1. Explain the principle of operation of DC generator?

 It is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

 The principle of operation of the dc generator is based on dynamically induced emf.
 Whenever a rotating conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in
it according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

 The magnitude of induced emf is given by

e = BLVsin θ
Where
B = Flux density ( Weber / meter2 or Tesla )
L = Length of conductor ( meter )
V = Velocity of conductor movement ( meter /second )
θ = Angle between flux line and direction of conductor movement. Obviously
Therefore the induced emf e = 0 for θ = 0° and e = Maximum for θ = 90°
 It means that when the conductor motion is parallel to the line of magnetic flux, the induced
emf is zero whereas when the conductor motion is perpendicular to the line of magnetic flux,
induced emf is maximum.
 The direction of the induced emf is found out by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Fleming's Right hand rule :

 It states that "Hold the right hand such that the thumb, first finger and middle finger are
mutually perpendicular. If the thumb indicates - direction of motion of conductor and first finger
indicates - direction of magnetic field, the middle finger shows the direction of induced emf.
 2. Based on the type of excitation, classify the DC generators and draw the circuit
equivalent of each type.
The DC Generators are classified according to the way their field windings are connected and
excited.

(A) Separately excited Generator

(B) Self excited Generator
1) Shunt Generator
2) Series Generator
3) Compound Generator
(i) Differential compound Generator
(ii) Cumulatively compound Generator

Separately Excited Generator:

 It is generator in which the field winding is energized by external DC current.
Self-Excited Generator:
 It is generator in which the field winding is energized by current produced by the
generator itself.
 The field winding is in series / parallel / combination of series and parallel with the
armature winding.
Shunt Generator:
 The field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding in this type of DC
generator.
Series Generator:
 The field winding is connected is in series with the armature winding in the series
generator.

Compound Generator:
 The field poles in the compound generator are excited by both series field winding and
shunt field winding.
Cumulative compound generator:

Differential Compound generator:

Long Shunt Generator:

Short shunt generator:

 3. What are the main parts of a DC Machine? State the function of each part.

 The following are main parts of DC machine

a) Yoke or Frame
b) Pole cores and pole – shoes
c) Field coils
d) Armature
e) Commutator
f) Brush and Brush-holder
a) Yoke or Frame:

 The main function of the yoke is to provide protection for whole machine.
 The yoke is a stationary and outer cylindrical part of DC machines.
 The cheapness is main consideration therefore yoke is made up of cast iron in the small
DC machines but it is made up of cast still or rolled still in the large DC machines.
 The function of the yoke is to
o Carry the magnetic flux produced by the poles
o To provide support for main poles and inter poles
o To provide protection for whole machine

b) Pole Cores and Pole Shoes:

 The pole cores are made up of either cast iron or cast steel.
 The poles are secured to the yoke by means of screws bolted through the
yoke. The pole cores are either laminated or solid piece.
 The thickness of pole cores laminations may be 0.4 mm - 0.5 mm in large
size DC machines.
 The pole cores and pole shoes are built of these laminations of annealed
steel.

 The functions of the pole shoe is

(1) To Support the field winding.
(2) To spread out the flux in the air gap and also reduces the reluctance of
the magnetic path.
c) Field coils or Pole coils:
 The poles are surrounded by the field coils.
 The field winding is in the form of the copper wire or rectangle strips.
 The number of ampere – turns of the field winding is required to required proper flux
which induces the desired voltage in armature winding.
  When the field coils are excited by DC supply, the flux passes through pole, air gap,
armature and yoke ( or frame ) of DC machines ( Figure A ).
d) Armature:

 It houses the armature conductors.

 When an armature is rotated in the magnetic field, its function is to provide low
reluctance path to the magnetic flux.
 The armature core is made up of thin laminations of low loss silicon steel.
 Each lamination is about 0.5 mm thick.
 The laminations are punched in single piece and it is directly keyed to shaft in the small
machines.

 Some ventilating ducts are provided on lamination sheets to permit axial flow of air for
cooling purposes.
 It is not economical to punch the laminations in one piece in the large machines so it is
made in segments.
 Each lamination has dove – tailed or wedge – shaped which are keyed into spiders.

e) Armature winding:
The armature winding is the most important part of the rotating machine. It is the place where
energy conversion takes place, i.e., the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, and
the electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. The armature winding is mainly
classified into types, i.e., the lap winding and the wave winding.

Lap & Wave Winding

In lap winding, the conductors are joined in such a way that their parallel paths and poles are
equal in number. The end of each armature coil is connected to the adjacent segment on the
commutator. The number of brushes in the lap winding is equal to the number of parallel paths,
and these brushes are equally divided into negative and positive polarity.The lap winding is
mainly used in low voltage, high current machine applications.

They are three types

1. Simplex Lap Winding
2. Duplex Lap Winding
3. Triplex Lap Winding

Wave Winding
In wave winding, only two parallel paths are provided between the positive and negative brushes.
The finishing end of the one armature coil is connected to the starting end of the other armature
coil commutator segment at some distance apart. In this winding, the conductors are connected to
two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. The number of brushes is
equal to the number of parallel paths. The wave winding is mainly used in high voltage, low
current machines.

If after passing one round, the armature winding falls into a slot to the left of its initial point, then
the winding is said to be retrogressive. And if the armature windings fall on one slot to the right
then it is called progressive winding.

f) Commutator:

The function of the commutator is to collect current from the armature coils and converts the
alternating current into unidirectional current for the external load circuit.

 Each coil of armature winding is connected to commutator bar therefore the number of
commutator segments are equal to number of coils.
 The armature conductors are connected to the commutator with the help of risers.
 The commutator segments are made from silvered copper (copper + 0.05% silver).
 The advantage of silvered copper material is that it can withstand very high temperature
when the armature coil ends are soldered to commutator risers.
 The commutator segments are wedge shaped and each segment are insulated from each
other by thin layers of mica (Usually 0.5 to 0.8 mm thickness).
 The commutator segments are wedge shaped and each segment is held together by means
of V – shaped steel rings.

g) Brush and Brush Holder:

 The function of the brush is to collect current from the commutator for the external
circuit.
 The brushes are made up of hard carbon or metal and are in the shape of rectangle which
are metal box type.
 The pressure on the brush can be adjusted by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by
changing the position of brush lever as shown in the Figure H.
 The copper wire which is connected to brush is called as " Pig – tail ".
 The number of brushes per spindle depends upon the magnitude of current to be
collected.
 4. Derive the E.M.F. equation of a DC generator.
Let P = Numbers of poles
Ф = Flux / pole in weber
Z = Total numbers of armature conductors
= Numbers of slots × Numbers of Conductors / Slot
A = Number of armature parallel path
N = Armature Speed in RPM
When a conductor rotates one revolution, it cuts flux of PФ Weber’s.
Time required for one revolution = 60 / N second
Hence according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Induced emf / conductor = Flux cuts by a conductor / Time for one revolution
= P / 60N
= P N / 60
Numbers of series conductor in one path = Z / A
Induced emf (E) = P N / 60 (Z / A)
Where A = 2 Wave Winding
A = P Lap Winding
If angular velocity ω in radian / second, the induced emf is
E = 1 / 2π (2πN / 60) P (Z / A)
= ωP / 2π (Z / A) (where ω = 2πN / 60)

5. Discuss in detail the methods of control of speed of a DC motor.

The speed of a shunt motor can be changed by (i) flux control method
(ii) Armature control method (iii) voltage control method.
The first method (i.e.Flux control method) is frequently used because it is simple
and inexpensive.

1. Flux control method

It is based on the fact that by varying the flux , the motor speed (N 1/) can
be changed and hence the name flux control method. In this method, a variable
resistance (known as shunt field rheostat) is placed in series with shunt field
Winding as shown in Fig. (5.1).
The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux .
Therefore, we can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed (See
Fig. 5.2). Generally, this method permits to increase the speed in the ratio 3:1.
Wider speed ranges tend to produce instability and poor commutation.
2. Armature control method

This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the
armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This
is done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in
series with the armature as shown in Fig. (5.3).

N V Ia Ra RC 

where RC = controller resistance
Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) is
decreased. Since N Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed
obtainable is lhat corresponding to RC = 0 i.e., normal speed. Hence, this method
can only provide speeds below the normal speed (See Fig. 5.4).
 6. What are the losses occurring in a dc machine?
The various losses occurring in DC machines can be given as follows.

(a) Iron loss (Magnetic or Core Loss)

 Hysteresis Loss
 Eddy Current Loss

(b) Copper Losses

 Armature Copper Loss

 Shunt Field copper loss
 Series field copper loss

(c) Mechanical Losses

 Friction Loss
 Windage Loss
a) Iron Loss

The iron losses are taking place continuously in the core of the armature due to rotation of the
core under the magnetic flux of the main field poles.
 Hysteresis Loss

 This loss is due to rapid reversal of the magnetization of the armature core under the influence
of main poles.
 When the armature rotates, it comes under the N – pole and S – pole of the main field winding
thereby attaining S – pole and N – pole respectively.
 The armature core undergoes a complete cycle of magnetization reversal after passing through
a pair of poles.
 The losses in the core of armature occur due to reversal of magnetization is known as
hysteresis loss.
 The hysteresis loss according to the Steinmetz formula is given by
Wh = η Bmax1.6fV watt
Where η = Steinmetz constant, depend upon the core material
Bmax = Maximum flux-density in the core ( Weber / meter2 )
f = Frequency of the magnetisation reversal ( Cycle / second )
V = Volume of the core material ( Meter3 )
 As we know that h and V are constant

Wh α Bmax1.6f
 It means that the hysteresis loss depends upon
(i) Maximum flux density ( Bmax ) and
(ii) Frequency of magnetization reversal (f)
Eddy Current Loss:

 It is fact that an emf is induced in the rotating armature according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction when it cuts the magnetic flux sets up by the main poles.
 This induced emf sets up current in the iron core.
 This current is responsible for eddy current loss. The flow of eddy current in the armature
core is shown in the figure A.
 The Eddy current flows through the core resistance and thus produce power loss in the
form of heat.

The eddy current loss is given by following equation

We = K Bmax2 f2 t2 V2 Watt
Where
Bmax = Maximum flux-density in the core ( Weber / meter2 )
t = Thickness of lamination ( mm )
f = Frequency of magnetic reversal ( Cycle / second )
V = Volume of the core material ( Meter3 )
K = Constant depend upon resistivity of the material.
=1/ρ
 Therefore the eddy current loss We α Bmax2 f2

b) Copper Losses:

 It depends upon the amount of current passing through winding and resistance of the
winding.
Wcu = I2 R

g) Armature copper loss

 The armature copper loss is given by
Wcu = Ia2 Ra
Where Ia = Armature current
Ra = Armature resistance
 As the armature copper loss is directly proportion to the square of the
armature current it becomes four times for twice the armature current.

ii) Shunt field copper loss:

 The shunt field copper loss is given by
Wcu = V Ish = Ish2 Rsh
 Where V = Supply voltage
Ish = Shunt field current
Rsh = Shunt field resistance
 This loss is practically constant due to shunt field current is almost constant in the DC
Shunt machines.

iii) Series field copper loss:

The series field copper loss is given by
Wcu = Ise2 Rse
Where Ise = Series field current
Rse = Resistance of series field winding.
Mechanical Losses
 Winding loss due to rotation of armature
 Friction loss occurs due to friction between brushes and commutator surface.
c) Stray Losses:
 The iron loss and mechanical losses are collectively known as stray losses.
 The shunt field copper loss is practically constant in the DC shunt and compound
 Therefore, constant losses
Wc = Stray Losses + Shunt field copper loss
Total Losses = Armature copper loss + Constant losses
= Ia2Ra + WC
Usually the copper losses are known as variable losses and iron losses are known as fixed or
constant losses.
7. Explain the principle of operation of a DC motor.
 An Electric motor is a machine which converts electrical input energy into mechanical
output energy.
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's left-hand rule. The magnitude of the
force experienced by the conductor is given by
F = B I L sin ø

Where F = Force in Newton

B = Maximum flux density in Weber / meter2, it is a vector quantity
I = Current in Ampere
L = Length of conductor in meter
ø = Angle between position of conductor and direction of magnetic field
When ø = 90° (conductor and magnetic field are mutually perpendicular),
force produced on the conductor is maximum.
If ø = 0° ( conductor and magnetic field is parallel ), force produced on the conductor is zero.
 When the DC supply is given to the motor, a direct current passes through
brushes, commutator and armature winding.
 When it passes through commutator, it converts DC into AC. Therefore the group of
conductors under the influence of N – pole and S – pole carry currents in the reverse direction.

 The two pole DC Motor is shown in the Figure C.

 Let the current in the armature conductors be outward under the influence of N –
pole (Shown by dots) and inwards under the influence of S – pole ( Shown
by Crosses ).
 The direction of force on each conductor can be determined by applying
Fleming's left-hand rule.

 These forces collectively produce a driving torque resulting armature rotates in

the clockwise direction.
 When the rotor rotates, there is always an equal and opposite torque on the stator
that is why it is very important to bolt a motor securely.
 8. Derive the terminal voltage and current expressions for self and separately excited DC
generators.

Separately Excited Generator:

Ish= Vdc/Rsh
VL=Eg+ IaRa

Self-Excited Generator:
Shunt Generator:

IL = V / RL and
Ish = V / Rsh
Ia = IL + Ise
And V = E – IaRa

Series Generator:

o V = E – Ia ( Ra + Rse )
 o IL=Ia=Ise

Compound Generator:

Long Shunt Generator:

Ish = V / Rsh
IL = V / RL
Ia = Ise = Ish + IL and
Induced emf E = V + Ia ( Ra + Rse ) + Brush drop

Short shunt generator:

Ish = Va / Rsh
V = E – IaRa
Ia = Ish + IL
Induced emf E = V + IaRa + IseRse + Brush drop
9. What is the significance of back EMF?
10. What are the causes for the failure of the generator to build up voltage?

11. Define Critical resistance & Critical Speed? Explain in detail.

 12. Draw and Explain the Internal and External Characteristics of DC shunt generators.

 The connection diagram to obtain external and internal characteristics of the DC shunt
generator is shown in the Figure C.

 The load is applied gradually after building up voltage and reading of voltmeter V, field
current Ish and load current IL are to be noted.
 The relation between V –IL and E – IL represents external and internal characteristics
respectively.
  As the DC generator supplies load for lighting purpose, its terminal voltage remains
practically constant in spite of load current changes.
 The terminal voltage V is gradually decreased as the load current increases as shown in
the Figure C.
The terminal voltage decreases due to:

(i) Armature resistance drop:

 The terminal voltage (V = E – IaRa ) decreases as the armature resistance increases due to
drop in the armature resistance IaRa.

(ii) Armature reaction drop:

 The field flux decreases and therefore the induced emf is also decreases due to
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 Therefore, the terminal voltage V is equal to
o Eo – armature reaction drop – armature resistance drop
 The DC shunt generator has drooping characteristics because the terminal voltage
decreases as the load current increases.

13. Draw and Explain the Internal and External Characteristics of DC series generators.

 The connection diagram to obtain external and internal characteristics of the DC shunt
generator is shown in the Figure C.

 The load is applied gradually after building up voltage and reading of voltmeter V, field
current Ish and load current IL are to be noted.
 The relation between V –IL and E – IL represents external and internal characteristics
respectively.
  As the DC generator supplies load for lighting purpose, its terminal voltage remains
practically constant in spite of load current changes.
 The terminal voltage V is gradually decreased as the load current increases as shown in
the Figure C.

The terminal voltage decreases due to:

(i) Armature resistance drop:

 The terminal voltage (V = E – IaRa ) decreases as the armature resistance increases due to
drop in the armature resistance IaRa.

(ii) Armature reaction drop:

 The field flux decreases and therefore the induced emf is also decreases due to
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
 Therefore, the terminal voltage V is equal to
o Eo – armature reaction drop – armature resistance drop
 The DC shunt generator has drooping characteristics because the terminal voltage
decreases as the load current increases.

14. Draw and explain the mechanical characteristics of DC shunt motor.

( 1 ) Torque – armature current ( T – Ia )

 If the supply voltage is kept constant, the field flux remains constant.
Ta α ΦIa
 The characteristic of torque – armature current is straight line from the origin.
 The shaft torque is always less than the gross torque because of stray losses.
 (Why the DC Shunt motor never start against heavy load? ) It should be noted that the heavy
starting load requires heavy starting current therefore the DC shunt motor never starts against
heavy load.
 The shunt flux does not remain constant at any load condition but it decreases slight at heavy
load due to effect of armature reaction.
( 2 ) Speed – armature current ( N – Ia )
 The speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to flux.
N α Eb / Ф
 The back emf ( Eb = V – IaRa ) decreases with increase in load current.
 The back emf Eb decreases very small due to small armature resistance whatever the load
condition.
 The flux also decreases with increase in load current due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction.
 It is concluded that the back emf and flux decrease with increase in load but the back emf
decreases slightly more than the flux.
 Therefore, the DC shunt motor is practically constant speed motor.
 The DC shunt motor is useful for moderate speed control. The DC shunt motor is well
suitable for lathes, machine tools, driving, shafting, milling machine, conveyors etc.
( 3 ) Speed – torque ( N – Ta )
 The speed – torque characteristic is shown in the Figure F. Whatever the
armature torque, the change in speed is negligible.

15. Draw and explain the mechanical characteristics of DC series motor.

( 1 ) Torque – armature current ( T – Ia )

The armature torque is directly proportional to the product of flux per pole and armature current.
Ta α ΦIa
The flux is directly proportional to armature current before saturation of poles therefore flux is
directly proportional to armature current.
Φ α Ia
Ta α Ia2 ( as Φ α Ia )
The torque is directly proportional to square of the armature current at very light load therefore
the torque – armature current curve is parabola upto point A as shown in the Figure A.
The flux independent of armature current after saturation of poles therefore the armature torque
is directly proportional to armature current.
Hence the characteristic is straight line from point A to point B.
Ta α Ia
The shaft torque always less than the armature torque due to stray load losses. The series motors
are used where large starting torque requires. i.e. Electrical trains, electrical vehicles, trolley etc.
( 2 ) Speed – armature current ( N – Ia )
 The speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to flux in the
DC motor.
N α Eb / Ф
 The change in back emf is very small due to small voltage drop in the armature and series
field resistance therefore the speed is inversely proportional to flux as constant supply voltage.
 The armature current is large at heavy load condition.
 This will result in increase of field flux and reduces the speed ( as a result back emf
decreases and more armature current allow to flow ).
Why the DC Series Motor never start at no load?
 The armature current falls to small value at light load therefore the speed becomes
dangerous high. ( The increase in back emf weakens the armature current and hence the field
flux also. This will again increase in speed and therefore increase of back emf again……. )
 Therefore the speed continues to increase until the armature gets damaged due to heavy
centrifugal forces.
 That’s why the DC Series motor is never started at no load. The DC Series motor is
variable speed motor as shown in the Figure B.
( 3 ) Speed – torque ( N – Ta )
 When speed is high, armature torque is low and vice versa. The relation between speed
and armature torque is shown in the Figure C.

1. Write down mechanical efficiency and electrical efficiency expressions in terms of E g

& Ia, for DC generator?

The various power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in Fig. (1.39).
A − B = Iron and friction losses
B − C = Copper losses
 2. Derive the torque equation of a DC motor from first principles.
 The term torque means ‘Turning movement of the force about an axis.’
T = F × r Newton – meter
Where T = Torque
F = Force in Newton
r = Radius in Meter

 Consider an armature of radius r meter and force F newton acts on it.

 Let us assume that the armature rotates at speed of N rpm.
 When the armature rotates one revolution, it cuts distance 2πr in time of 60 / N second.
Therefore, the work done per revolution
= Force × distance
= F × 2πr
But F × r = T
So, the work – done / revolution = 2π T Newton – meter
Now the Power developed
= Work done per unit second
= 2πT / (60 / N)
= 2πNT / 60
 = Tω
Where ω = Angular velocity in radian / second
= 2πN / 60

3. Derive the expression for efficiency of D.C. machines.

The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt generator
delivering a load current IL at a terminal voltage V.
Generator output = V IL
Generator input = Output + Losses
= V IL + Variable losses + Constant losses
= VIL+ Ia2 Ra + Wc

= VIL +(IL + Ish )2 Ra + Wc [Ia + IL + Ish ]

Like a d.c. generator, the efficiency of a d.c. motor is the ratio of output power
to the input power i.e.

As for a generator the efficiency of a d.c. motor will be maximum when:

Variable losses = Constant losses
 Therefore, the efficiency curve of a d.c. motor is similar in shape to that of a
d.c. generator.

4. Draw the power flow diagram for a DC generator and DC motor. Explain about each
power stage

The various power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in Fig. (1.39).
A − B = Iron and friction losses
B − C = Copper losses
Power Stages

The power stages in a d.c. motor are represented diagrammatically in Fig.

A B = Copper losses
B C = Iron and friction losses

Overall efficiency, c = C/A

Electrical efficiency, e = B/A
Mechanical efficiency, m = C/B

5. Clearly explain the process of building up of EMF in a self-excited generator.

6. Derive the terminal voltage and current expressions for the self and separately excited
DC generators.

Refer Question 8

7. Write the expressions for Mechanical Efficiency, Electrical Efficiency, Commercial

Efficiency
Refer Question 4