999 1000
5000 - 5999 500
6000 - 6999 300
7000 - and above 200

This table describes the size of Savings Bank Account of the bank.
We can also classify certain number of accounts by occupation, residence, qualification, sex and other factors.
The tables constructed based on such classification will lead to bivariate and multivariate analysis.

1. Bivariate Analysis :
The bivariate analysis is placing the collected data into tabular form so that the real meaning of these data can be
derived. The starting point of Bivariate Analysis is to develop simple dimensional data. Then put the data into two
or more categories. This analysis is explained with the help of survey. A study was undertaken among Nagpur City
residents to determine their movie-going habits. A sample of 1,000 persons was randomly interviewed. Out of
1000 sample members 267 (26.70 per cent) are regular movie goers and 733 (73.30 per cent) are not regular
movie goers. These facts are given in the following table.

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Movie Attendance Among Sample Residents

Category Number Percentage

Regular Movie Goers 250 25%
Not Regular Movie Goers 750 75%
Total 1000 1000

2. Sequential Analysis : The data presented in a table reveals one factor at a time. This analysis is called
sequential analysis. A further analysis of the data regarding movie goers showed that the college students were
more frequent movie goers than non-college students.
Students in Terms of Movie Attendance

Category College Non-College Total

Students Students
Regular Movie Goers 130 137 267
(37%) (21%)
Not Regular Movie Goers 220 513 733
(63%) (79%)
Total 350 650 1000
(100%) (100%)

The data presented in the above table reveals one factor at the time.

3. Causal Analysis : This analysis explains how one variable affects another. Some external factor products a
change in the dependent variable. We may also analyse to findout whether two variables (dependent and
independent) covary. There are different ways by which we might determine whether such correlations do exist or
not.

TECHNIQUES OF INTERPRETATION

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps :

(i) Reasonable Explanations : Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has
found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes.
(ii) Extraneous Information : Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem
under consideration.
(iii) Consultation : It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight
into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research
results.
(iv) Relevant Factors : Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite
often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

Researcher must consider the following points for correct interpretation :

(i) Appropriate Data : At the outset, researcher must ensure that the data are appropriate, trustworthy and
adequate for drawing inferences; the data reflect good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done
through statistical methods.
(ii) Proper Analysis : The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of
statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation
with causation and the like.. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures
for drawing inferences concerning his study.
(iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation and analysis cannot be distinctly separated.
(iv) Proper Lines : He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive observations,
of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will
enable him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines.
(v) Linking Theory and Empirical : The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research
study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation.

REPORT WRITING

Research work is considered as incomplete if research report has not been presented or written. Writing a report
is the last step in the research study. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care so he
may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.

LAYOUT OF A PROJECT REPORT :

Layout means the manner in which the contents of the research report has been arranged. It must adequate
enough for the reader to easily transcend from one chapter to other. A comprehensive layout of the research
report should comprise of the following:
I. Preliminary Pages : In preliminary pages, the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements
in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and
illustrations or abbreviations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily
locate the required information in the report.
II. Main Text : The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. The main
text of the report should have the following sections:
a. Introduction : The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contain
the following aspects :
i. A clear statement of the objectives of research.
ii. A brief summary of other relevant.
iii. The hypotheses of study, if any.
iv. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained.
v. If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers?
vi. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated.

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vii. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated.
viii. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
b. Statement of findings and recommendations : After introduction, the research report must contain a statement
of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all readers. If
the findings are extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarised form.
c. Results : Results are detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results. This generally comprises the main body of the report,
extending over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and
reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All relevant results must find a place in the report.
d. Implications of the results : Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the
study. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
i. A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar
circumstances.
ii. The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of generalizations of the inferences drawn from
the study.
iii. The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions
for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
e. Summary : This part concludes the research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research
problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
III. End Matter : At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted related to all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted
should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the
pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should i be given at the end of the report.

RESEARCH REPORT

The usefulness of a report is the basic requisite of any research report. For example, a study that deals
with market segmentation for a company should report on the exact distinction between customer groups and
their needs for the purpose of sub-dividing its market into specific subsets of customers. Customers are likley to
differ in various respects. A study of the market segmentation of toilet soaps of Hindustan Lever should specifically
report the exact segment of customers for a transparent glycerine soap (Pears), for luxury beauty soap (Supreme),
for lemon soap (Liril), for a low-priced toilet soap (Rexona) for an economic health soap (Lifebuoy). While the
report is expected to convey all the aspects of the result of the study in all its details to the interested parties; it
should highlight the actual utility areas as well.

TYPES OF REPORTS

For the sake of convenience, reports may be classified either on the basis of approach or on the basis of the
nature of presentation.
On the basis of Approach a report may be :
(i) Journalistic Report : Reports prepared by journalists for publication in the media may be journalistic reports.
These reports have news and information values.
(ii) Business Report and Memorandum : A business report or memorandum may be defined as report for
business communication from one departmental head to another, one functional area to another, or even from top
to bottom in the organizational structure on any specific aspect of business activity. These are observational
reports which facilitate business decisions.

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(iii) Project Reports : A project report is the report on a project undertaken by an individual or a group of individuals
relating to any functional area or any segment of a functional area or any aspect of business, industry or society.
(iv) Dissertation : A dissertation, on the other hand, is a detailed discourse or report on the subject of study.
Dissertation are generally used as documents to be submitted for the acquisitions of higher research degrees
from a university or an academic institution. The thesis in an example in point.
(v) Enquiry Reports (Commission Reports) : An enquiry report or a commission of enquiry report is a detailed
report prepared by a commission appointed for the specific purpose of conducting a detailed study of any matter
of dispute or of a subject requiring greater insight. These reports facilitate action, since they contain expert
opinions.

On the basis of the nature of presentation, reports may be classified as :

(i) Inductive Reports : The inductive pattern of report writting is one of the oldest forms of presenting one’s
thoughts. In this connecting Aristotle had pointed out long ago “A whole is that which has a beginning, a middle,
and an end.” - This type of report goes from the specifics - facts, figures, materials of research - to general
conclusions, summary recommendations, etc.
(ii) Deductive Reports : The deductive pattern of report writing is most accepted in the bsuiness world. It is
variously known as the executive report, the management report, or the action - getting report. In this kind of
report, the pattern of presentation is from the general to the specific, i.e., from the more important to the less
important.
(iii) Step-by-step Reports : A step-by-step presentation does not follow any hard and fast rule : It is a way of
presenting the events or steps in an operating frequently following one another in point of time. But the steps need
not necessarily come to a conclusion or an end. A step-by-step pattern is well adapted to reports on manufacturing
operations, where a step-by-step analysis is essential. e.g. PERT / CPM.
(iv) Time-sequence Reports : The time-sequence pattern of report writing is almost like that of the step-by-step
presentation; but it lays greater emphasis on the time element. It is an easy way of writing a report by merely
following the pattern the research material itself offers in a sequence of the time of events.

PREPARING A RESEARCH REPORT

Research reports are generally slow, painstaking and accurate inductive work. The steps involved in writing
report are :
Logical analysis of the subject matter : It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of
a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. Logical treatment
often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological
development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making
something usually follow the chronological order.
Preparation of the final outline : It is the next step in writing the research report. In the words of Elliot& Cordasco,
“Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”
Preparation of the rough draft : This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final
outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his
study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

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Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft : This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, one should
check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation and give due attention to the fact that in
his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and
usage.
Preparation of the final bibliography : Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography.
The bibliography, which is generally added at the end to the research report, is a list of books in some way relating
to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The
bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided contain the names of magazine and newspaper
articles. The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under :
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under :
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Writing the final draft : This is the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and
in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. Illustrations
and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most
effective in communicating the research findings to others. It must be remembered that every report should be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the
knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

CONCLUSION : In spite of all that has been stated above, one should always keep in view the fact report-writing
is an art which is learnt by practice and experience, rather than by mere documentation.

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT - I

1. Define research. Discuss in detail classification of research.

2. Define research. Explain the research process in detail.
3. Explain the relationship between research and management.
4. What is research design? Explain different types of research design.

UNIT - II

1. What is sample in research? Explain the steps in sampling design.

2. What is sample design? Explain the sampling procedure/ techniques in Sampling?
3. Define a Hypothesis Discuss the types and importance of hypothesis in research.
4. Define a Hypothesis Discuss the process of a formation of hypothesis.

UNIT - III

1. What is measurement? Explain the errors in measurement & test for sound measurement.
2. How does a researcher test the validity and reliability of measurement device?
3. What is scale in research? Explain different types of scaling techniques used in research.
4. Explain the attitude measurement scale with a suitable example.

UNIT - IV

1. Define the terms ‘Interviewing and Questionnaire’. Explain the techniques of interviewing and questionnaire in
data collection.
2. Discuss the role of secondary data in research.
3. What is a research report? Explain the layout of research report.
4. Discuss the procedure of report writing in research.

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CITY PREMIER COLLEGE

MODEL QUESTION PAPER
BBA - III SEMESTER - V
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Time: - : 3hrs Marks:-80

All questions are compulsory

Q1) Either
A) Define Research. Explain the stages in Research process (8)
B) Discuss in detail different types of research with suitable examples (8)
OR
C) What is Research Design? Explain the features of Research Design. (8)
D) Discuss in detail different types Research Design. (8)

Q2) Either
A) What is Sampling? Explain the different types of probability sampling techniques. (8)
B) What is Sample Design? Explain the steps in sample design. (8)
OR
C) What is a Hypothesis? Explain testing of hypothesis. (8)
D) Explain the characteristics of good hypothesis and the different types of hypothesis. (8)

Q3) Either
A) What do you mean by errors in Measurement ?What is the test of sound measurement. (8)
B) Discuss in detail comparitive Scaling Techniques with suitable examples. (8)
OR
C) Discuss in detail non-comparitive Scaling Techniques with suitable examples. (8)
D) Expalin the indirect methods to measure attitude. (8)

Q4) Either
A) Discuss in detail interview technique of data collection. (8)
B) Illustrate briefly various sources of secondary data. (8)
OR
C) Write a note on techniques of data interpretation (8)
D) Briefly explain layout of a Research Report. (8)

Q 7) Write short notes 4x4=20

A) Non- probability sampling
B) Observation method.
C) Precautions of data interpretation
D) Types of research report

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NIR/KW/18/5563
Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.) Semester - V Examination
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Compulsory Paper - 4

Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 80

Note :— (1) ALL questions are compulsory.

(2) All questions carry equal marks.

1. (A) Explain the features of good research design. 8

(B) State and explain various types of research. 8
OR
(C) Describe the various applications of Research in Business. 8
(D) Discuss the power of research in detail. 8

2. (A) State and explain various ‘probability sampling designs’. 8

(B) “While designing any hypotheses, there are a few criteria that research must fulfill”, explain. 8
OR
(C) Describe characteristics of good sample desgin. 8
(D) Explain various steps to be followed in hypotheses testing . 8

3. (A) What are the various types of measurement scale ? 8

(B) Explain various factors causing errors in measurement. 8
OR
(C) Explain the criteria for evaluating measurements. 8
(D) Explain the various components of attitude. 8

4. (A) What is Secondary Data ? Explain merits and demerits of secondary data. 8
(B) Explain the various types of questions in questionnaire. 8
OR
(C) State and explain various sources of Secondary Data. 8
(D) Explain the structure of Research report. 8

5. Write short notes on :-

(a) Exploratory research
(b) Types of hypotheses.
(c) Likert Scale
(d) Types of research reports. 4×4=16

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NRT/KS/19/5563
Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.) Semester–V Examination
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Compulsory Paper–4
Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 80

N.B. :— (1) All questions are compulsory.

(2) All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) What are various types of research ? Explain exploratory research in brief. 8
(b) Discuss the process of research in brief. 8
OR
(c) Enumerate the features of a good research design. 8
(d) Enlist various types of research design. Explain any one research design in brief. 8

2. (a) Describe the steps in sample design. 8

(b) Explain the methods of probability sampling. 8
OR
(c) How are hypotheses formulated ? Explain with the help of suitable examples. 8
(d) Explain the process of hypotheses testing with the help of block diagram. 8

3. (a) List and explain various types of scales. 8

(b) What is test of sound measurement ? How is it linked to errors in measurement ? 8
OR
(c) Discuss any one method of attitude measurement. 8
(d) What is attitude ? Explain scales used to measure attitude. 8

4. (a) Compare and contrast between questionnaire and interview. 8

(b) Compare and contrast between primary and secondary data. 8
OR
(c) Describe the layout of a research report. 8
(d) Discuss in brief about the techniques of interpretation. 8

5. (a) What are the various objectives of research ? 4

(b) State the characteristics of a sound sample design. 4
(c) Distinguish between measurement and scaling. 4
(d) What are different sources of secondary data ? 4

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NOTES
Types of research approach
1. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/postpositivist paradigm. It usually involves
collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn.
The process
Researchers will have one or more hypotheses. These are the questions that they want to address
which include predictions about possible relationships between the things they want to investigate (variables). In
order to find answers to these questions, the researchers will also have various instruments and materials (e.g.
paper or computer tests, observation check lists etc.) and a clearly defined plan of action.
Data is collected by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statistical analysis.
Nowadays, this is carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computer packages. The analysis enables
the researchers to determine to what extent there is a relationship between two or more variables. This could be
a simple association (e.g. people who exercise on a daily basis have lower blood pressure) or a causal relationship
(e.g. daily exercise actually leads to lower blood pressure). Statistical analysis permits researchers to discover
complex causal relationships and to determine to what extent one variable influences another.
The results of statistical analyses are presented in journals in a standard way, the end result being a P
value. For people who are not familiar with scientific research jargon, the discussion sections at the end of
articles in peer reviewed journals usually describe the results of the study and explain the implications of the
findings in straightforward terms
Principles
Objectivity is very important in quantitative research. Consequently, researchers take great care to avoid
their own presence, behaviour or attitude affecting the results (e.g. by changing the situation being studied or
causing participants to behave differently). They also critically examine their methods and conclusions for any
possible bias.
Researchers go to great lengths to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to be measuring.
For example, if the study is about whether background music has a positive impact on restlessness in residents
in a nursing home, researchers must be clear about what kind of music to include, the volume of the music, what
they mean by restlessness, how to measure restlessness and what is considered a positive impact. This must
all be considered, prepared and controlled in advance.
External factors, which might affect the results, must also be controlled for. In the above example, it would
be important to make sure that the introduction of the music was not accompanied by other changes (e.g. the
person who brings the CD player chatting with the residents after the music session) as it might be the other
factor which produces the results (i.e. the social contact and not the music). Some possible contributing factors
cannot always be ruled out but should be acknowledged by the researchers.
The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning which tends to move from the
general to the specific. This is sometimes referred to as a top down approach. The validity of conclusions is
shown to be dependent on one or more premises (prior statements, findings or conditions) being valid. Aristotle’s
famous example of deductive reasoning was: All men are mortal Ram is a man, Ram is mortal. If the premises
of an argument are inaccurate, then the argument is inaccurate. This type of reasoning is often also associated
with the fictitious character Sherlock Holmes. However, most studies also include an element of inductive reasoning
at some stage of the research (see section on qualitative research for more details).
Researchers rarely have access to all the members of a particular group (e.g. all people with dementia,
careers or healthcare professionals). However, they are usually interested in being able to make inferences from

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their study about these larger groups. For this reason, it is important that the people involved in the study are a
representative sample of the wider population/group. However, the extent to which generalizations are possible
depends to a certain extent on the number of people involved in the study, how they were selected and whether
they are representative of the wider group. For example, generalizations about psychiatrists should be based on
a study involving psychiatrists and not one based on psychology students. In most cases, random samples are
preferred (so that each potential participant has an equal chance of participating) but sometimes researchers
might want to ensure that they include a certain number of people with specific characteristics and this would not
be possible using random sampling methods. Generalisation of the results is not limited to groups of people but
also to situations. It is presumed that the results of a laboratory experiment reflect the real life situation which the
study seeks to clarify.
When looking at results, the P value is important. P stands for probability. It measures the likelihood that
a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance. The P value is between 0 and 1. The closer the result
is to 0, the less likely it is that the observed difference is due to chance. The closer the result is to 1, the greater
the likelihood that the finding is due to chance (random variation) and that there is no difference between the
groups/variables.
2. Qualitative research
Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm which
emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover
the deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience, including contradictory beliefs, behaviours
and emotions. Researchers are interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of people’s experience
and not in obtaining information which can be generalized to other larger groups.
The process
The approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive which means that they develop a
theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they have collected. This involves a move from
the specific to the general and is sometimes called a bottom-up approach. However, most research projects also
involve a certain degree of deductive reasoning (see section on quantitative research for more details).
Qualitative researchers do not base their research on pre-determined hypotheses. Nevertheless, they
clearly identify a problem or topic that they want to explore and may be guided by a theoretical lens - a kind of
overarching theory which provides a framework for their investigation.
The approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility than in quantitative
research. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and interaction with the participants e.g.
through participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and
is not statistically analysed.
Data collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once and for all. The researchers may
even adapt the process mid-way, deciding to address additional issues or dropping questions which are not
appropriate on the basis of what they learn during the process. In some cases, the researchers will interview or
observe a set number of people. In other cases, the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the
researchers find that no new issues are emerging.
Principles
Researchers will tend to use methods which give participants a certain degree of freedom and permit
spontaneity rather than forcing them to select from a set of pre-determined responses (of which none might be
appropriate or accurately describe the participant’s thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviour) and to try to create
the right atmosphere to enable people to express themselves. This may mean adopting a less formal and less
rigid approach than that used in quantitative research.
It is believed that people are constantly trying to attribute meaning to their experience. Therefore, it would
make no sense to limit the study to the researcher’s view or understanding of the situation and expect to learn
something new about the experience of the participants. Consequently, the methods used may be more open-

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ended, less narrow and more exploratory (particularly when very little is known about a particular subject). The
researchers are free to go beyond the initial response that the participant gives and to ask why, how, in what way
etc. In this way, subsequent questions can be tailored to the responses just given.
Qualitative research often involves a smaller number of participants. This may be because the methods
used such as in-depth interviews are time and labour intensive but also because a large number of people are not
needed for the purposes of statistical analysis or to make generalizations from the results.
The smaller number of people typically involved in qualitative research studies and the greater degree of
flexibility does not make the study in any way “less scientific” than a typical quantitative study involving more
subjects and carried out in a much more rigid manner. The objectives of the two types of research and their
underlying philosophical assumptions are simply different. However, as discussed in the section on “philosophies
guiding research”, this does not mean that the two approaches cannot be used in the same study.
3. Pragmatic approach to research (mixed methods)
The pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best suited to the research
problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the best approach. Pragmatic
researchers therefore grant themselves the freedom to use any of the methods, techniques and procedures
typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research. They recognise that every method has its limitations
and that the different approaches can be complementary.
They may also use different techniques at the same time or one after the other. For example, they might
start with face-to-face interviews with several people or have a focus group and then use the findings to construct
a questionnaire to measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim of carrying out statistical analysis.
Depending on which measures have been used, the data collected is analysed in the appropriate manner. However,
it is sometimes possible to transform qualitative data into quantitative data and vice versa although transforming
quantitative data into qualitative data is not very common.
Being able to mix different approaches has the advantages of enabling triangulation. Triangulation is a
common feature of mixed methods studies. It involves, for example:
 the use of a variety of data sources (data triangulation)
 the use of several different researchers (investigator triangulation)
 the use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results (theory triangulation)
 the use of multiple methods to study a research problem (methodological triangulation)
In some studies, qualitative and quantitative methods are used simultaneously. In others, first one approach
is used and then the next, with the second part of the study perhaps expanding on the results of the first. For
example, a qualitative study involving in-depth interviews or focus group discussions might serve to obtain
information which will then be used to contribute towards the development of an experimental measure or attitude
scale, the results of which will be analysed statistically.
The relevance of hypotheses to the study is the main distinctive point between deductive and inductive
approaches. Deductive approach tests the validity of assumptions (or theories/hypotheses) in hand, whereas
inductive approach contributes to the emergence of new theories and generalizations. Abductive research, on the
other hand, starts with ‘surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’ and the research process is devoted their explanation.
The following table illustrates the major differences between deductive, inductive and abductive research
approaches in terms of logic, generalizability, use of data and theory -

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HYPOTHESIS TESTING EXAMPLE

Hypothesis Testing using t-test : Karan, a sleep researcher hypothesizes that people who are allowed to sleep
for only four hours will score significantly lower than people who are allowed to sleep for eight hours on a cognitive
skills test. He brings sixteen participants into his sleep lab and randomly assigns them to one of two groups. In
one group he has participants sleep for eight hours and in the other group he has them sleep for four. The next

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morning he administers the KCAT (Karan’s Cognitive Ability Test) to all participants. (Scores on the KCAT range
from 1-9 with high scores representing better performance).
*(according to the t sig/probability table with df = 14, t must be at least 2.145 to reach p < .05, so this difference
is not statistically significant)
Interpretation: Karan’s hypothesis was not confirmed. He did not find a significant difference between those
who slept for four hours versus those who slept for eight hours on cognitive test performance.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
For

BBA - III
SEMESTER - V

Compiled by
Dr. Deepali R. Naidu
B.Ed, M.Com, MCM. MBA, M.Phil, MA, Ph.D, SET

GP
Gratulent Publications
88, New Ramdaspeth, Near Lendra Park,
Nagpur - 440 010 Phone - 0712 - 2563689

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© - Gratulent Publications

1st Edition - July, 2018

2nd Edition - July, 2019

3rd Edition - July, 2020

Published By - Gratulent Publications

Printed by - Shree Graphic

Price -

Available in all leading book stalls

No part of this publication should be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the
prior written permission of the publication.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

BBA - III

SEMESTER - V

INDEX

UNIT TOPICS PAGE NO.

UNIT - I INTRODUCTION 01 - 09

UNIT - II SAMPLING DESIGN 10 - 16

UNIT - III MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES 17 - 26

UNIT - IV

CHAPTER-1 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 27 - 36

CHAPTER-2 INTERPRETATION OF DATA 37 - 42

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS 43

MODEL QUESTION PAPER 44

UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPER 45 - 46

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SYLLABUS
BBA - III
Semester - V

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Unit I: Introduction - Meaning, Objectives and Types of Research, Research Approach, Research Process,
Relevance & Scope of Research in Management. Research Design - Features of Good Design, Types of
Research Design,

Unit II: Sampling Design - Steps in Sample Design, Characteristics of a Good Sample Design, Probability
& Non Probability Sampling. Hypothesis – Meaning, Types, Process, Formation of Hypothesis, Testing of
Hypothesis.

Unit III: Measurement & Scaling Techniques - Errors in Measurement. Test of Sound Measurement,
Scaling and Scale Construction Technique. Attitude Measurement and Scales: Introduction to Attitude -
Various Methods to Measure Attitude.

Unit IV: Methods of Data Collection - Primary Data – Questionnaire and Interviews; Collection of
Secondary Data.

Interpretation of Data - Techniques of Interpretation, Report Writing, Layout of a Project Report, Preparing
Research Reports.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

BBA - III
SEMESTER - V

QUESTION PAPER PATTERN

Question No. Unit Nature Nature

1 I a. Theory Question 8 Marks

b. Theory Question 8 Marks
OR
c. Theory Question 8 Marks
d. Theory Question 8 Marks

2 II a. Theory Question 8 Marks

b. Theory Question 8 Marks
OR
c. Theory Question 8 Marks
d. Theory Question 8 Marks

3 III a. Theory Question 8 Marks

b. Theory Question 8 Marks
OR
c. Theory Question 8 Marks
d. Theory Question 8 Marks

4 IV a. Theory Question 8 Marks

b. Theory Question 8 Marks
OR
c. Theory Question 8 Marks
d. Theory Question 8 Marks

5 I Short Answer Theory Question 4 Marks Each

II Short Answer Theory Question
III Short Answer Theory Question
IV Short Answer Theory Question

TOTAL MARKS 80

56