CHAPTER 28

RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT AND FACTORING

Q.1 Explain the objective of credit policy? What is an optimum credit policy?
Discuss.
A.1 The objective of credit policy is to promote sales up to that point where profit is
maximized. To achieve this basic goal, the firm should manage its credit policy in
an effective manner to expand its sales, regulate and control the credit and its
management costs, and maintain debtors at an optimum level.
Optimum credit policy is the policy which maximizes the firm’s value by
minimizing total cost for a given level of revenue. The value of the firm is
maximized when the incremental rate of return (also called marginal rate of
return) of an investment is equal to the incremental cost of funds (also called
marginal cost of capital) used to finance the investment in receivables. The
incremental rate of return can be calculated as incremental operating profit
divided by the incremental investment in receivable. The incremental cost of
funds is the rate of return required by the suppliers of funds, given the risk of
investment in accounts receivable.
Q.2 Is the credit policy that maximizes expected operating profit an optimum credit
policy? Explain.
A.2 Optimum credit policy does not mean the policy that maximizes the expected
operating profit. The cost of investment should also be considered. It means the
policy that maximises the net incremental benefit, that is, difference between the
expected operating profit and the cost of capital.
Q.3 What benefits and costs are associated with the extension of credit? How should
they be combined to obtain an appropriate credit policy?
A.3 The length of time for which credit is extended to customers is called the credit
period. A firm lengthens credit period to increase its operating profit through
expected sales. However, there will be net increase in operating profit only when
the cost of extended credit period is less than the incremental operating profit.
 As the firm starts loosening its credit policy, it accepts all or some of those
accounts which the firm had rejected in past. Thus, the firm will recapture lost
sales, and thus, lost contribution. In addition, new accounts may be turned to the
firm from competitors resulting into increase contribution. The opportunity costs
of lost sales declines, and opportunity benefits of new sales increases as firm
loosens the credit terms.
As the firm loosens its credit policy, the credit investigation costs, credit
monitoring costs, bad-debt losses, and collection costs increases in case of
stringent credit policy.
The optimum or appropriate credit policy is such where the firm will obtain the
maximum value for the credit policy when the incremental rate of investment in
receivable is equal to the opportunity cost of capital i.e., the incremental cost of
funds.
Q.4 What is the role of credit terms and credit standards in the credit policy of a firm?
A.4 Credit standards are criteria to decide to whom credit sales can be made and how
much. If the firm has soft standards and sells to almost all customers, its sales
may increase but its costs in the form of bad-debts losses and credit
administration will also increase. The firm will have to consider the impact in
terms of increase in profits and increase in costs of a change in credit standards or
any other policy variable.
Credit standards influence the quality of firm’s customers, i.e., the time taken by
customers to repay credit obligation, and the default rate. The time taken by
customers to repay debt can be determined by average collection period (ACP).
Default risk can be measured in terms of bad-debt losses ratio – the proportion of
uncollected receivable. Default risk is the likelihood that a customer will fail to
repay the credit obligation. The estimate of probability of default can be
determined by evaluating the character, i.e., willingness of customer to pay;
customer’s ability to pay and prevailing economic and other conditions. Based, on
above, firm may categorize customers into three kinds, viz., good accounts, bad
accounts and moderate accounts.
 The conditions for extending credit sales are called credit terms and they include
the credit period and cash discount. Cash discounts are given for receiving
payments before than the normal credit period. All customers do not pay within
the credit period. Therefore, a firm has to make efforts to collect payments from
customers. The length of time for which credit is extended to customers is called
the credit period. A firm’s credit policy may be governed by the industry norms.
But depending on its objective, the firm can lengthen the credit period. The firm
may tighten the credit period, if customers are defaulting too frequently and bad-
debt losses are building up.
Q.5 What are the objectives of the collection policy? How should it be established?
A.5 The primary objective of collection policy is to cause increase in sales, and to
speed up the collection of dues. The collection policy should ensure prompt and
regular collection, keep down collection costs and bad debts within limits and to
maintain collection efficiency.
The collection procedure should be clearly defined in such a manner that the
responsibility to collect and the follow up should be clearly defined. This
responsibility may be entrusted to the separate credit department or accounts or
sales department. Besides the general collection policy, firm should lay-down
clear cut collection procedures for past dues or delinquent accounts.
Q.6 What shall be the effect of the following changes on the level of the firm’s
receivables?
a) Interest rate increases
b) Recession
c) Production and selling costs increases
d) The firm changes its credit term from “2/10 net 30” to “3/10 net 30”
A.6 As the interest rate increases, the total cost of production increases resulting into
more investment in receivables.
During the recession, the sales level decreases, so the investment in receivable is
supposed to reduce. But the reduction may not take place on account of delayed
recovery of amount due from customers by firm. So, this may also cause the
investment in receivables to increase.
 The increases in production and selling costs result to more investment in
receivables.
When company changes its terms from ‘2/10 net 30’ to ‘3/10 net 30’, this should
normally result into reduction in level of investments in receivable. But at the
same moment, more customers may be willing to avail cash discount resulting
into increase in discount costs.
Q.7 “The credit policy of a company is criticized because the bad debt losses have
increased considerably and the collection period has also increased.” Discuss
under what conditions this criticism may not be justified.
A.7 Generally it is a bad credit policy if bad debts increase and collection period also
increases. But in certain cases, once the company has recovered its fixed costs,
selling to marginal customers may be quite profitable as the contribution ratio
may be quite high. This raises the possibility of increased bad debts and high
collection policy, but at the same time high profits. The company should assess
the probability of the extent of default and the probability of higher pay-offs.
Q.8 What credit and collection procedures should be adopted in case of individual
accounts? Discuss.
A.8 In case of individual accounts, customers may be categorized in to three types
based on their creditworthiness and default risk, viz., good accounts (financially
strong); bad accounts (financially very weak, high risk customers) and marginal
accounts (customers with moderate financial health and risk).
The firm will have no difficulty in quickly deciding about the extension of credit
to good accounts, and rejecting the credit request for bad accounts. A credit
standards may be relaxed to the point where incremental returns equals to
incremental costs in case of marginal accounts, by evaluating all possibility of
bad-debts losses and collection costs.
The collection procedures should be firmly established for good accounts and bad
accounts. The collection procedures for past dues or delinquent accounts should
also be established in unambiguous terms. The marginal accounts, i.e., slow
paying permanent customers, are needed to be handled tactfully. The collection
process initiated quickly, without giving any chance to them, may antagonize
 them, and the firm may lose them to competitors. In case of marginal accounts,
individual cases should be dealt with on their merits. The firm should also decide
to offer cash discount for prompt payment. For some cases, company may take
precautions by receiving pre-signed post dated cheques or approach for bills of
exchange, etc.
Q.9 How would you monitor receivables? Explain the pros and cons of various
methods.
A.9 A firm needs to continuously monitor and control its receivables to ensure the
success of collection efforts. Following are the methods to monitor and evaluate
the management of receivables.
1. Collection period method: The average collection period is calculated, and
can be compared with the firm’s stated credit period to judge the collection
efficiency. The average collection period measures the quality of receivable
since it indicates the speed of their collectibility. Collection period only
provides an aggregate picture. Further, it does not provide very meaningful
information about outstanding receivable when sales variations are quite high.
2. Aging schedule: It breaks down receivables according to the length of the time
for which they have been outstanding. It helps to spot out slow-paying
customers. It also suffers from the problem of aggregation, and does not relate
receivables to sales of the same period.
3. Collection Experience Matrix: In this method, firm tries to relate receivables
to the sales of the same period. In this method, sales over a period of time are
shown horizontally and associated receivable vertically in a tabular form;
thus, a matrix is constructed. This method indicates which months’ sales
receivable are uncollected. It helps to focus efforts on the collection month-
wise.
Q.10 What is factoring? What functions does it perform?
A.10 Factoring involves an outright sale of receivables of an organization to a financial
institution or private agency, called factor. A factor specializes in management of
trade credit. Factors collect receivables and also advance cash against receivables
 to solve the client firms’ liquidity problem. For providing their services, they
charge interest on advance and commission for other services.
The factor performs the following functions:
1. Factors provide financial assistance to the client by extending advance
cash against book debts.
2. Sales ledger administration and credit management services to his clients,
by maintaining the ledger of customers of clients, taking all follow-up
actions, etc. He also helps the clients and advises from the stage of credit
extension to customers to the final stage of book debt collection.
3. Protection against default in payment by debtors, by initializing legal
actions at an early time.
4. Credit collection: When individual book debts become due from the
customer, the factor undertakes all collection activity that is necessary. He
guards the interest of his client, by developing better strategy against
possible defaults by customers of his client; etc.
Q.11 Explain the features of various types of factoring.
A.11 Factors are broadly into four categories.
1. Full service non-recourse: Book debts are purchased by the factor,
assuming 100% credit risk on his account. The factor maintains the sales
ledger and accounts, takes full responsibility to recover dues from
customers of client. In the event of bad debts, he bears the loss.
2. Full service recourse factoring: In this method, client is not protected
against the risk of bad debts. The bad debts risk is borne by the company.
If the factor has advanced funds against book debts on which a customer
subsequently defaults, the client has to refund the money to the factor.
3. Bulk or agency factoring: Under this method, client continues to
administer credit and operate sales ledger. The factor financing the book
debt against bulk either on recourse or without recourse. It is a method of
financing book debts.
4. Non-notification factoring: In this type of factoring, customers are not
informed about the factoring agreement. It involves the factor keeping
 ledger accounts, deals with client’s customers, performs all usual
functions without a disclosure to customers that he owns the book debts.
The non-recourse or recourse factoring may be advance factoring, (the factor
advances cash against book debt to client immediately) or maturity factoring
(payment will be made by factor to client when the book debts have been
collected or matured as the case may be).
Q.12 How does factoring differ from bill discounting and short-term financing?
A.12 Bill discounting or invoice discounting consists of client drawing bills of
exchange for goods and services on buyers, and then discounting it with bank for
a charge. Factoring is like bill discounting plus specialized management of book
debt along with protection against default risk (in case of non-recourse factoring).
Bill discounting is not convenient for companies having large number of small
value customers; while factoring is convenient.
Factoring provides short term financial assistance to the client, but it differs from
short term credit in the following manner:
Factoring involve sale of book debts, and client gets advances against expected
debt collection, as and when he needs cash. Factor also undertakes the total
management of client’s book debts.