Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

Faculty of Engineering, Science & Technology

INDUS UNIVERSITY

BS (MT)-VI

(MS- 373) Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (0+1)

Lab Manual
For
Fall 2021
Prepared By: Engr. Hazzar Khan

Student Name:
Student ID:

Teacher Name:
Teacher Signature:

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

Faculty of Engineering, Science & Technology

List of Experiments
(MT-373) Refrigeration & Air conditioning lab VI (2+2)

OBE ATTAINMENT (Course): OBE ATTAINMENT (Taxonomy): OBE ATTAINMENT (Program):

Domain: Psychomotor Program outcome (PO): 4,5,10

(Course Outcomes): CO-1,2,3
Level: P 1,2,3

S. Lab. Experiments CLO PLO Taxonom Marks Sign

No. y

1 To Find the C.O.P. of refrigerator. CO1 PO4 P1

2 Effect of condensing temperature on the CO1 PO4 P1

performance of refrigerator.

3 To Study the Vapour Absorption System. CO1 PO4 P1

4 Construction of pressure enthalpy diagram for CO1 PO4 P1

vapor compression System refrigeration and its
performance measurement.

5 To check the performance of a vapor compression CO2 PO5 P2

system refrigerator by Varying the heat input to
the evaporator.

6 Representation of Properties of air on CO2 PO5 P2

Psychometric charts

7 To demonstrate the Air conditioning cycle on CO2 PO5 P2

charts

8 Demonstration of domestic refrigerator CO2 PO5 P2

9 Demonstration of cooling tower CO3 PO1 P3

0

10 Demonstration of window type air conditioner CO3 PO1 P3

0

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi
11 Demonstration of chiller AC plant. CO3 P010 P3

12 To Study of Compressor and its Types. CO3 P010 P3

13 Distinguish the Vapor compression system and CO2 P010 P3

absorption system. (with diagram).

14 What is the Co-efficient of performance of Refrigerator and CO2 P010 P3

Calculate the work-done of refrigeration system
whose COP is 5 and absorbs (roll number i.e.70J)
of thermal energy from a room.

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

INSTRUCTIONS & PRECAUTIONS

FOR LABORATORY SAFETY

Laboratory safety

All students must read and understand the information in this document with regard to laboratory
safety and emergency procedures prior to the first laboratory session. Your personal laboratory safety
depends mostly on YOU. Effort has been made to address situations that may pose a hazard in the lab but
the information and instructions provided cannot be considered all-inclusive.
Students must adhere to written and verbal safety instructions throughout the academic term.
Since additional instructions may be given at the beginning of laboratory sessions, it is important that all
students arrive at each session on time.
With good judgment, the chance of an accident in this course is very small. Nevertheless,
research and teaching workplaces (labs, shops, etc.) are full of potential hazards that can cause serious
injury and or damage to the equipment. Working alone and unsupervised in laboratories is forbidden if
you are working with hazardous substances or equipment. With prior approval, at least two people should
be present so that one can shut down equipment and call for help in the event of an emergency.
Safety training and/or information should be provided by a faculty member, teaching assistant,
lab safety contact, or staff member at the beginning of a new assignment or when a new hazard is
introduced into the workplace.

Emergency Response

1. It is your responsibility to read safety and fire alarm posters and follow the instructions during an
emergency
2. Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash, and safety shower in your lab and know
how to use them.
3. Notify your instructor immediately after any injury, fire or explosion, or spill.
4. Know the building evacuation procedures.

Common Sense

Good common sense is needed for safety in a laboratory. It is expected that each student will work in a
responsible manner and exercise good judgment and common sense. If at any time you are not sure how
to handle a particular situation, ask your Teaching Assistant or Instructor for advice. DO NOT TOUCH
ANYTHING WITH WHICH YOU ARE NOT COMPLETELY FAMILIAR!!! It is always better to ask
questions than to risk harm to yourself or damage to the equipment.

Personal and General laboratory safety

1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.

2. Read labels carefully.
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous materials and/or equipment.
5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.Clothing: When handling dangerous
substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and safety shield or glasses. Shorts and sandals should
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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi
not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when working in the machine shops.
6. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.
7. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats should be
hung in the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be kept away from
equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating.
8. Disposal - Students Are Responsible For The Proper Disposal Of Used Material If Any In
Appropriate Containers
9. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your
lab assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could harm yourself and
others.
10. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
11. Never pipette anything by mouth.
12. Clean up your work area before leaving.
13. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.

Electrical safety

1. Obtain permission before operating any high voltage equipment.

2. Maintain an unobstructed access to all electrical panels.
3. Wiring or other electrical modifications must be referred to the Electronics Shop or the Building
Coordinator.
4. Avoid using extension cords whenever possible. If you must use one, obtain a heavy- duty one
that is electrically grounded, with its own fuse, and install it safely. Extension cords should not go
under doors, across aisles, be hung from the ceiling, or plugged into other extension cords.
5. Never, ever modify, attach or otherwise change any high voltage equipment.
6. Always make sure all capacitors are discharged (using a grounded cable with an insulating
handle) before touching high voltage leads or the "inside" of any equipment even after it has been
turned off. Capacitors can hold charge for many hours after the equipment has been turned off.
7. When you are adjusting any high voltage equipment or a laser which is powered with a high
voltage supply, USE ONLY ONE HAND. Your other hand is best placed in a pocket or behind
your back. This procedure eliminates the possibility of an accident where high voltage current
flows up one arm, through your chest, and down the other arm.

Mechanical safety

1. When using compressed air, use only approved nozzles and never directs the air towards any
person.
2. Guards on machinery must be in place during operation.
3. Exercise care when working with or near hydraulically- or pneumatically-driven equipment.
Sudden or unexpected motion can inflict serious injury.

Chemical safety

1. Treat every chemical as if it were hazardous.

2. Make sure all chemicals are clearly and currently labeled with the substance name, concentration,
date, and name of the individual responsible.

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

3. Never return chemicals to reagent bottles. (Try for the correct amount and share any excess.)
4. Comply with fire regulations concerning storage quantities, types of approved containers and
cabinets, proper labeling, etc. If uncertain about regulations, contact the building coordinator.
5. Use volatile and flammable compounds only in a fume hood. Procedures that produce aerosols
should be performed in a hood to prevent inhalation of hazardous material.
6. Never allow a solvent to come in contact with your skin. Always use gloves.
7. Never "smell" a solvent!! Read the label on the solvent bottle to identify its contents.
8. Dispose of waste and broken glassware in proper containers.
9. Clean up spills immediately.
10. Do not store food in laboratories

Lasers safety

1. NEVER, EVER LOOK INTO ANY LASER BEAM, no matter how low power or "eye safe" you may
think it is.
2. Always wear safety goggles if instructed by your Instructor or Teaching Assistant.
3. The most common injury using lasers is an eye injury resulting from scattered laser light reflected off of
mountings, sides of mirrors or from the "shiny" surface of an optical table. The best way to avoid these
injuries is to always wear your goggles and NEVER LOWER YOUR HEAD TO THE LEVEL OF THE
LASER BEAM! The laser beam should always be at or below chest level.
4. Always use "beam stops" to intercept laser beams. Never allow them to propagate into the laboratory.
Never walk through a laser beam. Some laser beams of only a few watts can burn a hole through a shirt in
only a few seconds.
5. If you suspect that you have suffered an eye injury, notify your instructor or teaching assistant
IMMEDIATELY! Your ability to recover from an eye injury decreases the longer you wait for treatment.

Additional Safety Guidelines

• Never do unauthorized experiments.

• Never work alone in laboratory.
• Keep your lab space clean and organized.
• Do not leave an on-going experiment unattended.
• Always inform your instructor if you break a thermometer. Do not clean mercury yourself!!
• Never taste anything. Never pipette by mouth; use a bulb.
• Never use open flames in laboratory unless instructed by TA.
• Check your glassware for cracks and chips each time you use it. Cracks could cause the glassware to fail
during use and cause serious injury to you or lab mates.
• Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical panels, emergency showers, and eye
washes.
• Do not use corridors for storage or work areas.
• Do not store heavy items above table height. Any overhead storage of supplies on top of cabinets should be
limited to lightweight items only. Also, remember that a 36" diameter area around all fire sprinkler heads
must be kept clear at all times.
• Areas containing lasers, biohazards, radioisotopes, and carcinogens should be posted accordingly.
However, do not post areas unnecessarily and be sure that the labels are removed when the hazards are no
longer present.
• Be careful when lifting heavy objects. Only shop staff may operate forklifts or cranes.
• Clean your lab bench and equipment, and lock the door before you leave the laboratory.

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

Declaration By Student

It is here by declared that I have read all instructions and precautions carefully and I will follow them to ensure
safety.

Name of Student: Signature of Student:

Name of Lab Instructor: Signature of Lab Instructor:

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Partially Marks Obtained

Performance Unsatisfactory Satisfactory
Satisfactory Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab
Parameter (0-1) Marks (4-5) Marks
(2-3) Marks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Incapable of
Selects relevant
selecting Needs guidance to
equipment to the
relevant select relevant
experiment,
1. Lab Task equipment to equipment to the
develops setup
Realization conduct the experiment and to
diagrams of
[a,c] experiment, develop equipment
equipment
equipment connection or
connections or
connection or wiring diagrams.
wiring.
wiring diagrams.
Does not know
how to use Uses related Uses related
2. Utilization of related hardware/software hardware/softwa
Lab Tools hardware/softwa tools to collect and re tools to collect
[a] re tools to collect analyse data with and analyse data
and analyse minor error. effectively.
data.
Does proper
calibration of
Unable to
Calibrates equipment,
calibrate
equipment, carefully
appropriate
3. Lab Task examines examines
equipment and
Performed equipment moving equipment
equipment
[a, c] parts, and operates moving parts,
operation is
the equipment with and ensures
substantially
minor error. smooth
wrong.
operation&
process.
Observes safety Respectfully and
Disregards
4. Lab Safety rules and carefully
safety rules and
Precautions [a] procedures with observes safety
procedures.
minor deviation. rules and
Does not know Plans data
Plans data
how to plan data collection to
collection to
collection to achieve
achieve
5. Experimental achieve experimental
experimental
Data Collection experimental objectives, and
objectives, and
[a] goals; data conducts an
collects complete
collected is orderly and a
data with minor
incomplete and complete data
error.
contain errors. collection.
Unable to Conducts simple Accurately
conduct simple computations and conducts simple
statistical statistical analysis computations
analysis on using collected and statistical
6. Experimental
collected data; data with minor analysis using
Data Analysis
no attempt to error; reasonably collected data;
[a]
correlate correlates correlates
experimental experimental experimental
results with results to known results to known
known theoretical values; theoretical
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theoretical attempts to values; accounts
values; measure errors for measurement
incapable of and parameters errors and
explaining that affect parameters that
measurement experimental affect
errors or results. experimental
parameters that results.
affect the
experimental
results.
Actively engages
Cooperates with
Distracts or and cooperates
7. Teamwork other group
discourages with other group
During Lab Task members in a
from conducting members in an
[b] Reasonable
the Experiment. effective
manner.
manner.
Marks
Obtained

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Lab Experiment #1

OBJECTIVE: To Find the C.O.P. of refrigerator.

APPARATUS: Refrigerator.

Theory:

Thermodynamic heat pump cycles or refrigeration cycles are the conceptual and mathematical
models for heat pumps and refrigerators. A heat pump is a mechanical system that allows for
the transference of heat from one location (the "source") at a lower temperature to another
location (the "sink" or "heat sink") at a higher temperature.[1] Thus a heat pump may be
thought of as a "heater" if the objective is to warm the heat sink (as when warming the inside
of a home on a cold day), or a "refrigerator" if the objective is to cool the heat source (as in
the normal operation of a freezer). In either case, the operating principles are identical. [2] Heat
is moved from a cold place to a warm place.
The efficiency of a refrigerator or heat pump is given by a parameter called the coefficient of
performance (COP).
The COP of a refrigerator is given by the following equation:
COP = Desired Output/Required Input = Cooling Effect/Work Input = QL/Wnet,in
The COP of a heat pump is given by the following equation:
COP = Desired Output/Required Input = Heating Effect/Work Input = QH/Wnet,in
Both the COP of a refrigerator and a heat pump can be greater than one. Combining
these two equations results in:
COPHP = COPR + 1 for fixed values of QH and QL
This implies that COPHP will be greater than one because COPR will be a positive
quantity. In a worst-case scenario, the heat pump will supply as much energy as it
consumes, making it act as a resistance heater. However, in reality, as in home
heating, some of QH is lost to the outside air through piping, insulation, etc., thus
making the COPHP drop below unity when the outside air temperature is too low.
Therefore, the system used to heat houses uses fuel.[2]
For an ideal refrigeration cycle:
COP = TL/ (TH-TL)

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For an ideal heat pump cycle:

COP = TH/ (TH-TL)
For Carnot refrigerators and heat pumps, COP is expressed in terms of
temperatures:
COPR,Carnot = 1/((TH/TL) - 1)
COPHP,Carnot = 1/(1 - (TL/TH))

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #2

OBJECTIVE Effect of condensing temperature on the performance of refrigerator.

APPARATUS: Refrigerator.
Theory:
A systematic study of performance of a refrigerator using two refrigerants R-134a and R-410A has been
conducted. The R-134a was the original design refrigerant, while the R-410A was the drop-in refrigerant.
The study was performed on a small refrigerator charged with each refrigerant alone at nearly same ambient
conditions.
Temperatures at various locations in the refrigeration system were measured using thermocouples during the
running of the experiments, and the data collected were processed into performance refrigeration parameters.
The results have indicated that both of the refrigeration capacity and coefficient of performance were higher
for the refrigerant R-410a by about 3 and 7%, respectively.

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Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #3
Objective: To Study the Vapor Absorption System.

Apparatus: Refrigerator.

Theory:

The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor
compression refrigeration system like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation.
In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The
refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets evaporated in the evaporator. The
refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the heat to the atmosphere
via the condenser.
The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and compression
of the refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle. In the vapor compression system, the compressor
sucks the refrigerant from evaporator and compresses it to the high pressure. The compressor
also enables the flow of the refrigerant through the whole refrigeration cycle. In the vapor
absorption cycle, the process of suction and compression are carried out by two different
devices called as the absorber and the generator. Thus the absorber and the generator replace
the compressor in the vapor absorption cycle. The absorbent enables the flow of the
refrigerant from the absorber to the generator by absorbing it.

Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is the
method in which the energy input is given to the system. In the vapor compression system the
energy input is given in the form of the mechanical work from the electric motor run by the
electricity. In the vapor absorption system the energy input is given in the form of the heat.
This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the hot water. The heat can also be
created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene, and heater etc. though these sources are
used only in the small systems.

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1) Condenser: Just like in the traditional condenser of the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant enters the
condenser at high pressure and temperature and gets condensed. The condenser is of water cooled type.
2) Expansion valve or restriction: When the refrigerant passes through the expansion valve, its pressure and
temperature reduces suddenly. This refrigerant (ammonia in this case) then enters the evaporator.
3) Evaporator: The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature enters the evaporator and produces the
cooling effect. In the vapor compression cycle this refrigerant is sucked by the compressor, but in the vapor
absorption cycle, this refrigerant flows to the absorber that acts as the suction part of the refrigeration cycle.
4) Absorber: The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of water that acts as the absorbent, and the previous
absorbed refrigerant. Thus the absorber consists of the weak solution of the refrigerant (ammonia in this case)
and absorbent (water in this case). When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by
the absorbent due to which the pressure inside the absorber reduces further leading to more flow of the
refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber. At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is
cooled by the external coolant to increase it ammonia absorption capacity.
The initial flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because the vapor pressure of the
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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi
refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower than the vapor pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator. The
vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent inside the absorbent determines the pressure on low-pressure side
of the system and also the vaporizing temperature of the refrigerant inside the evaporator. The vapor pressure
of the refrigerant-absorbent solution depends on the nature of the absorbent, its temperature and
concentration.
When the refrigerant entering in the absorber is absorbed by the absorbent its volume decreases, thus the
compression of the refrigerant occurs. Thus absorber acts as the suction part of the compressor. The heat of
absorption is also released in the absorber, which is removed by the external coolant.
5) Pump: When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant strong solution of refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-
water) is formed. This solution is pumped by the pump at high pressure to the generator. Thus pump increases
the pressure of the solution to about 10bar.
6) Generator: The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the generator is heated by the external source of heat.
This is can be steam, hot water or any other suitable source. Due to heating the temperature of the solution
increases. The refrigerant in the solution gets vaporized and it leaves the solution at high pressure. The high
pressure and the high temperature refrigerant then enters the condenser, where it is cooled by the coolant, and
it then enters the expansion valve and then finally into the evaporator where it produces the cooling effect.
This refrigerant is then again absorbed by the weak solution in the absorber.
When the vaporized refrigerant leaves the generator weak solution is left in it. This solution enters the
pressure reducing valve and then back to the absorber, where it is ready to absorb fresh refrigerant. In this
way, the refrigerant keeps on repeating the cycle.

Learning Outcomes:

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi

Lab Experiment #4
Objective: Construction of pressure enthalpy diagram for vapor compression System refrigeration and its
performance measurement.
Apparatus: Refrigerator.
Theory:
On the P-H diagram, pressure is indicated on the y-axis and enthalpy is indicated on the x-axis. Typically
enthalpy is in units of Btu/lb. and pressure is in units of pounds per square inch (psi). The upside down U
figure shown on the diagram designates the points at which the refrigerant changes phase. The left vertical
curve indicates the saturated liquid curve and the right vertical curve indicates the saturated vapor curve. The
region in between the two curves describes refrigerant states that contain a mixture of both liquid and vapor.
The locations to the left of the saturated liquid curve indicate that the refrigerant is in liquid form and
locations to the right of the saturated vapor curve indicate that the refrigerant is in vapor form. The point at
which the two curves meet is called the critical point. The importance of this point is that at any point above,
no additional pressure will change the vapor into a liquid. A simplified pressure-enthalpy diagram is shown
below, describing this information.

The curves break up the diagram into three regions (1) Liquid, (2) Vapor and (3) Mix.

(1) Liquid Region: The liquid region is also known as the sub-cooled region. In this region there are vertical
temperature lines, which increase as enthalpy is increased. Figure 8 is a simplified P-H diagram illustrating
the constant temperature lines.

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 Department of Science and Technology, FEST, Indus University, Karachi
(2) Vapor Region: The vapor region is also known as the super-heated region. In this region there are vertical
temperature lines, which increase as enthalpy is increased. Refer to Figure 8. There are also lines of constant
entropy, which are also important. Entropy is the measure of the amount of disorder in the system.

(3) Liquid-Vapor Mix Region: In this region, the P-H diagram shows horizontal temperature lines, which
indicate constant temperature. The mix region is the phase change region, where any addition of enthalpy will
cause additional liquid to vaporize instead of raising the temperature. Figure 8 illustrates the horizontal
temperature lines in the mix region. There are also upward sloping curves which indicate quality. Quality is a
measure of the ratio of vapor mass to total mass. For example quality of 0.1 or 10%, which is located near the
saturated liquid line, describes points that have 10% vapor by mass. The 0.9 or 90% line, which is located
near the saturated vapor line, describes points that have 90% vapor by mass. The previous figure, Figure 7,
indicates the quality lines.

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #5

Objective: To check the performance of a vapor compression system refrigerator by Varying the heat
input to the evaporator.
Apparatus: Refrigerator.
Theory:
The vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium (usually R134a) which absorbs
and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. The figure depicts
a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. The typical vapor-compression system consists of four
components:
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion valve (also called a throttle valve)
• Evaporator

In an ideal vapor-compression cycle, the system executing the cycle undergoes a series of four processes: one
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) process, one throttling process alternated with two isobaric processes:

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• Isentropic compression (compression in the piston compressor) – A circulating refrigerant such as
R134a enters a compressor as low-pressure vapor at or slightly below the temperature of the
refrigerator interior. The gaseous medium is compressed adiabatically from state 1 to state 2 by piston
compressor (or by centrifugal pumps) to a relatively high pressure and temperature. The surroundings
do work on the gas, increasing its internal energy (temperature) and compressing it (increasing its
pressure). On the other hand the entropy remains unchanged. The work required for the compressor is
given by WC = H2 – H1.
• Isobaric heat rejection (in a condenser) – The superheated vapor travels under pressure through
coils or tubes that make up the condenser. In this phase the refrigerant passes through the condenser,
where the refrigerant condenses and there is heat transfer from the refrigerant to the cooler
surroundings. The net heat rejected is given by Qre = H3 – H2. As the refrigerant leaves the condenser,
it is still under pressure but is now only slightly above room temperature.
• Isenthalpic process (expansion in an expansion valve) – The refrigerant at state 3 enters the
expansion valve and expands to the evaporator pressure. This process is usually modeled as a
throttling process for which enthalpy remains constant. H4 = H3. The sudden decrease in pressure
results in explosive-like flash evaporation of a portion (typically about half) of the liquid. The latent
heat absorbed by this flash evaporation is drawn mostly from adjacent still-liquid refrigerant, a
phenomenon known as auto-refrigeration.
• Isobaric heat addition (in an evaporator) – The cold and partially vaporized refrigerant continues
through the coils or tubes of the evaporator unit. In this phase (between state 4 and state 1) there is a
constant-pressure heat transfer to the liquid medium from an external source, since the chamber is
open to flow in and out. As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, heat transfer from the
refrigerated space results in the vaporization of the refrigerant. The net heat added is given by Qadd =
H1 – H4
During a vapor-compression cycle, work is done on the fluid by the pumps between states 1 and 2 (isentropic
compression). There is no work is done by the fluid since between stages 3 and 4 the process is isenthalpic.
The working fluid in a vapor-compression cycle follows a closed loop and is reused constantly.

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #6
Objective: Representation of Properties of air on Psychometric charts
Apparatus: Psychometric charts

Theory:
A psychrometric chart for a given location can tell you information about temperature (wet bulb and dry bulb)
and humidity (relative and absolute). While they may seem overwhelming at first, by learning how the
variables interact, you can begin to use the psychrometric chart to interpret occupant comfort and effective
passive design strategies for your location.
A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the psychrometric processes of air. Psychrometric
processes include physical and thermodynamic properties such as dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature,
humidity, enthalpy, and air density.

A psychrometric chart can be used in two different ways. The first is done by plotting multiple data points,
which represent the air conditions at a specific time, on the chart. Then, overlaying an area that identifies the
“comfort zone.” The comfort zone is defined as the ranges within occupants are satisfied with the
surrounding thermal conditions. After plotting the air conditions and overlaying the comfort zone, it becomes
possible to see how passive design strategies can extend the comfort zone.

The chart is also often used by mechanical engineers to dynamically plot points that represent the exterior air
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conditions and understand the process the air must go through to reach comfortable conditions for the
occupants inside a building. When using the psychrometric chart for this purpose the data points move around
the chart.

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Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #7

Objective: To demonstrate the Air conditioning cycle on charts.

Apparatus: Air conditioning cycle.

Theory:

Principles of Refrigeration

• Liquids absorb heat when changed from liquid to gas

• Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.

For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, the refrigerant must be used repeatedly. For this
reason, all air conditioners use the same cycle of compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation in a
closed circuit. The same refrigerant is used to move the heat from one area, to cool this area, and to expel this
heat in another area.

• The refrigerant comes into the compressor as a low-pressure gas, it is compressed and then moves out
of the compressor as a high-pressure gas.

• The gas then flows to the condenser. Here the gas condenses to a liquid, and gives off its heat to the
outside air.

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• The liquid then moves to the expansion valve under high pressure. This valve restricts the flow of the
fluid, and lowers its pressure as it leaves the expansion valve.

• The low-pressure liquid then moves to the evaporator, where heat from the inside air is absorbed and
changes it from a liquid to a gas.

• As a hot low-pressure gas, the refrigerant moves to the compressor where the entire cycle is repeated.

Note that the four-part cycle is divided at the center into a high side and a low side This refers to the pressures
of the refrigerant in each side of the system

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #8

Objective: Demonstration of domestic refrigerator.

Apparatus: Psychometric charts

Theory:
The domestic refrigerator is one found in almost all homes for storing food, vegetables, fruits, beverages, and
much more. This article describes the important parts of a refrigerator and also their working. In many ways,
the refrigerator works in a similar manner to how a home air conditioning unit works. The refrigerator can be
categorized into two categories: internal and external.

The internal parts are ones that carry out actual working of the refrigerator. Some of the internal parts are
located at the back of the refrigerator, and some inside the main compartment of the refrigerator. The main
cooling components include (please refer the figure above):

1) Refrigerant: The refrigerant flows through all the internal parts of the refrigerator. It is the refrigerant that
carries out the cooling effect in the evaporator. It absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled in the
evaporator (chiller or freezer) and throws it to the atmosphere via condenser. The refrigerant keeps on
recirculating through all the internal parts of the refrigerator in cycle.
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2) Compressor: The compressor is located at the back of the refrigerator and in the bottom area. The
compressor sucks the refrigerant from the evaporator and discharges it at high pressure and temperature. The
compressor is driven by the electric motor and it is the major power consuming device of the refrigerator.
3) Condenser: The condenser is the thin coil of copper tubing located at the back of the refrigerator. The
refrigerant from the compressor enters the condenser where it is cooled by the atmospheric air thus losing
heat absorbed by it in the evaporator and the compressor. To increase the heat transfer rate of the condenser, it
is finned externally.
4) Expansive valve or the capillary: The refrigerant leaving the condenser enters the expansion devise,
which is the capillary tube in case of the domestic refrigerators. The capillary is the thin copper tubing made
up of number of turns of the copper coil. When the refrigerant is passed through the capillary its pressure and
temperature drops down suddenly.
5) Evaporator or chiller or freezer: The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature enters the
evaporator or the freezer. The evaporator is the heat exchanger made up of several turns of copper or
aluminum tubing. In domestic refrigerators the plate types of evaporator is used as shown in the figure above.
The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled in the evaporator, gets evaporated and it then
sucked by the compressor. This cycle keeps on repeating.
6) Temperature control device or thermostat: To control the temperature inside the refrigerator there is the
thermostat, whose sensor is connected to the evaporator. The thermostat setting can be done by the round
knob inside the refrigerator compartment. When the set temperature is reached inside the refrigerator the
thermostat stops the electric supply to the compressor and compressor stops and when the temperature falls
below certain level it restarts the supply to the compressor.
7) Defrost system: The defrost system of the refrigerator helps removing the excess ice from the surface of
the evaporator. The defrost system can be operated manually by the thermostat button or there is automatic
system comprising of the electric heater and the timer.
he external parts of the compressor are the parts that are visible externally and used for the various purposes.
The figure below shows the common parts of the domestic refrigerator and some them are described below:

1) Freezer compartment: The food items that are to be kept at the freezing temperature are stored in the
freezer compartment. The temperature here is below zero degree Celsius so the water and many other fluids
freeze in this compartment. If you want to make ice cream, ice, freeze the food etc. they have to be kept in the
freezer compartment.
2) Thermostat control: The thermostat control comprises of the round knob with the temperature scale that
help setting the required temperature inside the refrigerator. Proper setting of the thermostat as per the
requirements can help saving lots of refrigerator electricity bills.
3) Refrigerator compartment: The refrigerator compartment is the biggest part of the refrigerator. Here all
the food items that are to be maintained at temperature above zero degree Celsius but in cooled condition are
kept. The refrigerator compartment can be divided into number of smaller shelves like meat keeper, and
others as per the requirement.
4) Crisper: The highest temperature in the refrigerator compartment is maintained in the crisper. Here one
can keep the food items that can remain fresh even at the medium temperature like fruits, vegetables, etc.
5) Refrigerator door compartment: There are number of smaller subsections in the refrigerator main door
compartment. Some of these are egg compartment, butter, dairy, etc.
6) Switch: This is the small button that operates the small light inside the refrigerator. As soon the door of the
refrigerator opens, this switch supplies electricity to the bulb and it starts, while when the door is closed the
light from the bulb stops. This helps in starting the internal bulb only when required.

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Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #9
Objective: Demonstration of cooling tower
Apparatus: cooling tower

Theory:
Cooling towers are used to remove heat from a building. Cooling a stream of water to a lower temperature
using evaporation does this. Large cooling towers are usually used in industries like power plants, petroleum
refineries and various manufacturing facilities. They vary in size from large hyperboloid structures to smaller
ones on the rooftops of shopping centers, hospitals or universities.

However, the most common application of a cooling tower is inside an HVAC system for cooling buildings.

An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose unwanted heat from
a chiller. HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled chiller or water-cooled
condenser.

Cooling towers vary in size and design based on the cooling load of a building. The cooling load is
determined by the size of a building from which heat needs to be extracted. The other factor that affects this
design is the relative humidity of the air. This is determined by the location of the building. For example, the
relative humidity in Albuquerque, New Mexico is much lower than in Atlanta, Georgia.

Below are few examples of cooling towers:

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Types of cooling towers:

Cooling towers are generally classified either by build, heat transfer methods and airflow
generation methods. We will take a look at each of the types of cooling towers.

1. COOLING TOWERS BY BUILD:

• Package type: Package type cooling towers are pre-fabricated. The shell is usually
made of corrosion-free, heat resistant and durable material like fiberglass-reinforced
polyester. Since they are pre-assembled, they can be easily transported to a facility of
choice. Since they are compact, they are preferred in facilities with low heat rejection
requirements like hospitals, malls, and office buildings.
• Field erection type: These are large units that are generally used in power plants, huge
manufacturing facilities such as steel processing plants or oil refineries. They are large
structures compared to the package type. They can be manufactured according to
custom specifications.

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2. HEAT TRANSFER METHODS:

• Dry cooling towers: Dry cooling towers operate by transferring heat through a surface
that separates the working fluid from ambient air. This operates on the principle of heat
transfer by a heat exchanger with extended fins. The fan is driven by an electric motor.
Hence, dry cooling towers don’t consume any water.
• Wet cooling towers or Open Circuit cooling towers: These are the most popular
cooling towers because they are cost-effective and renewable. They use water to cool
the facility and the heat transfer is measured by the decrease in the process temperature
and a corresponding increase in both the moisture content and the wet bulb temperature
of the air passing through the cooling tower.
• Wet cooling towers typically produce drift emissions. Although they are not hazardous
to the environment, multiple drift eliminators are used to minimize the cooling tower
drift. They evaporation of water in a wet-mechanical draft is inherently more energy
efficient when compared to the other types of cooling towers like dry or fluid.
• Fluid cooling towers or closed circuit cooling towers: In closed circuit cooling towers,
often water is mixed with glycol to form a fluid. This fluid circulates in a coil
throughout the tower and is not directly exposed to the air. They are typically used
where the surface needs to be clean and free of contaminants. The advantage is that
there is no scale formation and hence makes for better productivity and lesser

downtime.
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3. AIR FLOW GENERATION METHODS:

The types of cooling towers based on the air flow generation are Natural draft, Mechanical
draft, Cross-flow and Counter-flow towers.

• Natural Draft cooling towers use the design and shape of the tower itself to move up the
air naturally using fans. They use the law of different densities between ambient air and
the warm air in the tower. Hence, these towers are tall to induce the airflow and are
shaped like a “hyperbole”. They are typically located outside the buildings to allow for
air flow.
• Mechanical Draft towers tend to use a fan to force the air. Propeller or centrifugal fans
are used to circulate air inside the tower. These are much smaller in structure than
natural draft towers. Capacity control is easy in these types of towers since the speed of
the fan can be controlled. Unlike natural draft towers, these can be located anywhere
inside the building.
• Cross Flow cooling towers are structured to allow air to flow horizontally while the
water flows down vertically. This is done through open trough systems in the fan deck,
fitted with nozzles. Since the airflow contact time is lesser, more air is required for heat
transfer to occur. This type of cooling tower has many disadvantages such as higher
power consumption due to the airflow required; maintenance is time consuming and is
susceptible to scaling and clogging of openings.
• Counter flow uses hot water that enters at the top, while the air is introduced at the
bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used. The
distribution is done through channel with lateral pipes, fitted with splash spray nozzles.
Growth of algae is highly restricted, as the lateral pipes are a closed unit and not located
in direct sunlight. Their power consumption is lower than cross flow units and offers
the advantage of easy maintenance.

Maintenance of cooling towers:

Routine operational maintenance is very important to achieve consistent throughput from your cooling
towers. If you take a close look, most manufacturers include both good maintenance instructions as well as
maintenance programs that could simplify both time and money for your operational expenses. These
procedures can prevent loss of efficiency in the heat transfer section by maintaining proper water flow and
airflow, as well as preventing corrosion in the cooling tower.

Maintenance frequency depends on the type of the tower, the size and external factors like geographical
location of your building.

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Some of the activities that you can perform are:

• Implementing strainer systems that act as filters to collect debris and minimize contact between air-
borne or water-borne contaminants.
• Nozzles should be cleaned regularly to prevent clogging. Since nozzles enhance even water
distribution, they should be placed where they can be easy accessed, inspected, cleaned or replaced.
• Water treatment options like water modeling, green chemical usage, filtration and softening ensures
that the tower system operates optimally and achieves the needed cooling requirement. This is
recommended to be done monthly unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer.
• Deep cleaning of the cooling towers involves using a cleaning chemical that circulates and flushes out
of the system. Pressure washing and vacuuming also form a part of the deep cleaning process.
• Mechanical components like fans, motors and belts need to be inspected cleaned and adjusted, if
necessary.
• Electrical components like capacitors and wiring should be inspected and replaced if necessary.

Cooling towers and energy efficiency:

With increasing prices of energy and emphasis on sustainable environment, it is important to ensure that the
cooler towers are designed, built, installed and maintained in a manner that uses lower energy.

Some of the methods you can use to make efficiency improvements are :

• Water-cooled and open circuit systems consume lower energy than air-cooled alternatives.
• The cooling tower can be operated at full fan speed to allow the minimum condenser water
temperature limit to be reached. Below this level, you can use a variable speed drive (VSD) to
maintain a set point.
• Using a closer design approach for the cooling tower can lead to potential energy savings. The tower
approach is defined as the difference between the water temperatures leaving the cooling tower minus
the entering wet-bulb temperature. When a closer design approach is chosen, the resulting cooling
tower provides colder water to the chiller condenser, even on a design day, which in turn reduces
compressor energy.
• Fan Speed Control: According to the standards as defined by ASHRAE 90.1-2013, cooling tower fan
speed must have the capability to be controlled proportional to the leaving fluid temperature or
condensing temperature/pressure. This is accomplished by either the use of two-speed motors or
variable speed drive technology. This can be applied on both new and existing installations.

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #10

Objective: Demonstration of window type air conditioner
Apparatus: Air Condition.

Theory:
Window air conditioner is sometimes referred to as room air conditioner as well. It is the simplest form of an
air conditioning system and is mounted on windows or walls. It is a single unit that is assembled in a casing
where all the components are located.

This refrigeration unit has a double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides of the motor. One at the
evaporator side and the other at the condenser side

The evaporator side is located facing the room for cooling of the space and the condenser side outdoor for
heat rejection. There is an insulated partition separating this two sides within the same casing.

Front Panel

The front panel is the one that is seen by the user from inside the room where it is installed and has a user
interfaced control be it electronically or mechanically. Older unit usually are of mechanical control type with
rotary knobs to control the temperature and fan speed of the air conditioner.

The newer units come with electronic control system where the functions are controlled using remote control
and touch panel with digital display

The front panel has adjustable horizontal and vertical(some models) louvers where the direction of air flow
are adjustable to suit the comfort of the users.

The fresh intake of air called VENT (ventilation) is provided at the panel in the event that user would like to
have a certain amount of fresh air from the outside.

The mechanical type is usually lower in price compared to the electronic type. If you just want to cool the
room and are not too particular about aesthetic or additional functions, the mechanical type will do the work.

Indoor Side Components

The indoor parts of a window air conditioner include:

• Cooling Coil with a air filter mounted on it. The cooling coil is where the heat exchange happens
between the refrigerant in the system and the air in the room.

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• Fan Blower is a centrifugal evaporator blower to discharge the cool air to the room.

• Capillary Tube is used as an expansion device. It can be noisy during operation if installed too near
the evaporator.

• Operation Panel is used to control the temperature and speed of the blower fan. A thermostat is used
to sense the return air temperature and another one to monitor the temperature of the coil. Type of
control can be mechanical or electronic type.

• Filter Drier is used to remove the moisture from the refrigerant.

• Drain Pan is used to contain the water that condensate from the cooling coil and is discharged out to
the outdoor by gravity.

Outdoor Side Components

The outdoor side parts include

Compressor is used to compress the refrigerant

Condenser Coil is used to reject heat from the refrigeration to the outside air
Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled condenser to help move the air molecules over the surface of the
condensing coil

Fan Motor is located here. It has a double shaft where the indoor blower and outdoor propeller fan are
connected together.
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During operation, a thermostat is mounted on the return air of the unit. This temperature is used to control the
on or off of the compressor. Once the room temperature has been achieved, the compressor cuts off.

Usually, it has to be off for at least 3 minutes before turning on again to prevent it from being damaged. For
mechanical control type, there is usually a caution to turn on the unit after the unit has turned off for at least 3
minutes. For electronic control, there is usually a timer to automatically control the cut-in and cut-out of
compressor.

The evaporator blower fan will suck the air from the room to be conditioned through the air filter and the
cooling coil. Air that has been conditioned is then discharge to deliver the cool and dehumidified air back to
the room. This air mixes with the room air to bring down the temperature and humidity level of the room.

The introduction of fresh air from outside the room is done through the damper which is then mixed with the
return air from the room before passing it over the air filter and the cooling coil.

The air filter which is mounted in front of the evaporator acts as a filter to keep the cooling coil clean to
obtain good heat-transfer from the coil. Hence, regular washing and cleaning of the air filter is a good practice
to ensure efficient operation of the air conditioner.

Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #11

Objective: Demonstration of chiller AC plant.
Apparatus: AC Chiller Plant.

Theory:
Industrial water chillers are used in a variety of applications where chilled water or liquid are circulated
through process equipment. Commonly used to cool products and machinery, water chillers are used in a
multitude of different applications including injection molding, tool and die cutting, food and beverage,
chemicals, lasers, machine tool, semi-conductors and more.

The function of an industrial chiller is to move heat from one location (usually process equipment or product)
to another place (usually the air outside the manufacturing facility). It is very common to use water or a
water/glycol solution to transfer the heat to and from the chiller which may require the process chiller to have
a reservoir and pumping system. Regardless of your industry and process, making sure that you have
sufficient cooling is critical to productivity and cost savings.

In most process cooling applications, a pumping system circulates cool water or a water/glycol solution from
the chiller to the process. This cool fluid removes heat from the process and the warm fluid returns to the
chiller. The process water is the means by which heat transfers from the process to the chiller.

Process chillers contain a chemical compound, called a refrigerant. There are many types of refrigerant and
applications depending on the temperatures required but they all work on the basic principle of compression
and phase-change of the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid. This process of heating and
cooling the refrigerant and changing it from a gas to a liquid and back again is the refrigeration cycle.

The refrigeration cycle starts with a low-pressure liquid/gas mix entering the evaporator. In the evaporator,
heat from the process water or water/glycol solution boils the refrigerant, which changes it from a low-
pressure liquid to a low-pressure gas. The low-pressure gas enters the compressor where it is compressed to
high-pressure gas. The high-pressure gas enters the condenser where ambient air or condenser water removes
heat to cool it to a high-pressure liquid. The high-pressure liquid travels to the expansion valve, which
controls how much liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator, thereby beginning the refrigeration cycle again.

There are two types of condensers used in chillers; air-cooled and water-cooled. An air-cooled condenser uses
ambient air to cool and condense the hot refrigerant gas back down to a liquid. It can be located inside the
chiller or can be remotely located outside, but ultimately it rejects the heat from the chiller to the air. In a
water-cooled condenser, water from a cooling tower cools and condenses the refrigerant.

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Learning Outcomes:

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Lab Experiment #12

Objective: To study various type of compressors.
Apparatus: Compressor.

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Learning Outcomes

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