Environmental Science Notes Outline Unit 16: Climate Change

Climate Change
1. What is the atmosphere?
Atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet, and is held in place by
the gravity of the planetary body.

2. Label the four layers of the atmosphere below and the ozone layer.

a. What is found in the troposphere?

The majority of the mass of the entire atmosphere is contained in the troposphere—
between approximately 75 and 80 percent. Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere, along
with dust and ash particles, are found in the troposphere—explaining why most of Earth’s
clouds are located in this layer.

b. How does the air in the stratosphere differ from the troposphere?
Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher you go! That
trend of rising temperatures with altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks the
turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath.

c. What is the ozone layer?

Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher you go. That
trend of rising temperatures with altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks the
turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath.

d. Why doesn’t air mix between the troposphere and stratosphere?

At the top of the troposphere is a thin layer in which the temperature does not change
with height. This means that the cooler, denser air of the troposphere is trapped beneath the

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warmer, less dense air of the stratosphere. Air from the troposphere and stratosphere rarely
mix.

3. List the permanent and variable gases found in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Permanent Gases Variable Gases

 Nitrogen  Water Vapor
 Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide
 Argon  Methane
 Neon  Nitrous Oxide
 Helium  Ozone
 Hydrogen  Particles
 Xenon  Chlorofluorocarbons

4. About what percent of the infrared energy from the sun is absorbed by the land and sea?
Just under half (47%) of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the land and ocean, and
this energy heats up the Earth’s surface. The energy absorbed by the Earth returns to the atmosphere
through three processes; conduction, radiation, and latent heat.

a. What happens to this heat energy at night?

At night, the ground cools and the heat flows from the warmer air directly above to
the cooler ground via conduction.

5. What is the greenhouse effect?

Greenhouse Effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's
heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere.

6. List the four greenhouse gases.

a. Chlorofluorocarbons
b. Nitrous oxide
c. Methane,
d. Carbon dioxide

7. Mars does not have a greenhouse effect. What is the temperature range on Mars near the equator?
On average, the temperature on Mars is about minus 80 degrees Fahrenheit. In winter, near
the poles temperatures can get down to minus 195 degrees F. A summer day on Mars may get up to
70 degrees F near the equator, but at night the temperature can plummet to about minus 100 degrees

Ice Ages

8. How was the Earth’s atmosphere different during the Precambrian Period?
From 4.6 billion to 540 million years ago, the earth’s atmosphere was much different. Most
geologists believe the atmosphere was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other

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relatively inert gases, and was lacking in free oxygen. There is, however, evidence that an oxygen-
rich atmosphere existed since the early Archean.

9. What ability did cyanobacteria evolve during this period?

Throughout the history of Earth cyanobacteria have triggered key evolutionary events, due to
their ability to produce oxygen, to exist endosymbiotically and to fix free nitrogen and CO2.

a. How did this affect the other species of bacteria inhabiting the Earth?
It created an ecological crisis, as it poisoned many of the other species of bacteria.

10. What is an ice age?

A period of time where the earth's overall surface temperature is lowered enough that glaciers
form at the poles and in mountainous areas.

a. What is a glacial period?

A period in the earth's history when polar and mountain ice sheets were unusually
extensive across the earth's surface.

b. What is an interglacial period?

A geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that
separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age.

11. What proxy is used to measure the past atmosphere of the Earth?
Diatoms, foraminifera, radiolarians, ostracods, and Coccolithophores are examples of biotic
proxies for lake and ocean conditions that are commonly used to reconstruct past climates. The
distribution of the species of these and other aquatic creatures preserved in the sediments are useful
proxies.

a. How is temperature estimated?

Ice cores are drilled into the glaciers in Antarctica and Greenland. Dissolved bubbles
of atmosphere in each layer are analyzed.

b. How are levels of greenhouse gases estimated?

Concentrations of these greenhouse gases are measured in parts per million (ppm),
parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt) by volume. In other words, a concentration
of 1 ppb for a given gas means there is one molecule of that gas in every 1 billion molecules
of air.

12. Describe the relationship between carbon dioxide concentration and global temperatures.
When the carbon dioxide concentration goes up, temperature goes up. When the carbon
dioxide concentration goes down, temperature goes down.

13. Describe the relationship between methane concentration and global temperatures.

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Even so, methane plays a much greater role in warming the planet. Over a 100-year period,
methane is 28 times more powerful than carbon dioxide at warming the earth. … So, not only does
methane contribute to global warming directly but also, indirectly through the release of carbon
dioxide.

14. When did the last glacial period end?

The end of the last glacial period, which was about 10,000 years ago

15. When did the Medieval Warm period take place?

Occurred from approximately 900 CE to 1300
a. Give an example of a historical event tied to the medieval warm period.
It usually brings clouds and rain in the western tropical Pacific while making regions
in the eastern tropical Pacific relatively drier and cooler. During the Medieval warm period,
an increase in solar radiation and decrease in volcanic eruptions created a La Niña-like event
that changed the usual patterns.

16. When did the Little Ice Age take place?

Occurred from the early 14th century through the mid-19th century

a. Give an example of a historical event tied to the Little Ice Age.

In 1588, the Spanish Armada was destroyed by an unprecedented Arctic hurricane,
and a factor in the Great Fire of London, in 1666, was the ultra-dry summer that succeeded
the previous, bitter winter.

Natural Causes of Climate Change

17. What three changes does the Earth undergo as part of the Milankovitch Cycles?

a. The shape of Earth’s orbit, known as eccentricity;

b. The angle Earth’s axis is tilted with respect to Earth’s orbital plane, known as obliquity;
c. The direction Earth’s axis of rotation is pointed, known as precession.

18. How do volcanic eruptions affect global climate?

The gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions have
influences on climate. Most of the particles spewed from volcanoes cool the planet by shading
incoming solar radiation. The cooling effect can last for months to years depending on the
characteristics of the eruption.

19. What is a sunspot?

Sunspot are dark, planet-sized regions that appear on the “surface” of the Sun. Sunspots are
“dark” because they are cooler than their surroundings.

a. The sun emits more radiation when many sunspots are present.

b. The number of sunspots fluctuates about every 11 years.

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20. What is the Great Ocean Conveyor Belt?

The great ocean conveyor belt is a constantly moving system of deep-ocean circulation
driven by temperature and salinity.

a. What area of the Earth is most affected by this system?

21. What is the El Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle?

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregular periodic variation in winds and sea
surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much of the
tropics and subtropics.

a. How does the warm water affect global climate?

The oceans absorb a thousand times more heat than the atmosphere and hold 90% of
the heat of global warming. Water temperatures change slowly, much slower than air
temperatures, because there is so much more mass in a particular volume of water to heat
than in a similar volume of air and that mass of water can hold so much more heat than can
air.

Evidence of Climate Change

22. Where are the daily atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations measured?
Mauna Loa Observatory

a. Why this location?

Isolated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and at over 11,000 feet above sea level,
the upper north face of Mauna Loa volcano is an ideal location to make measurements of
atmospheric carbon dioxide that reflect global trends, not local influences such as factories or
forests that might boost or drop carbon dioxide

23. Carbon dioxide levels are highest during the winter season and lowest during the summer season.

24. What are the three roles of the IPCC within the United Nations?

a. Working Group I deals with The Physical Science Basis of Climate Change,
b. Working Group II with Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
c. Working Group III with Mitigation of Climate Change.

25. According to the IPCC, “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal.”

26. Summarize each of these changes occurring as a result of climate change.

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Measurement Change
According to NOAA’s 2020 Annual Climate Report the combined land
and ocean temperature has increased at an average rate of 0.13 degrees
Fahrenheit ( 0.08 degrees Celsius) per decade since 1880; however, the
Land and Ocean
average rate of increase since 1981 (0.18°C / 0.32°F) has been more than
Surface Temperatures
twice that rate. Rising air and ocean temperatures due to climate change
are increasing hurricane precipitation, intensity, and the risk of coastal
flooding.
Polar ice caps are melting as global warming causes climate change. We
lose Arctic sea ice at a rate of almost 13% per decade, and over the past 30
Sea Ice
years, the oldest and thickest ice in the Arctic has declined by a stunning
95%.
Ice sheets are particularly vulnerable. Global warming has caused them to
be less stable, to move faster towards the ocean, and add more ice into the
Ice Sheets
water. These areas with less stable ice include the Greenland Ice Sheet and
the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
A warming climate can cause seawater to expand and ice over land to
melt, both of which can cause a rise in sea level. By 2100, sea levels may
Sea Level
rise another one to eight feet. Sea level can rise by two different
mechanisms with respect to climate change.

27. Define sea ice – Sea Ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on
the ocean's surface. Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's
oceans.

28. Define ice sheets – Ice sheets or also known as a continental glacier, is a mass of glacial ice that
covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).

29. Define thermal expansion –is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and density
in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
Impacts of Climate Change
30. Explain each of these observed changes that are tied to climate change:

a. Plant Growing Seasons – Climate warming is leading to early springs and delayed autumns
in colder environments, allowing plants to grow for a longer period of time during each
growing season. Plants are absorbing more carbon dioxide (CO2) as a result of this longer
growing season.

b. Insect Ranges – An increase in temperature increases physiological activity and, therefore,

metabolic rates. Insects must eat more to survive and it's expected that insect herbivores will
consume more and grow faster. This will lead to increases in the population growth rate of
certain insects.

c. Coral Bleaching – Climate change leads to a warming ocean which causes thermal stress that
contributes to coral bleaching and infectious disease.

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d. Hurricane Frequency and Intensity – Earth’s warmer and moister atmosphere and warmer
oceans make it likely that the strongest hurricanes will be more intense, produce more
rainfall, affect new areas, and possibly be larger and longer-lived.

e. Great Ocean Conveyor – Global climate change could disrupt the global conveyer belt,
causing potentially drastic temperature changes in Europe and even worldwide. The global
conveyor belt is a strong, but easily disrupted process.

f. Albedo – As the world warms the Earth's albedo shifts. The amount of ice covering the
planet is dropping as a result of increased temperatures from global warming. This causes a
decrease in the area of white surfaces, leading to less energy to be reflected and more to be
absorbed.

g. Polar Bears – The Arctic is warming about twice as fast as the global average, causing the ice
that polar bears depend on to melt away. Loss of sea ice also threatens the bear's main prey,
seals, which need the ice to raise their young.

h. Mountain Glaciers – Warming air and ocean temperatures increase glacier ice melt. Over
long periods, glacial response to climate change becomes obvious as glaciers retreat and, in
some cases, disappear.

i. Water Cycle – Climate change intensifies this cycle because as air temperatures increase,
more water evaporates into the air. Warmer air can hold more water vapor, which can lead to
more intense rainstorms, causing major problems like extreme flooding in coastal
communities around the world.

j. Risks to Coastal Cities – Shoreline places will see all the temperature and precipitation
changes that affect their general region. They face further risks from sea level rise and coastal
flooding. If shoreline communities are already at risk from coastal storms, that will get worse
as the sea rises.

Human Causes of Climate Change

31. What are anthropogenic greenhouse gases?
Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various
synthetic chemicals. Carbon dioxide is widely reported as the most important anthropogenic
greenhouse gas because it currently accounts for the greatest portion of the warming associated with
human activities.

32. List the number of neutrons and protons in each of the isotopes of carbon shown.

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 Carbon-12 - contains six protons, six neutrons

 Carbon-13 - with six protons and seven neutrons
 Carbon-14 - contains six protons, eight neutrons

a. Which isotope of carbon do plants use for photosynthesis?

Carbon 12

b. How has the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 changed since the industrial revolution?
Since fossil fuels are ultimately derived from ancient plants, plants and fossil fuels all
have roughly the same 13C/12C ratio – about 2% lower than that of the atmosphere. The tree
ring and ice core data both show that the total change in the 13C/12C ratio of the atmosphere
since 1850 is about 0.15%.

33. A consensus of 97% of scientists agree that global warming is happening and that humans are
causing it.

Solutions to Climate Change

34. Define each of the climate change responses:

a. Mitigation – consists of actions to limit global warming and its related effects. This involves
reductions in human emissions of greenhouse gases as well as activities that reduce their
concentration in the atmosphere.

b. Adaptation – is the process of adjusting to current or expected climate change and its effects.
It is one of the ways to respond to climate change, along with mitigation.

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35. What is a carbon sink?
It is a natural or artificial reservoir that absorbs and stores the atmosphere’s carbon with
physical and biological mechanisms. In the Polar Regions, more dense water flows towards the Deep
Sea dragging down dissolved carbon.

a. List three examples of carbon sinks:

 Coal
 Oil
 methane

36. What three societal changes would have to take place to significantly reduce anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions?

a. Increasing the efficiency of vehicle technology

b. Changing how we travel and transport goods
c. Using lower-carbon fuels.

37. What is geoengineering?

Geoengineering is the deliberate large-scale manipulation of an environmental process that
affects the earth’s climate, in an attempt to counteract the effects of global warming.

38. Describe each type of geoengineering:

a. Solar radiation management – is a speculative form of climate change response. And, an idea
born of desperation, an idea that demands consideration as the global community grapples
with an ongoing and accelerating climate crisis.

b. Stratospheric aerosols – are sulfur-rich particles which exist in the stratosphere region of the
Earth's atmosphere. These particles consist of a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. They are
created naturally, such as by photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases, e.g.
carbonyl sulfide.

c. Carbon capture and storage – or carbon capture and sequestration is the process of capturing
carbon dioxide before it enters the atmosphere, transporting it, and storing it for centuries or
millennia.

39. What would the Carbon Cap and Trade bill do if it were passed?
The legislation would set a cap on total emissions over the 2012–2050 period and would
require regulated entities to hold rights, or allowances, to emit greenhouse gases. It set the same
target for reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases.

a. Why was the bill defeated?

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Republicans said the bill would create a "national energy tax", warning costs would
be passed to consumers in the form of higher electricity bills and fuel costs that would lead
manufacturers to take their factories overseas, putting jobs at risk.

40. What is the EPA’s role during the Obama administration in dealing with climate change?
Understanding and addressing climate change is critical to EPA's mission of protecting
human health and the environment. EPA tracks and reports greenhouse gas emissions, leverages
sound science, and works to reduce emissions to combat climate change.

a. How did this change during the Trump administration?

EPA loosens regulations on toxic air pollution

b. What is the problem with the EPA managing this issue by itself without Congress acting?
In order to make the laws work on a day-to-day level, Congress authorizes certain
government agencies - including EPA - to create regulations. Once the regulation is in effect,
EPA then works to help Americans comply with the law and to enforce it.

41. How is the issue of climate change similar to that of the Tragedy of the Commons?
A growing number of people see climate change as an example of the tragedy of the
commons: the 'over-grazing' of collectively owned open lands by an unstructured group of people. In
other words, individuals in a free market cannot be trusted to refrain from over-grazing common
lands.

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