Concepts of Surveying

UNIT 1 CONCEPTS OF SURVEYING

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Purpose of Surveying
1.3 Principles of Surveying
1.3.1 Whole to Part
1.3.2 Fixing a Point in Relation to Two Already Fixed Points
1.4 Definitions, Classifications and Phases
1.4.1 Measurement and Plotting Accuracies
1.4.2 Classification Based on Types
1.4.3 Classification Based on Purpose
1.4.4 Classification Based on the Instruments Used
1.4.5 Classification Based on Methods and Phases
1.5 Importance of Surveying
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Surveying literally represents the art of studying the general features of any
subject sought to be studied. In the context of Civil Engineering, it is concerned
with the determination of relative positions of distinctive features of the earth’s
surface, particularly in the region of interest under investigation. It is achieved by
accurately making the linear and angular measurements. These measurements,
such as distances, directions and elevations are measured using different
instruments and techniques.
The purpose of making these measurements is to obtain information about the
particular portion of a land or a plot or general features in a locality. Linear
measurements include the measurements of distances in a horizontal plane or
vertical distances (levels) in a vertical plane. Angular measurements are
measurement of angles in horizontal plane with reference to a fixed line or with
reference to magnetic direction (bearing). It also includes measurements of angles
in vertical plane (inclination or dip).
In general, the operations primarily concerned with studying and recording the
features in plane (horizontal plane) is termed surveying, while the study of
measuring the relative heights of the salient ground features is termed levelling.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• describe the meaning of surveying and its purpose,
• explain the principles of surveying, and
• classify surveying based on its type, purpose, instruments used and
methods employed.
5
Elements of Survey
1.2 PURPOSE OF SURVEYING
The main aim of the surveying is to measure and record the characteristic features
(natural or man-made) of the area under consideration. The features may lie upon
the earth surface or under it. Recording of these features is done on a paper to
some suitable scale.
The details of recorded measurements on the horizontal projection of the area
surveyed is termed plan or map, while the record of details of measurements in
vertical plane is shown on section either longitudinal or cross sectional. It can,
thus, be seen that surveying helps in preparing the plans, while levelling helps to
prepare the sections of ground features of area under investigation.
The difference between a plan or a map is that of chosen scale. If the scale
selected is small (say 1 m = 100 km), the horizontal projection is called a map
while if the scale is large (say 1 cm = 1 m), it is called a plan, e.g. map of India or
plan of a building.
It can, thus, be concluded that the purpose of a surveying exercise is to
(a) determine the relative position of the characteristic natural features
such as hills, lakes, ponds, rivers, trees etc.,
(b) determine the relative positions of the characteristic man-made
created features, such as buildings, roads, railway tracks, fences,
electric and telephone poles etc.,
(c) determine the relative heights/depths of characteristic natural or
created features, measured vertically with reference to a pre-selected
horizontal plane called datum. These relative heights/depths are
termed levels or elevations, and
(d) plot the above measurements on a plan or section to represent the
important characteristics of natural and created features for further
reference and use in future for engineering purpose, e.g. construction
of a building, road or tunnel etc.

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

Whatever may be the purpose, technique used, or operations involved, the
surveying exercise is based on following two basic principles.
(a) Working from whole to part
(b) Fixing a point in relation to two already fixed points
1.3.1 Whole to Part
For any particular surveying exercise of an extensive area, the surveyor should
first establish a sufficient number of points with high degree of precision in and
around the area to be surveyed. Such points are known as control points. These
control points define the boundary lines of the area under investigation, which are
obtained by joining these points by imaginary lines. The control points are
established using accurate techniques with high degree of precision like
triangulation, geodetic surveying or by running a precision traverse surrounding
the area under study. These techniques are highly elaborate, precise and
expensive. This forms the main skeleton of surveying (Figure 1.1).
6
The skeleton area marked by boundary control points A, B, C, D and E Concepts of Surveying
(Figure 1.1) is then broken into smaller triangles (ABP, BCP, AQE, EDR, DRC),
which are further subdivided into still smaller triangles (1-2-3, 4-5-C, 6-9-Q etc.)
reducing the grid size increasingly. These divisions, subdivisions and further
divisions are carried out using less laborious methods. This process of surveying
control point areas by higher precision and using less laborious techniques in
measuring finer grids is called the principle of working from whole to part.
B

1
A 3
4
2
5
11
S P R C

7
6

Q
8
E
10
9
D

Figure 1.1 : Whole to Part

The main advantage of working from whole to part is to localise and thus confine
the error, if any, in measurements to smaller areas, and make the whole survey
exercise to be less tedious and economical. The use of costly, laborious and
tedious techniques to establish only control points on large triangles and then
using simpler, easier and cheaper methods to fill up the details on a finer grid will
reduce the survey cost substantially while localising the measurement errors in
smaller portions only.
On the other hand, if it is decided to work from part to whole, any error in
measurements on small grids will go on accumulating as the grid is gradually
expanded and will soon become uncontrollable, adversely affecting the precision
of survey. If high precision and costly techniques are used even on finer grid
measurements, the survey cost will become prohibitively high without getting any
substantial advantage.
Thus, working on the principle of whole to part, high precision is achieved at
great economy and localising measurement errors in smaller areas only, while the
alternative of working from part to whole makes the survey prohibitively costly
without any substantial increase in precision or result in high inaccuracies due to
magnification of accumulated errors.

1.3.2 Fixing a Point in Relation to Two Already Fixed Points

The new station points (e.g. P, Q, R, S in division of area and 1, 2, 3 … etc. in
area subdivision in Figure 1.1), can be established with the help of two points
whose positions have already been fixed. Let two reference stations A and B are
fixed as shown in Figure 1.2 and a new station C is sought to be established. This
can be done in following alternative ways.
(a) Measure distance d (CC1) on perpendicular to AB from C.
(b) Measure lengths l1 (AC) and l2 (BC).
(c) Measure length l1 (AC) and angle αo (BAC) at A, or 7
Elements of Survey Measure length l2 (BC) and angle βo (ABC) at B, or
Measure length l1 (AC) and angle βo (ABC) at B, or
Measure length l2 (BC) and angle αo (BAC) at A.
(d) Measure angles αo (BAC) at A and βo (ABC) at B.
A
A A A
l1 αº l1 αº

C1 d C C C C

l2 βº l2 βº
B B B
B

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.2 : Fixing of New Station (Alternatives)
Thus, station C can be fixed by seven different alternative measurement
processes. Method (a) is used for defining details. Method (b) is very much used
in chain surveying. Options available in method (c) could be used in traversing.
The next method (d) is used in triangulation and it is used for very extensive
work.

SAQ 1

(a) Discuss the basic principle of surveying.

(b) What are the basic objective and purpose of surveying?

1.4 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATIONS AND PHASES

1.4.1 Measurement and Plotting Accuracies
The accuracy and precision of measurements in surveying depends on several
factors. Some of the important ones can be
(a) scale of plan/map,
(b) purpose of survey,
(c) types and precisions of the instruments used,
(d) extent of the area and nature of the land to be surveyed,
(e) time and finance allotted for survey work, and
(f) operator’s error in taking, recording and plotting the readings.
Scale of a map/plan is the ratio of the distance between any two points on the
map to the corresponding distance on the ground. It could be plain scale also
known as normal scale or engineer’s scale or it could be represented as
representative fraction (RF). For example, a plain scale of 1 cm = 10 m (i.e. 1 cm
on map representing 10 m or 1000 cm on the ground) will have RF of 1/1000.
The larger the denominator of RF, the smaller is the scale of map and vice-versa.
8
Different scales can be used to plot a given survey depending on the purpose and Concepts of Surveying
technique of survey. The same survey data from the measurements can be plotted
with different scales to obtain maps/plots of different sizes depending on
requirements. It may be noted that the contents in a map are dependent on the
fineness and accuracy with which a good draftsman can draw the details. For an
average draftsman the accuracy can be taken as 0.25 mm. This constraint can be
used to impose limits on what details can be represented in the map. For example,
for a scale of 1/100000, the smallest plottable distance on ground is
0.25 × 100000 or 25 metres. Hence, any feature of land, e.g. road, building or
railway line with width smaller than 25 m cannot be plotted on map, except
perhaps by a line or dot.
Recommended scales for some of the types of map could be
(a) Geographical Maps : 1/25000 to 1/100000 and even smaller. Atlas
maps and wall maps could even have smaller scales.
(b) Topographical Maps : 1/25000 to 1/250000 showing natural and
man-made features and contours.
(c) Cadastral or Land Revenue Maps : 1/500 to 1/5000, relatively
larger scales showing holdings of individuals. Used for tax/revenue
collection and for planning and management.
(d) Building Sites, Town Planning Schemes etc. : 1/5000 to 1/10000,
for building sites larger scale, e.g. 1/1000 can be used.
(e) Roads, Railway Lines or Canal Maps : Longitudinal sections can be
drawn to a horizontal scale of 1/1000 to 1/20000 while for vertical
plots the scales are 1/100 to 1/200. For plotting cross sections, both
horizontal and vertical scales are 1/100 to 1/200.
It can be noted that on many maps with smaller scales, many important land
features cannot be plotted to scale. However, these, being important details,
cannot be ignored. Hence, these are represented on map sheet by suitable
conventional symbols. Some of the conventional symbols approved by Bureau of
Indian Standard (BIS) are as shown in Figure 1.3.
Pond or Lake Temple, Church and Fort Well
Gurudwara
Barbed Wire

Pipe Railing

Electric Line Building

with Pole Swamp or Marsh Single Line
with Cultivation Culvert
EP EP
North
Water Pipe Line
Double Line
Railway Track

Embankment Cutting Benchmark

River
Tunnel
BM

250.00

Figure 1.3 : Important Symbols

9
Elements of Survey 1.4.2 Classification Based on Types
Primarily, surveying can be classified into two types : Plane Surveying and
Geodetic Surveying. In plane surveying, the curvature of earth is neglected and
the earth surface is considered as plane surface. Plane survey extends only over
comparatively small areas. Hence, the two points on the ground can be considered
to be connected by a straight line and the angle between any two lines is a plane
angle. Most of the engineering surveys carried out on construction projects and
similar other purposes can be conducted as the plane survey.
For surveys of larger areas, the effect of curvature of earth cannot be ignored and
has to be taken into consideration. Such surveys are termed as Geodetic Surveys.
If the curvature of earth’s surface is significant because of size of area, the line
connecting any two points of interest on earth surface cannot be approximated as
a straight line. In fact, it would be an arc on the earth’s sphere. Angle between
two lines will also be not a plane angle but a spherical angle.
Since the spherical arc and spherical angles are considered, the distance
calculations can only be made through the application of spherical trigonometry.
The measurements in geodetic survey are required to be made with the use of
sophisticated and costly equipments by highly trained professional surveyors. The
data so generated is highly accurate with high degree of precision. In India,
geodetic surveys are carried out by Department of Survey of India.
For most of civil engineering projects like construction of roads, railway tracks,
irrigation canals, dams, bridges, buildings etc., plane surveying is considered
adequately accurate.
1.4.3 Classification Based on Purpose
Based on the purpose for which surveying is to be carried out, it can be classified
into the following categories :
Preliminary Surveys
For collection of data, i.e. distances, angles and levels of the required points
on land.
Control Surveys
For establishment of horizontal and vertical control points and benchmarks.
Location or Construction Surveys
For locating and laying out of engineering works on ground.
Engineering Surveys
For determination of quantities useful in designing of engineering works,
e.g. earth work, foundation bed level etc.
Hydrographic Surveys
To obtain information and data about under water features of ground, e.g.
showing shorelines, water depths, shape of river bed, and other marine
features.
Topographic Surveys
For preparation of plans and maps delineating natural and man-made
surface features and ground undulations.
10
Route Surveys Concepts of Surveying

For collecting data over a narrow belt of land for projects like highways,
railways, canals, and transmission lines etc. to plot the longitudinal sections
and cross-sections along the route at suitable intervals.
Geological Surveys
To ascertain the composition of earth’s crust.
Mine Surveys
For exploring the mineral wealth below the earth’s surface.
Archaeological Surveys
Executed to obtain details of the remains of ancient civilisations at site.
Military or Defence Surveys
Carried out to locate information about strategic features on ground for the
preparation of maps of defence/military use and significance.
Cadastral Surveys
These involve determination and plotting boundary locations of individual
land holding and/or laying out new property boundaries.
1.4.4 Classification Based on the Instruments Used
An alternate classification may be based upon the instruments or method used.
The main types are as follows :
(a) Chain surveying,
(b) Compass surveying,
(c) Levelling,
(d) Plane Table surveying,
(e) Theodolite surveying,
(f) Tacheometric surveying,
(g) Aerial surveying,
(h) Photographic surveying,
(i) Electronic Distance Meter (EDM) and Digital Theodolite,
(j) Electronic total station, and
(k) Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys.
First five type of the surveys conducted with the use of above equipment are
discussed in detail in subsequent units of this course. Rest of the types of survey
are covered in other course on survey, entitled “Advanced Survey”.
1.4.5 Classification Based on the Methods and Phases
In order to ensure preparation of up-to-date and accurate maps of data pertaining
to terrain surface, associated features and other collateral data is required for
planning and designing of various civil engineering projects, e.g. highways,
pipelines, bridges, reservoirs, dams, buildings etc. It is necessary to adopt a
systematic approach. Various stages of conducting field surveys for any
engineering project requires different methods such as
(a) Reconnaissance survey,
(b) Preliminary survey,
11
Elements of Survey (c) Control survey, and
(d) Construction survey.
Reconnaissance Survey
First of all reconnaissance of the area is conducted for getting the first hand
information of the area under investigation. A visit is made to the site to
collect all the relevant information pertaining to the project. The existing
maps, if any, of the area are referred and the desired portion under
investigation is traced to obtain the base map for reconnaissance. The base
map is taken to the site and rough surveys are carried out using minor
instruments, e.g. compass, sextant etc. This helps in deciding about the
possible location of survey stations which are thereby determined and
transferred on this map.
Preliminary Survey
After the reconnaissance surveys, pre engineering surveys also called
preliminary surveys, location surveys or data gathering surveys are
conducted. These involve collection of vital information and data for the
design and construction. The map scale and contour intervals are decided
upon. The various steps for conducting the preliminary survey are :
(a) provision of horizontal and vertical control,
(b) construction of gratecule and plotting of control points, and
(c) detailed plotting and contouring.
Control Survey
The establishment of a base for horizontal and vertical measurements is
known as control survey. The first essential step of control is to produce an
accurate map and cover the whole area with a number of carefully selected
points forming a framework on which to base the subsequent detail
construction surveys. This leads to establishment of control points both
horizontal control points and vertical control points. The main objective of
providing the control points is to prevent accumulation of errors in the
subsequent detail surveys and to connect the project survey to the state and
national survey systems.
The horizontal control is generally established by either
triangulation/trilateration or traversing. Triangulation is the process of
measuring the angles of a chain or a network of triangles formed by stations
marked permanently on the ground earth surface. The basic principle of
triangulation is that if the angles of a triangle and length of one side are
known precisely, the length of all other sides can be computed. Trilateration
is similar to triangulation except that instead of measuring angles to the
desired precision, the distances of the sides of the triangles are measured
precisely. Due to the advent of electronic distance measurements
equipment, the distances can be measured with very high accuracy and
precision. Hence trilateration is gaining preference over triangulation.
For project covering areas of smaller extent, traversing is ideal and fast.
Traversing is also preferred when the terrain is flat. Traversing may not
provide as accurate control as triangulation or trilateration but is good
enough for control fixation for an engineering project survey. A traverse is
a chain of finite straight lines fixed in a direction between pair of
12
 consecutive inter visible stations. The length and bearing of these lines are Concepts of Surveying
measured from which the coordinates of the points can be computed.
Traverses are generally of two types :
(a) Open traverse for route surveys, and
(b) Close traverse for buildings, reservoirs and dams etc.
The triangulation, trilateration or traversing are essentially for establishing
the horizontal position of control stations (e.g. x and y coordinates). In
addition to this, vertical control is also required to be determined with
accuracy. This may be achieved by levelling.
Construction Survey
Construction surveys are detailed surveys conducted during construction of
the project, to fill up the details of ground features both horizontal and
vertical by simple and less accurate methods, in between the accurately
established control points by more precise equipment. These methods are
discussed in detail in subsequent units and consist of measuring distances,
angles and heights of specified natural or man-made features on ground.

SAQ 2

(a) What are the different types of maps and their representative seales?
(b) Describe various stages of conducting project surveys.
(c) Describe briefly the significance of reconnaissance survey and
preliminary surveys.
(d) What are various methods of establishment of horizontal control
stations? Which methods shall be used and where?

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING

For the successful execution of any engineering project, it is essential that the
necessary ground data regarding location, distances and levels of all the critical
features either natural or man-made be known accurately. This is necessary for
designing, planning and subsequently in execution of these projects. Engineering
projects generally require maps with different scales. Large scale maps are used
for control points and gradually smaller scale maps for planning and construction
purposes. Field surveys are conducted to prepare these maps on desired scales
and accuracies. These are of great importance for variety of engineering
functions, e.g. location of bridges and dams, fixing the road or railway alignment,
computation of earthwork in highway and canal construction, hydraulic design of
reservoirs and dams, setting out bridges and buildings and variety of such similar
applications. It can be concluded that planning, designing, execution and
operation of any civil engineering project cannot even be visualised in the
absence of data pertaining to topography of the site. All this data is generated
only by various methods and processes of field surveying. The data to be supplied
by survey for some of the civil projects could be as below.
Data for Alignment Survey 13
Elements of Survey (a) General topography of terrain.
(b) Geological characteristics.
(c) Width of waterway and maximum flood levels for each river and
other drainages.
(d) Total length of the route.
Roads and Highways
(a) Establishing centre line and offset lines.
(b) Determination of cuts and fills.
(c) Layout of line and grade and grade transfers/grade separation.
Tunnels
(a) Surface surveys for alignment of the tunnel.
(b) Underground surveys and their connection with surface surveys.
(c) Levelling.
Bridges
(a) Topographical map for staking out of abutments and length of the
bridge and to decide approaches to the bridge.
(b) Contour plan of bridge site.
(c) Other data such as river width, hydraulic and soil/subsoil details for
location of abutments centre of piers, distance between piers, types of
foundations and their depths etc.

1.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the purpose and general principles of
surveying, plotting accuracy and scales of maps used for different purposes. You
have also learnt about various types of classification of surveying based upon
consideration of earth surface as plane or curved; also the purpose for which
maps are made; instruments used in carrying out survey and phases and
importance of surveying. Now you will be able to conceptualise the importance of
surveying for successful execution of any engineering project and the data
requirements for different types of civil engineering projects.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in the section “Further Reading” given at the end to get the answers of the
SAQs.

14