PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS

Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

TOPIC OUTLINE MERIDIANS

A. Meridians
B. Expedient Methods of The direction of a line is
usually defined by the
Establishing Meridians horizontal angle it makes with
C. Units of Angular a fixed reference line or
Measurement direction. In surveying, this
D. Designation of North is done with reference to a
meridian which lies in a
Points
vertical plane passing through
E. Bearings a fixed point of reference and
F. Forward and Back Bearings through the observer’s
G. Azimuths position. There are four types
H. Forward and Back Azimuths of meridians: true, magnetic
grid, and assumed.

1. True Meridian. The true

LEARNING OBJECTIVES meridian is sometimes
known as the astronomic or
geographic meridian. It is
1. To be able to define and generally adapted
measure vertical and reference line in
zenith angles. surveying practice. This
line passes through the
2. Identify directions for geographic north and south
horizontal angle poles of the earth and the
measurements. observer’s position.

2. Magnetic Meridian. A
3. To be able to compute
angles, bearings, and magnetic meridian is a
fixed line of reference
azimuths.
which lies parallel with
the magnetic lines of
force of the earth. Its
OVERVIEW direction is defined by a
freely suspended magnetic
needle of a compass held
A horizontal angle may be at the observer’s
described in one of several position.
different ways depending on how
it is measured. – An interior 3. Grid Meridian. A grid
angle is measured on the inside meridian is a fixed line
of a closed polygon: an of reference parallel to
exterior angle is measured the central meridian of a
outside of the closed polygon. system of plane
– An angle turned (measured) in rectangular coordinates.
a clockwise direction, from the One central meridian,
“rear” to the “forward” point which coincides with a
or station, is called an angle true meridian, is usually
to the right. selected and all other
meridians are made
parallel to this meridian.

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

4. Assumed Meridian. An crotch made by two sticks

assumed meridian is an (Fig. 24-1).
arbitrarily chosen fixed
line of reference which is
taken for convenience.
This meridian is usually
the direction from a
survey station to an
adjoining station or some
well-defined and permanent
point.

EXPEDIENT METHODS OF
ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS
3. Determining True North by
the Rising and Setting of
The following are some
the Sun. From a convenient
expedient methods of
position or station,
determining or establishing
observe the rising and
meridians.
setting of the sun on the
same day or at setting on
1. Establishing Magnetic
one day and rising the
Meridian by Compass. The
next (Fig.)
magnetic meridian can be
established by setting up
the compass over any
convenient point and then
sighting a distant object
that marks another point
on the meridian. For an
accurate determination of
the desired meridian,
several sights should be
taken during the setup and
the compass must be
rotated about its vertical
axis and then positioned 4. Determining True North by
until the needle needs Polaris. The big dipper is
zero. The mean of the a useful reference
points thus established is constellation of the
taken as the magnetic northern hemisphere. As a
meridian. The observations star group, it is the most
should, however, be made familiar and easiest to
when the magnetic recognize. It has been so
declination is named because of the
approximately at its mean distinctive dipper-like
value. pattern formed by seven
bright stars. The two
2. Determining True North by stars, Merak and Dubhe,
Aid of Sun and a Plumb forming the side of the
Line. In a level piece of dipper which is farthest
ground, lean a pole from the handle are known
approximately toward the as the pointer stars. They
North and rest it in a point towards Polaris
which is also known as the

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

north star, pole star, or commonly used in military

cynosure. Polaris lies operations as in fire
almost directly above the direction of artillery
earth’s north pole. units.

5. Determining True South by 4. The Radian. The radian is

the Southern Cross. The another measure of angles
southern cross (or crux) used frequently for a host
is a constellation of the of calculations. One
southern hemisphere which radian is defined as the
serves as a reference angle subtended at the
group of stars for centre of a circle by an
determining the location arc length exactly equal
of the earth’s south pole. to the radius of the
circle.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT. DESIGNATION OF NORTH

The magnitude of an angle can POINTS
be expressed in different
units, all of which are
basically derived from the
division of the circumference There is always a starting or
of a circle. A purely arbitrary reference point to define
unit is used to define the directions. Map users are
value of an angle. The primarily concerned with the
principle system of units used north point for the
are. determination of directions and
the following are the commonly
1. The Degree. The used reference points.
sexagesimal system is used
in which the circumference 1. True North. Is the north
of a circle is divided point of the true
into 360 parts or degrees. meridian. In maps and
The angle of one degree is sketches, it is portrayed
defined as the angle which in the direction of the
requires 1/360 of the actual location of the
rotation needed to obtain earth’s north geographic
one complete revolution. pole and is always shown
along a vertical line.
2. The Grad. The grad is the
unit of measure in the 2. Magnetic North. A north
centesimal system. In this point that is established
system the circumference by means of a magnetized
of a circle is divided compass needle when there
into 400 parts called are no local attractions
grads. affecting it. At any point
on the earth’s surface its
3. The Mil. The circumference direction is indicated by
is subdivided into 6400 the direction of the
parts called mils, or 1600 magnetic lines of force
mils is equal to 90 passing through the point
degrees. The mil will at a particular time.
subtend very nearly one
linear unit in a distance 3. Grid North. A north point
of 1000 such units. It is which is established by

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

lines on a map which are

parallel to a selected FORWARD AND BACK
central meridian. BEARINGS
4. Assumed North. Is used to
portray the location of
any arbitrarily chosen Using the quadrantal system,
north point. any line on the surface of the
earth may be defined by two
directions which differ from
each other by exactly 180
BEARINGS degrees. The direction will
depend on which and the line is
observed in the direction in
The direction of a line may be which the survey progresses, it
described by giving its is referred to as a forward
bearing. The bearing of a line bearing, if the bearing of the
is the acute horizontal angle same line is observed in an
between the reference meridian opposite direction is called
and the line. A quadrantal the back bearing.
system is used to specify
bearings such that a line may
fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW.

AZIMUTHS

Another common method used in

designating the direction of a
line is by the use of azimuths.
Bearings may also be designated
The azimuth of a line is its
in a different manner when the
direction as given by the angle
directions of a line lie in the
between the meridian and the
same direction as the reference
line measured in a clockwise
meridian or reference parallel.
direction from either the north
If the line lies parallel to
or south branch of the
the meridian and south, it is
meridian.
written as due south; if
perpendicular to the meridian
and east, it is written as due
east.

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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

Azimuth (from North) of Lines

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Problem 1. Convert 270° into

its equivalent value in grads,
mils, and radians.

Azimuth (from South) of Lines Problem 2. The value of an

observed interior angle in a
closed traverse is 350 grads.
FORWARD AND BACK Convert the angle into its
AZIMUTHS equivalent value in degrees,
mils, and radians.
Any line established on the
earth’s surface has two Problem 3. Convert 1600 mils
azimuths – a forward azimuth into its equivalent value in
and a back azimuth. Depending grads, degrees, and radians.
on which end of the line is
considered, these directions Problem 4. Compute the angles
differ by 180 degrees from each AOB, COD, EOF, and GOH from the
other since the back azimuth is following set of lines whose
the exact reverse of the magnetic bearings are given:
forward azimuth. To determine a) OA, N 39°25’ E and OB, N
the back azimuth when the 75°50’ E
forward azimuth is known, the b) OC, N 34°14’ E and OD, N
following rules are used: 53°22’ W
c) OE, S 15°04’ E and OF, S
RULE 1: If the forward azimuth 36°00’ W
of the line is greater than 180 d) OG, N 70°15’ W and OH, S
degrees, subtract 180 degrees 52°05’ W
to obtain the back azimuth.
Problem 5. Convert the
RULE 2: When the forward following bearings to
azimuth of the line is less equivalent north and south
than 180 degrees, add 180 azimuths.
degrees to determine the back a) AB, N 25°25’ W
azimuth. b) BC, due East
c) CD, S 50°10’ E
d) DE, S 45°50’ W
e) EF, N 66°30’ W
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PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY – URDANETA CAMPUS
Module in CE 211-ENGINEERING SURVEYS Module No. 11

SUMMARY

Bearings are another system for

designating directions of
lines. The bearing of a line is
defined as the acute horizontal
angle between a reference
meridian and the line. The
angle is observed from either
the north or south toward the
east or west, to give a reading
smaller than 90°.The letter N
or S preceding the angle, and E
or W following it shows the
proper quadrant. Thus, a
properly expressed bearing
includes quadrant letters and
an angular value.

Azimuths are horizontal angles

observed clockwise from any
reference meridian. In plane
surveying, azimuths are
generally observed from north,
but astronomers and the
military have used south as the
reference direction.

REFERENCES

Elementary Surveying
Alfeo La Putt

Prepared by:

ENGR. ELMAR T. ANTOLIN

Faculty, Civil Engineering
Department
College of Engineering and
Architecture