IllA0t EISY o Medieval lndia

367
r Nurjahan exercised tremendous influence over After the sickness of Shahjahan in 1657 the war
the State affairs. She was made the official of succession for the Mughal crown began.
Badshah Begum. ln 1657 Shahjahan's eldest son Dara was with
. ln 1612, Nurjahan arranged the marriage of him at Agra, Suza was governor in Bengal,
Jahangir's second son Khurram (Shahlahan) to Aurangzeb was Viceroy in Deccan and the
her brother Asif Khan's daughter Arjumand Banu youngest son Murad was governor in Gujarat
(later known as Mumtaz Mahal). During the war of succession, Shahjahan's two
. Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday daughters Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara supported
and Thursday. his two sons, Dara and Aurangzeb, respectively.
o He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the Aurangzeb defeated the Mughal Forces lead by
seekers of royal justice. Dara in lhe Battle at Samugarh near Agra.
Khusrau (son of Jahangir), who received
patronage of guru Arjun Dev, revolted against War of Succession
Jahangir. The fifth Sikh guru Arjun Dev was Iater
sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel
prince.
Battle of Dharmat
Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-
in-law, Asif Khan, also revolted against Jahangir
but the two soon reconciled. Battle of
Jahangir was well read and he wrote his memoirs Samugarh
Tuzuk-i-Jahangi ri in Persian.
Battle of Rupnagar Aurangzeb defeated Murad
John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years
(1609-11). He was given the mansab of 400. Battle of Khajwa Aurangzeb defeated Shuja
Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) who was ambassador
of James-l came to the court of Jahangir.
Battle of Devray Aurangzeb f inally defeated
Jahangir died in 1627 tn Kashmir and was burried Dara Shikoh.
at Lahore.
Till 1661, Aurangzeb either killed of executed all
5. Shahjahan (1627-1658) his brothers.
a Shahjahan took the charge of Mughal empire on Shahjahan passed the remaining years of his life
the death of Jahangir in 1628. till 1666 in the captivity of Aurangzeb
It is said that the Kingdom founded by Babur, French traveller Bei'nier and Tavernier and the
nurtured by Akbar, consolidated by Jahangir, Italian traveller Manucci visited lndia during the
reached to its zenith during the reign of Shahjahan. reign of Shahjahan.
The first thing that Shahjahan had to face was
revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujhar Singh Bundela of 6. Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
Orchcha) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, a Aurangzeb crowned himself as emperor at Delhi
the governor of Deccan). in 1658 and took the title of Alamgir. But his
ln 161 2 he married Arzumand Banu who became second and formal coronation took place when
famous as Mumtaz Mahal. he defeated Dara in I659.
ln 1632, he defeated Portuguese and annexed a He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins.
Ahmadnagar in 1636. a He reimposed Jizya in 1679.
He sent his armres to Balkhan and Badakshan a He abolished the inland transit duties (rahdari)
in Central Asia in order to secure the defence and the octroi (pandari).
of north-western lndia. Shahjahan who had He ended the celebration of Nauroj (New Year's
recovered Kandhar from the lranians in i638 celebration) festival.
again lost it in 1649, despite three campaigns He prohibited intoxicating drugs and destroyed
under the leadership of Prince Murad, Aurangzeb Ihe Vishwanath temple of Varanasr.
and Dara, respectively. He appointed Muhtasibs (regulator of moral
Shah Jahan built Moti Masjid (Agra); Red Fort conduct) to censor the public morals as per
(Delhi); Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj Mahat Quranic law.
(Agra) He forbade music in the court.
-

ilAltt l[$Y. Medieval lndia

366
a At the time of Akbar, there were five leading Akba/s Religious Policies
States of the deccan vtz' Khandesh (Farruqis),
. Akbar built an tbadat Khana (House of Worship)
Ahmadnagar (Nizam Shahs)' Berar (lmad Shahs),
at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 to discuss religious
Bijapur (Adil Shahs) and Golconda (Qutab Shahs)'
matters of faith. He invited many distinguished
persons belonging to different religions'
Akbar faced a rebellion in Guiarat in 1572, which
was crushed.
. Scholars in lbadatkhana were:
He built Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri in (i) Brahmin : Purushottam and Devi
memory of victorY over Gujarat.
(ii) Jain : HiraviiaYa Suri and
Jinchandra Suri
ln 1579, he issued a decree called 'Mazharnama'
(iii) Zoroastrian : Dastur Mahyarji Rana
and took control of the law in his own hands'
ln 1585, he transferred his capital to Lahore in
. Akbar abolished the pitgrimage tax on Hindus in
563.
order to effect a greater integration of the north
1

. Akbar abolished JizYain 1579.

west into the Mughal emPire,
Akbar introduced a new Khutba, written by Faizi
His last compaign was against Asirgarh (Khandesh)
and proclaimed Mazharnama in 1579, which
in 1601
made him the final interpreter of lslamic law
.

Akbar's CamPaign presented by the Ulemas (mujtahid lmam-i-Adil)

in case of any controversies. lt made him Amir-
ut-Momin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil
(a lust ruler). The Mazharnama was disliked by
1561 Baz Bahadur of Malwa the Ulemas.
1 564.................. Bani Durgawati of Garh Katanga His liberalism is ref lected again in the
pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Atlahi or Din-i-Allahi'
Chittor (Mewar)
1 567. which propounded Sufi divine monotheism Din-
.,. Gularat i-Allahi was viewed more as an order of people
with a motto of peace with all (Suleh Kul) rather
1574 Bengal
than a chosen religion
1576 Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar . Birbal, Abul Fazl and Farzi Joined Din-i-Allahi'

Akbar's Court
Kashmir
. ln Akbar's court there were nine versatile
1586 personalities which were eminent in various
15q3
l V,.........' . ..........Chandbiwi of Ahmadnagar f ields. They were called nine gems or Navratnas'
r The Navratnas included Todar Mal, Abul Fazl,
1601 .............. Khandesh (Asirgarh)
Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan, Mullah-do-Pyaza, Raia Man Singh and
Akbar's Administration Fakir Aziao-Din.
. Akbar divided his entire empire into 12 subas . Akbar established the painting karkhana, headed
in 1580. These were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, by Abdus Samad.
Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa . Ratph Fitch was the first Englishman to visit
& Gujarat. A Subahdar, Diwan, Bakshi, Sadr, Akbar's court in 1585.
Qazi were appointed at each of these provinces'
. Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama, the appendix of
. The provinces were further divided into Sarkars whici was called Aina-i-Akbarl. This section
and Parganas. deals with the laws and revenue system during
. Chief officers of the Sarkar were Fauzdar and the reign of Akbar.
Amalguzar, the former being in charge of law
and order and the later responsible for the 4. Jahangir (1505-1627)
assessment and collection of the land revenue . After the death of Akbar, his eldest and the only
r The entire land of empire was divided inlo Jagir, survtving son, Salim became king under the title
Khalisaand lnam lands. of Nuruddin Muhamnrad Jahangir'
. Akbar reorganized the central machinery of . ln '161 1 , Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa who was
the administration on the basls of division of later known as Nurjahan She uvas the daughter
power between the various departments of ltmaduddaulah.
 IllA0t IISY. lndian Polity

(entry 20)

Population control and famiiy planning. .............(entry 20A)

Factories. (entry 36)

Newspapers, books and printing presses. (entry 39)

Anti-Defection Law
o The f irst attempt to curb the defection was made by 32nd Constitution Amendment Bill 1973 but the bill
lapsed with the dissolution of the fifth Lok Sabha.
. The first anti-defection iaw came into force in J & K in 1979,
. The tenth Schedule of Constitution (incorporated by 52nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1985) contains
central law against anti-defection.
. A nominated member (if he is not a member of any party at the time of nomination) can not become the
member of any political party after six months of taking his seat'

IMPORTANTTERMS between the two States. For example, Ne*Oal happens

to be a buffer State between lndia and China.
Adult Franchise
ln dernocratic countries, all the adult citizens of ' Bureaucracy
certain age without qny distinctions of casje, 9reed,, Bureaucracy in its most general sense, describes a
colour, religion or sex are given the right to vo"te. This way of organizing the activitLes of any institutton so
-
is caijed an adutt iranc.hise. The prescribed mihimum that it y. The major
age for the citizens to avail the voting right may differ theorist of bureaucracv was Max We
from country to country. For example, it is 18 years y

in the USA and Ru.ssia. The minimum age has been By-election
.18
reduced in lndia trom 21 years to ye3rs by the..61st By-election is a mrd-term electrgn to fill up one or few
ConstitutionalAmendment.
/
cons_tituencies which have become vacant due to
resignation, death or otherwise before the compietion
Bicameral Legislature of the full term of the representatives.
Bi-cameral legislature me-ans a legislature which
consists ol two Hoqses, the Upper House and thc Cabinet Government
Lower House. The Lower House is also called a This is another name of the Parliame"ntary form of
popular House as its members are elected directly by Government in which real executive powers iie with
the people. ln modern times, most of the legislatures the Cabinet which is responsible to the popular House
are Bi-cameral legislatures. The concepi of Bi- of the Parliament. The Government is, however, run
cameral legislature originated and developed in the rn the name of the nominal execu{ve or Head of the
-\'-
Great Britain. St-ate. Since, the ruling party has fhe
fhe ma.lority in the
popular House, the Cabinet occupies a dcminant
('-' Buffer State positron in the Govqrnment. Henbe it is also called the
Buffer State is that State which is located in bretween Cabinet Government.
two States which are not on good terms. Buffer State
tries to play a neutral role in the situation of hostilities r- Coalition
Uetween ttre two States The location of a 6'uffer Coalitions are groupings of rival political units in the
State becomes useful in preventing armed hqstilities face of a common enemy; they occur in situations
 ilA0t t[$Y o lndian Polity 485

..(entry a0)
lnterState trade and commerce (entry 42
Banking........,... . (entry 45)
lnsurance...

Stock exchange and f uture markets ,.,....... (eniry 48)

Establishment of standards of weight and measure...,........., (entryr 50)
t
I
Audit of the accounts of the Union and the States... (eniry 76)
lnter State migration.... .. (entry Bl)
Taxes on lncome (other than agricultural income)............... (entry 82)
Taxes of services . . (eniry g2C)

State List
Public order........

Police

Local government, (entry 5)

Public health and sanitation; Hospital ciispensaries. ............. ..(eniry 6)
Pilgrirnages, other than pilgrimages to places outside lnrjia.. ....(enirrr ,i)

Ponds......... ...... (enrry 1 6)

Water.

Markets and fairs. .... . (entry 28)

Entertainments and amusements........,....... (entry 33)
Betting and Gambling. ..... . (entry 34)
Captivation taxes. (entry 61)

Criminal procedure.
Preventive detention. .....(entry i3)

Marriage and divorce (entry 5)

,\.
Bankruptcy and insolvency............. {entry 9)
-r-

484 lllAllt t[SY. lndian Polity

Table of Frecedence (published on July 26, 1979i

11 t--
i_
Attorney Gerreral of lndia
I Cabinet Secretary
Lieutenant Governors within their respective Union Territories

ll Chiefs of Staff holdirrg the rank of full General or equivalent'rank

1e (extraordinary) anO Ministels (pienipotentiary) accredited to lndia
IJ. ] Envoys
7A
tn i; Chairrnen arrd Speakers cf State legislatures rvithin their respective States
vilqrI

It-'-Cf,i*t Justices of High Courts urithin their respective jurisdictions

]-l'lrhinot Nliniqtorq :r-
l5
1r. Cabinet Ministers witlrin their
in States rviilrin respective
therr res States
Chiet Minisiers of Union Territories and Chief Executive Councilior, Delhi within their respective
Un:cn Terri',olies
Deputy Ministers of the Union

Cfficiating Chiefs of Staff holding the rank of Lteutenant equivalent rank

17. Charrnran Central Administrative fribunal (amendment made after July 26, 1979)
Charnnan. Minorities Ccmmlssion
Cnairrnan Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Comrnission
Chairman, Unrcn Public Service Commission
Chief iustices of High Courts outside their respective jurisdictions
Present Juclges of High Courts within their respective jurisciictions

1B Cabinet Ministers in States outside their respective States

Charrmen and Speakers of Staie leErslatures outside their respective States
Charrnran, Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practrces Comrnission; Deputy Chairmen and Deputy
Speakers of State l-^gislatures withrn therr respective States
Ministers of State in States within their respective States
Ministers of Union Territories and Execuiive Counciliors, Delhi within their respective Union
Territor res
Speakers of L"E9!olallvE
i, ul
i \.)PEcl^trl Assemblies
L"egislative noDEl I lullso llin Union
I vl Ilvl
'
ITerritories
I vr and Chairman of Delhi Metropolitan
] Councii, De lhi, within their respective Union territortes

'19 I Ci-:let Comrnissioners of Union Territories not having Councils of ltriinisters, within their respective
tJnion Territories
Depi:ty Ministers in States withiri their respective States
Deputy Speakers of Legislative Assemblies in Union Territories and Deputy Chairman Metropoiitan
Council, Delhi, within their respective Unicn Territorres
2A. i Deputy Chairmen and Deputy Speakers of State legislatures, outside their respective States
Ministers of State in States, outside their respective States
Present Judges of High Courts outsrde their respective lurisdictions

$ome lmportant lterns of the Seventh Schedule

Union List

Naval, Military and Air Forces anri anl/ other armed fcrces (entry 2)

Post Cffice Savings Bank {,Qniry.,391,

tlillt IASY. lndian Polity 483

s1. States/UTs
Seats in,', $eats in, Seats in State
Lok Sabha Raiya Sabha Legislative Assembly
JI, Andaman & Nicobar lslands 1

JJ. Chandigarh 1

34. Dadra & Nagar Haveii I

?q Daman & Diu 1

36. Lakshadweep 1

Table ol Precedence.(published on July 26,1979)

Jir: President
2. Vice President
J. Prime Minister

4, Governors of States witlrin their respective States

Former Presidents
5A. Deputy Prime Minister
6. i Chief Justice of lndia
Speaker of the Lok Sabha
7. ] Cabinet Minrsters of the Union
Chief Ministers of Siates within their respective States
Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission
Former Prime Ministers (amendment made after July 26, lg7g)
Leaders of opposition in the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha
Holders of the Bharat Ratna decoration (amendment made after July 26. 1979)
Ambassadors (extraordinary and plenipotentiary) and High commissioners of Commonwealth
countries accredited to lndia
Chief Ministers of States outside their respective States
Governors of States outside their respective States
o Judges of the Supreme Court
9A' Chief Election Commissioner (amendment made after July 26, 1979); Comptroller and Auditor
General of lndia (amendment made after July 26. 1979)
10. Deputy Chairman, Rajya Sabha
Deputy Chief Ministers of States
Deputy Speaker, Lok Sabha
Members of the Planning Commission
tt/inisters of state of the Union [and any other minister in the Ministry of Defence for defence
matters (amendment made after July 26,1979)
 482 ilillt mSY.lndian Polity

Seats in Seats in Seats in State

sl. States/UTs
Lok Sabha Bajya Sabha Legislative Assembly

4. Bihar 40 tb 243

tr Tamil Nadu 39 1B ZSLI

6. Madhya Pradesh 2A tt 22n

Karnataka l6 12 224

8 Gujarat 26 11 182

0 Rajasthan ,q 10 200

10. Andhra Pradesh cq '11

l/c
11 21 10 147
tt. Orrssa

tz. Kerala 20 I 140

Telangana 17 7 119

t+. Assam 14 7 126

t5. Jharkhand 14 6 B1

1Q 117
Ib. Punjab I

'11
17. Chhattisgarh 5 90

"18. 90
Haryana 10 5

19, Jamrnu & Kashmir 6 4 76

20. Uttarakhand 5 3 70

21. Hirnachal Pradesh 4 3 6B

az. Arunachal Pradesh 2 I 40

Goa 2 I 40
I
24. Manipur 2 I 60

25. Meghalaya 2 1 60

26. Tripura 2 1 60

Mizoram 1 1 40

zo. Nagaland 1 1 bU

29" Sikkim 1 1 3Z

LITs

2n NCT of Delhi 7 J 70

Jt. Puducherry 1 1 30

tr\
HA0t IASY r lndian Polity
481
Sorne Important Chief Election Commissioners of India

st-

t.'

4. Dr. Nagendra Singh .".Octcb,er 1, lgTZ - February 6, 1g7g

T.N. Seshan .. Decernber 1 2, t 9g0 - Decei.rrber i -t , .1g95
1.1. M.S. Gill ,..December j2,1996 -.June jS, 200i
1a
I 1_. J.M Lyngdol'r................ . June 1 4,zAOi - Febluary 7,2CI04
13. T S. Krisl'rnamurthy..... , ,,..,, February g,2Aa4 - N4ay 'i5. 2003
to. Navrn Chawia................ ... ...April 2j, ZOO} -;uly 29 2010
17. S. Y. Qureshi....... ..... ....JLrly 30, 2010.- June 1a. ZA1Z
18. V. S. Sampath..... ...... ........ June '10, 2A12 - Jair I5 2C"15
.iq
....,,,.........
H. S. Brahma Jan16. 2015 - Apritl8, 2015
ZU, Nasim Zaidi". Aprii"tg, 20iS - tiii claie

Lok Sabha Seats in General Elections 2014

Reserved for SCs Fleserved for STs Total$eats

412 B4 47

DoYou Know?
o Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs)were usecj for the first time in 1998 in elections to the tiaiasthan. tVlp
and Delhi Assemblies.
o ln the 2004 General Elections, Electi'onic VotinE Machines l,rere used for the first iime thrcr"rgholrt the
couniry making the electjons go fuliy electronjc,

' The Elecironic Voting lvlachine (EVM) can recorcj a maximunr of 3B4C voies.
n Ladakh js the iargest Lok Sabha Constrtuency areawise.
c There were 7 nationai par'ties [lNC, BJP, BSP, CPt, Cpt(M), RJD and NCpl,48 state parties and "1000
registered unrecognised parties in 20Cg General Elections.
o There vrere 556 \^/omen candiciates in these elections to Lok Sabl'ra. Out of these Sg becarne Mp

Representation of States & UTs in Various l-louses

States/UTs " Seats in Seats in

Lok Sab,ha ,
Raiya Sabha

1
Uttar Pradesh 80 3'l 403

2. Maharashtra 4B '19
zoa
a
U. West Bengal +/: 16 294
Ilection Gommission

The Election Commission is a permanent and an It ixes the election programme-dates, the
f

independent body established by the Constitution number of polling booths, and the declaration of
of lndia. the results.
Article 324 oI the Constitution provides that It advises the President or the Governor on all
the power of superintendence, direction and electoral matters, including questions relating to
control of ihe elections to the Parliament, State the disqualifications of the members.
legislatures, the office of the President of lndia !t prepares guidelines for a code of conduct for
and ihe office of the Vice-President of lndia, shall candidates, political parties and voters.
be vested in the Election Commission. It f ixes the limit of election expenses and examines
The Representation of the People Act, 1950, the accounts of the electoral expenditures.
deals with the qualif ications of the voters, It determines the criteria for recognizing political
preparation of the electoral rolls, delimitation
parties and decides their election symbols.
of the Constituencies, allocation of seats in the
Parliament and the State Legislatures and so on,
It settles the election disputes and petitions
referred to it by the President or the Governor.
The Representation of the People Rules, 1950
The term of the Chief Election Commissioner is
deals with the preparation of the electoral rolls
which was amended in 19BB and 1996. for 6 years or till heishe attains the age of 65
years, whichever is earlrer.
Representation of the People Act, 1951, deals
with the administrative machinery for conducting He/She can be removed from the office in the
the election polls, election disputes, by-elections, same manner as the judges of the Supreme
registration of the political parties and so forth Court.
The electoral system in lndia is borrowed from a He/She is not eligible for reappointment.
ihe one operating in Great Britain. a He/She cannot hold any office of profit after his/
The Election Commission is not concerned with her retirement.
the elections to panchayats and municipalities in His/Her salaries and allowances are met from the
the States. Consolidated Fund of lndia.
The elections to the panchayats and the The electoral system is based on adult-suffrage,
municipalities in the States are conducted by i.e. the citizen not less than 18 years of age and
State Election Commissions. not otherwise disqualified has the right to vote.
The Election Commission presently is consisted a It is based on the geographical representation.
of One Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and e ln lndia, election results are deiermined on the
two Election Commissioners.
basis of "First past the post" system.
By an ordinance of 1993, the powers of Election
The 'lndrajit Gupta Committee" to study the
Commissioners have been made equal to those
demand for the State funding of Elections was
of the Chief Election Commissioner.
set up in May 1998.
The Commission works under the overall
This 8-member committee submitted its report in
supervision of the Chief Election Commissioner.
January 1999.
It conducts and supervises elections and by-
elections. The Committee upholds the cause for introduction
It delimits the Constituencies for elections and of State funding which is constitutionally and
allots the number of seats to each of them. legally justified and is in the public rnterest.
 [mergemcy Prouisions

1. National Emergency (Art. 352)

. lf the President of lndia is satisfied that a grave DoYou Know? '
emergency exists whereby the security of lndia . ln a landmark jutjgement, the Supreme Court in
or any part of india is threatened whether by Malch '1994 held that the power of the president
a war or an external aggression or an armed in issuing'i proclamation of emergency in a
rebellion, then he may proclaim a state of State is subjeci to judicial review to the extent oi
national emergency for the whole of lndia or a (i) examinino whether it was issued on the
part of lndia. basis
.d of any relevant materiai at all or (ii) wheiher
. Such a proclamation of emergency may be the material was relevant or (iii) whether the
revoked by the president subsequently. proclamation \/as a malafide exercise of power.
. The Proclamation of emergency made under o Another important principle iaid down by the
Art. 352 may be subjectecj to the judicial review Court rs that the power of clissolving a State
and its constitutionality can be questioned in a Legis ative Assembly can be exercised by
court of law on the grounds of ma!1fide. ,,,-
the President only after the proclamation is
. The proclamatron made must bJ ao[ioveO by approveci by both ihe Houses of par.liament.
both the Houses of parliament within one month
after the proclamation. The majority required rs 3. Financial Ernergency (Art.360) "J-.
two{hird r:f the members present and voting which r Article 360 slates that if the president is satisfied
should also be greater than absqlute q1g1o1_r.ly_,,y,,. that a situatron has arisen wnereEy iiie financial
o The effect of proclamatron of emergency is the stabilrty or the credii of'lntlia or of any part thereof
ernergence of the full{ledged Unitary Gcvernment. is threatened hq mqy rjEcLire a state of tinEnCiat:'
emergency..
2. State Emergency (Art.356) . During the period when such proclamation is in
r Articie 356 pr-ovides that if the pr.esjdent, on operation, the executive authority of the Union
receipt of a report from the Governor of a State or
extends to the giving of direcilbns to any State
otherwise. is satisfied that a situaticn has arisen
to observe such canons of financial propriety
tn which the Government of the State cannot be
as may be specified in1he direbtions. Any'slch
carried on in accordance with the provisions
directions may also inclucle
of the Constriution, the president may issue a :

(i) A provision required the reduction of salaries

and allowances of all or any Class of person
. By that proclamation the president rxay assLjme
serving a State o,.the Union
to himself ali or any of the powers vested in the (ii) A provision requiring all Moley Bills or
Governor and may declare that the powers of the .

!o qe rgsetvelfiAI4
other Financial Biils
ieoisiai'.rre of the State shall be exercjsable by
_ consideration-61fl esident after they are
tre Pa..'arett. passed by the legislature of the Stale.
Tne proclanration issueci under Article 356 must
:> . A proclamation rss,l-eO under arii.fo iOO'*iff
be la,c cefore each House of the parliarieni t tno
f
remain in force for two rnonths, unless before the
proclamaiion is not approved by both Houses, rt
expiry of the period it is approved by bcth the
will e.xpire in two months.
Houses of the Parliament.
The proclamation so approved by parliament Once approved it remains in force tiil revoked by
(by sinrpie majority) shail be in operation for six
the Fresident.
months, however, it may be revoked in betrrueen
No emergency under Ar.ticle 360 has been rssued
or extencied furiher by the parliament.
so far.

II
478 ItlAilt t[SY r lndian Polity

Gomparison between the Supreme CoLlrt and the High Court

Suprerme Court l'ligh Court

1" The Supreme Court is a federal Court. lts only

'1. There is a provision for a High Court in each State
seat is located at Delhi. lts bench can be and each UT but two or rtrore States or two or l'nore
established at other places also, but .3 fsr il |.Jnion Territories or States and Unton Territories,
has not been established. together, may estabiish a commorr High Colirt.
?. The Judges o{ the Supreme Court are appointecl 2. The Judges of the High Coui"i are also appointecl
by the President. try the Presrcent.
3. A person shall nave the following qualification 3. A person shall not be eiigible to become a judge
to become eligible for the appointrnent as a of a High Cou:'t unless such a person
judge of the Supreme Court, if : (i) has been a judicial cfficer for not less than 10
(i) He has br:en a judge of a High Court for not years within the ierriiory of lndia; ci'
less than five years in successior:, or (ii) has lreen an advocate for nol iess ihan 10
(ii) He has been an advocate of a HiEh Court years in a High Court in lndia.
fr:r not less than '10 years in succession, or 4. The Judges cf ihe High Courts i'eiire from their
(iii)He is a clrstinguished jurisi in the oprnion of cffice after attairrrng the age of 62 years
the Presrdent. 5. The;udges and the Chief Justice of the Fiigh Courts
4. The Judges r:f the Supreme Court rettres trom are removed from ihe office bv the President in
their office after aitaining the age of 65 years. the sarne manner as adopted in the case of the
5. The Presicient can remove the Chief Justice and Suoreme Court.
the ctlrer Jurlges on the basis of impeachment 6. The judges of the l-iigh Courts cannot plead before
motion passed in the Parliament. any court during the term of their office. After
6 The juclges of the Supi'erne Court alter their retirement they cannot piead before an5r 6sut1 below
reiirement and durring their term of clfice are tne ".1igh CoLin That rneans they can Oleacl only
not eligible to plead before any court/authority oefore other Fligh Couris and the Supreme Court.
within the territory cf lndia. 7 Thc judges o{ ttre High Coirrts can be transferred
7. The judges of the Supreme Court cannot be from one High Couirt to the other High Court and
transferred nor can they be c]emotecl in off Ice may be promoted as ihe jr-rdges oi the SC.
8. The Supreme Court is not bounci to abide by B The High Courts are bound to abide by the
the decisio'rs of the High Courts. decisions of tne Supreme Court.
9. The salary and tl-re allowarrces of the juciges 9. The salary and other allowirnces of the judges
of tlre Supreme Court are chargerJ upon the of the lligh Cr:urts are charged upon tlie
Consolidated Fund of lndia. Consolidated Fund of the States
10. The cases involvrng the interpretation of the 1C The cases involving the interpretatiott of the
Constitution are decideo only by the SC. Constitution are not Cecideij by tlre i-iigh Ccurts.

Lok Adalats

Under the Legal Services Authorities Act of 1987, Lok Adaiats have been given a statutory status. Tlie aims
of Lok Adalats are secure justice to the weaker sections and i\',4ass disposa! of the cases to reduce cost
and delay. The Legal Services Act provides for Lok Adalats to be organized by the State or district
authorities. The ar-rthorrty cf the Lox Acalats is conferred cn them bv the State or the clistrict bodtes.
o The lurisCiction of the Lok Adalats is corrfe:"red on ihem by the Stp,te or the ctistrict bcciies
a Thc jurrsdiction of tne Lok Adalats is w,de. Any mutter ialling withrn the jurisdiction cf :ivil crirninal, revelrue
courts or triL,unals. A case goes to the Lok Adalat rf tl're two parties rnake a joint applicaticn to compromise.
l-he award of the Lok Adalat is binding u;:r:n all the parties. Lck Adalats, iri sunr, are given ihc powers of the
civll courts. Lok Adaiats are importani as an alierriative rnocie of clispute resolution,
The Supreme Court and the High Courts have ireld Lo,<, Adalat froryr tirne to irtxe and disposed off
thousands oi cases. Cn October 2, 1996, a nationlide programme was launclred to dispose off one
rriillion cases tl-rrough l-ok Adalats. 2.5 lakh cases are penclrng in all tlre Courts in ihe corLntry.
EI
 IllAllt EA$Y o lndian potity
477
. The presidency High Courts have original 2. Appellate Jurisdiction
jurisdiction in which the amount jnvolved is more e As Courts of appeal, all High Courts entertarn
than Rs 2,000 and in criminal cases which are appeals in civil and crrminal cases from their
committed to them by the presidency Magistrates.
subordinate courts as well as on their own.
. Enforcement of Fundamental Rights of citizens. . They have, however, no jurisdiction over tribunals
established under the laws relating to the armed
forces of the country
The High Courts: Seats and Jurisdiction

Establi- Territorial
Seat
Jurisdiction
Uttar Pradesh A,llahabad (Bench at Lucknow)
Hyderabad Anonra pradesh & I ana Hyderabad
Bombay t aoz I\,4aharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Mumbai (Benches at Nagpur, Panji
Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu & Aurangabad)
Calcutta 1862 West Bengal, Andaman & Kolkata (Circuit Bench at port Blair)
Nicobar lslands
E
J. Chhattisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur
6. Delhi 1966 NCT of Delhi New Delhi
7. Guwahati .1948 Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram Guwahati (Benches at Kohima,
and Arunachal Pradesh Arzawl and ltanagar)
Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad
q Himachal Pradesh 1966 Himachal Pradesh Shimla
'10.
Jammu & Kashmir 1928 Jammu & Kashmir Srina & Jammu
1 1. 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
1 t. 1BB4 Karnataka Bangaluru
.13,
1956 Kerala & Lakshadweep Kochi
14. Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh
!9Aelp!LA9!9!99e! n!gr" & Gwal
| ior)
15 Tamil Nadu & Pondicherry Chennai (Bench at Madurai)
16.
Cuttack
I 7. Patna
'l
Punjab & Haryana Punjab, l-laryana, and Chandigarh

19. Rajasthan
lgqhp_g (Bench at Jaipur)
2A. Sikkim Gangtok
21. Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Nainital
LZ.
lmphal
Shillon
)/ Trrpura
artala
3. Writ Jurisdiction
' Under Art 226 of the Constitution, the High Courts are given po\,vers of issuing
writs not only for the
enforcement of the Fundamentai Rights, but also for other purposes.
' ln exercise of this power, a High Court may issue the same type of writs,
orclers or directions which the
Supreme Court is empowered to issue under Article 32.
' The jurisdiction to issue Writs under Article 226 is larger in the case of
High Courts, for while the Supreme
Court can issue them oniy where a Fundamental Right has been infringed, High
Court can issue them not
only in such cases, but also where an ordinary iegal r-ighi has been infringed.
476 lllA0[ EASY o lndian PoliW

a The Committee submits its report to the presiding lf the motion is passed by the originating House
officer of the House in which the motion has been with the required majority it moves to the other
introduced. House which should aiso pass the motron with
The Parliament may or may not act upon the the same majority.
report of the Judicial Committee. After that it goes for the assent of the President
lf the Judicia Committee faii to establish proof in the same session of the Par ament lf the
of misbehaviour or incapacity, the Parliament address has been passed, then the President
cannot take up the motion. removes the judge in questron fror. rhe House.

Some lmportant Chief Justices of lndia

sr. Name Tenure

1. Hiralal J. Kania.. ..,. Jan. 26, 1950 - 6 195'1
Nov.
Sastri ........ ....... Nov. 7, 1951 ,a'^ 3 1954
11. Feb. 25 1968 - Dec I 6. 1970
17. P. N. ,....JUly lZ. lVUS-De- z V5o
24. Sabyasachi Mukharji (died in Dec. iB, 1989- Z' YYU

25. Venkatachaliah
M. N. ............,.,.Feb. 12, 1993 - Oct.24. i994
26. i M. M Ahmadi .. .....Oct. 25,1994 - March 24. ':997
J. S. Verma March 25,1997 - ian. 18 1998
36 i Y. K. Sabnarwal
I

.,... Nov. 1, 2005 - Jan I 4,20A7

o-7 K.G. Balakrishnan ....Jan.14. 2007 - Mav 2, 2AA
.1

38. I S.H. Kapadia ........ May 12,2A10 - Sepi 28.2C12

20 Altamas Kabir.......... eanr oo .A.cL . JLr/ ig 20,3
,, ., vvf/!.Lv -v
40. P. Sathasivam .............. .... July 19,2A13 - 27 April2014
41. R.M Lodha . ... ...27 ZOI+-Zl 2414
42. H.L. Dattu... .... 28 Sept 201 4 - 2 Dec 2015
43. T.S. Thakur 3 Dec 2015 - 3 Jan.2A17
J.S. Khehar 4 Jan,2A17 - till date

THE HIGH COURTS

. Article 214 provides that there should be a High Qualification of Judges
Court for each State. The High Court stands at ihe (i) He should be a citizen of lndia.
head of ihe judiciary in a State. The Parliament (ri) He should have held a judicial office in the
can establish by law a ccmmon High Court for territory o{ lndla for ten years, or
one or more States or UTs. He should have been an advocate of High Court/
o At present total no. of High Courts in lndia is 24. High Courts for ten years,

Appointment of the Judges Jurisdiction of High Court

o Art. 216 provides for appointment of Chief
Justrce and other judges of High Court. There is 1. Original Jurisdiction
no maximum f ix number of judges in High Courts.
. ln their judicial capacity, the High Courts of
. The Judge of a High Court is appointed by the presidency towns (Bombay, Calcutta and
President. The Chief Justice of High Court is Madras) have both original and appellate
appointed by the President after consultation jurisdictions, while other High Courts have mostly
with the Chief Justice of lndia and the Governor appellate jurisdiction.
of the State concerned. For appointment of other
. Only in matters of admirality, will, marriage,
judges, the Chief Justice of the concerned High divorce, company laws and contempt of Court,
Court is also consulted. they have original jurisdiction.
Iudicinrt im Imdia

. lndian Constitution provides for unified jLrdiciary Tenure of Judges

system and there is no division of po,wers in (i) He can hold office untii i:e atrains the age of 6!_,
judiciary bel'+reen Centre and State, whereas years,
Constitutiorr of USA provides clouble system of (ii) He can resign his olf ice by writing to the President.
courts. (iii) He can be removed from hts office by the
ln order to maintain suoremacv of the iudiciarv-
President on the recommendaiion of the
lndian consiitution under tffi
Parliament,
Part V deal with the orqanisatton-hd-eoEidEnce.
.--
jurisdiction,powers and provisions of courts.
g=-- Removal of Judges
. The Constitution under Art. i24 (4) provides that
DoYou Know?
a judge of tire Supreme Court can be removed
. The Supreme Court came into being on ZOLI I
by the Pr-esident after an acidress by each of the
- l95C -
Ja^:,-ri
\-+ - -> House of the Parliarnent supported by a majority
" The Parliament is aiso authorised to regulate of ihe total m-^rnbership of that House and by a
ma;criiy cf not tess than two-third of the members
of that House present and voting, on the ground
of proved misbenavior or incapacrty.
THE SUPREME COURT W". . The Pai'liament under Art. 124 (5) mar-, by law,
lnitially, there was a Chief Justice and SEVEN regulate ihe procedure fcr the presentation of
other judges in the Suprem-trGifP-
an address ar;d for the investigation ancj proof
r At present, ilreiiliJiidffiffistice and 30 of the misoehavior or incapacity of a judge
other ,..-:-_-
iudqcs_tn tlre_ SgJremE,_-_:-::->t,
Court.JThe power Accordingly the Pariiarnent in "1g68 passed the
to alter the number of judges in Supreme Court
Juciges (inquiry) Act.
rests with the Parliament.
____-u-*___4 r Under ihis Act, a motion seeking the removai of
Appointment of Judges a judge can be preferred before either House of
The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Parliament
the President after coLmE"'oi if it is to be rntroduced in the Lok Sabha, ii should
the Supreme CouriZi}'??he High Courts as the be signed irr by not less rhan 100 members of
President may dgg!! necerssary. ln appointment of a the Loi< Sabha. lf it is io ire introduced in the Rajya
judge, other than Chief J-dstice, the Chief Justice of Sabha, the nrotion should be signed in by nr:t less
lndia isAays consulted. than 50 members.
The motion can be rnoved only after a prior notice
Qualification of Judges V- of 14 days to that judge. After being property
A person to be appointe! as a judge -of the Supreme introduced, the presiding officer of that F.iouse
C o u rt s h o u d h ave rh e,Toliffifi-dA;Ii?i c at o n s
I i : appoints a tnree-rrernber Judiciai Committee to
(i) Hesho@ inquire into ihe misbehavlour or incapacity of the
(ii) He should have been a iudqe-of a Hioh Courti accused judge.
Hrgh Uourts tor tive years; or_ The head of tire Jr;diciai Comnrittee shall be
He shoutd r,auE-Bt6n-?ila'dvocate of a Hioh- serviirg judge oitire Suprenre Court.
Court/Hilh C.SrrUrr t"ffi Of the other iwo members, orie should be a
He should be a distinguished iurist in the opinion- serving mernber of the Supi'eme Court or a High
Court aricJ ancther one rnay be an eminent jurist.
Note: There is no minimum age group prescribed by The jucige in question has the right to defend
the Constitution. himself or tlrrough his counsel before the Judicial
Comnrittee
474 IIIADI EISY r lndian Polity

National Emergency proclaimed on the ground (x) Articles 19 (1) (f) and 31 (2) have not been
of arrned rebellion shall not have automatic abolished'tor this State anO hence right to
extension!oJ&K. propertyslill itands guaranteed to the people of
(iv) The Governor of the State is to be appointed, Jammu & Kashmir.
only after consultation with the Chief Minister of (xi) Part lV_(dealing witlr DPSP) and Part iV A ({ealing
that State
' :'
with Fundamental Duties) are ncr aQpiicabie to
(v) The Parliament is not empowered to make lawq the State.
on the subject_S of State List (7th Schedu[e) foi (xii) The President has- [o power tc s-sc-errd the
'of
the State oi Janrmu and Kashmir under any Constitution of the Stale tiie oround bf failure
State on the faitu
',fu|-el3c1o n s g Je n--bihl;-
(vi)
circumstance.
"
to co m ffi i

Frnancial fndrqgeV_{4$,_9fO) cannot be (xiii) lnternational treaty or agreemenl ai;eci ng the

imoosed on the State.^ dispos-itio1 of.,any padt of the territory oi :ne state
' ^-,!---->
(vii) Apart from the Presid6nt's rule, Governor's rule can be made by the centre only w itn ihe ccrsent
can also ne.impoSe Ete
for a maximum oi the Stqte L,e_ql-9ptq.le,, ,
*
period of six months. (xiv) An amendment made to the C_qlst t;:rc. cf lnd a
(viii) The preventive detdntion laws (Art. 22)-ot does not apply to the State uniess t ;s exrended
Partiamentoonffito
--*.7_---L_=-_-_9 by a Presidential order.
-
the State. '
'--\--z\)
(xv) The Fifth -Schepule and the Si4th Sche.o. e of ihe
(ix) The name, boundary or territory of the State_- Constitution of'lndia do not apply to the -ara:e
cannotbegBnged@ (xvi) The High Court of Jammu & Kashmir ca: ssue
+l-^ concurrence +t-^ C+^+^ Legislatuie. /
the ^^^^, of
^+ the State I ^^i^l^+,,;,, writs onlv- for the enforcement
.^+ of
Rights and not for a
----2

II
 IllAllt tlSY r tndian potity
473
constrtute a Council to resolve the disputes and or (iv)Article 270 A
to discuss subjects of common interest between . All other taxes apart from the taxes mentioned in
the States inter se and between the States and Art. 268, 2684, 269 and surcharge and less shall
the Union. Exercising this power, the president be levied and collected by Government of India and
has so far constituted three such Councils _ shall be distributed between Government of lndia
(i) Central Councit of Heatth (ii) Centrat Councjt and States
of Local Self-government; and (iii) Transport r Apart from these, the Centre also has powers
Development Council. to grant loans and provide Grants-in-aid (Art.
275) lo the States especially for the purposes
C. Financial Relations *--l of promoting the welfare of the scheduled
o The provisions for the f inancial relations between tribes and raising the level of administration of
the Union and the States are heavily derived fronr the scheduled areas. This is, in fact, the most
the Government of India Act. -1935 important source of income for the States
. The Constitution makes a disttnction beiween the . The Union Government can borrow money on the
legislative power to levy a tax and the financial security of the Consolidated Fund of lndia, but to
power to appropriate the proceeds of the tax. But raise loans, the States are required to take prior
this division is not water-trght permission of the Parliament.
. The residuary power regarding the taxes belongs . The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of
to the Parliarrenr. lndia is empowered to determine the manner of
o Practrcally the States have litile power in taxation maintenance of the accounts of the States and
and are heavily dependent on the Centre for also audit those accounts After the 73rd and
financial resources. For this reason, they are 74th Constitutronai Amendments, the CAG can
often called'Glorified Municipalities'. now also audit accounts of the panchayats and
. The chief source of the finance for the States the Municipai Corporations.
is the Grants-in-aid from the Centre. Thus the . During the time of Financial Emergency (Art. 360),
Centre has an overwhelming control over the the President can require the States to reduce the
rinances of the States. salaries of their servants and direct the Governors
o Article related to financial relations between to reserve all the Money Bills for hrs approval.
Centre and States are:
(i) Article 268 SPECIAL STATUS OF JAMMU & KASHMTR (Art.3z0) ..
Duties levied by the Union but collected and At the time of independence rn--lg+2, tne State of '
appropriated by States under which stamp duties Jammu and Kashmir decided not to join either .
and duties on medicinal and toilet preparations Pakistan or lndia However, soon pakistan attempted
are mentioned. to annex th-e State mil$grity. Meanwhile the Maharaja
militarilv. Meanwhite, N/aharaia
. t+^
ln case of Union Territories such dutres are levied signed
SIOned the "lnstrument
"lnStrument of Accession',
Aceession', wjth
rrrirh lndia
lnrtie
and collected by Government of lndia along with-
druil!J
along wrtn cerlatn
certain concesstons
conces.sions fo? the
tfre autonomy
autonomv
-ffidi.3DE_relxlkr-t6
(ii) Article 268 A IuonstltuttOn grants a special status 1o Jammu ?
tejg,"
of the staie-Ftidi-JTzffi rarr
&
Taxes on services. Kashmir.
It is levied by Government of lndia and collected
and appropriated by the Government of lndia The important features of the special status are as :.,

and the States in the manner determined by the follows:

Parliameni. (i) The State has its own Constjtution This also
implies that -6ilerci1>6s-F"ip principte is
(iii) Article 269
Taxes levied and collected by the Union but
{all^,^,^..l
followed in this State.
:^ +Li^ or^r^ --!*)'
- -'
(ii) Contrary^---)to the case fiith the other States, the
assigned to the States Taxes on the sales or
residuary power lies with the legislature of the .
purchase of goods and taxes on the consrgnment
Jammu and Kashmir lancl not the parlrament).
of goods, are levied and collected by the
Government of lndia and assigned to States.
(iii) The only
on the g ion
shall have automatic extension
of and s that the
 Ill[0E IASY r lndian Polity
472
. Any other State may adopt such a law l:y passing (iv) l-Jnder Art. 288 (2), a State is authorised to impose
telectricity
a resolution to that effect. Such iaw can only ire taxbs on ,,vater, stored, generated,
amended or repealed by an Act of the Parliament consumeci or distributed by the central authority
and not by an Act of the legislature of the State. e.g. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC),
Itlational Hydel Power Corporation, etc. But any
4. Parliament's power to legislate for giving effect to
such lar,v is effecirve oniy after the President's
the treaties and international agreements assent.
. Article 253 empolvers tire Parliament to make any (v) Urrder_ Art 3C,4 (b),. the Siate Legislature is
law for the whole or arty part of the territory of lndta
autnorlsed to pass Bills regarding the imposition
for implementing the treaties and international of reasonabie restrrction on the freedom of trade,
agreements and convention, everr if the subjects commerce, and iniercourse within the State
covered by such treaties and agreements fall in public interest. But any such Bill needs the
within the State List. President's prior approval for iis lntroduction in
" ln other vvords, the normal distribution of the the House.
powers will not stanci in the way of the Parliament se the
(vi) The Parliarnent may author Central
to pass a law for giving effect to an international Government to delegate its functions or duties to
obligation even though st-rch iaw relates to arry of
a Siate Government or its officials even wtthout
the subject in the State List
the consent of the concerned State (Ari 258).
5. !n case of failure of the Constitutional machinery
t' .
in a State B. Adnrinistrative Flelations
. L.Jnder Article 356, the Parliament is empowered . The lndian Constitution has a strong bias
to make laws wrth respect to ali the matters in towards the Centre to make it strong. The
tire State List when the Parliament declares Ceniral administration prevails over the State
that the State Government cannot be carried aoministratior
on in accordance with the provisions of the . The executive powers of the State should be
Consiitutron and the Parliament assumes all the so exercised as to ensure compliance with the
legisiative functions of the States. laws of the Union Parliament (Art 256) and not
' Thus f rom the scheme of distribution of legislative impede or prejudice the exeiutive powdrs of the
powers between tlre Union and the States, it is lJnlq1(A(,257) ,,
quite evident that the framers have given rrore . lf the States do not comply with the directives
powers to the Union Parliament as against the of the Centre, the latter may involve Art 356.and
State legislatures. take-over the administration of the State to itself
(President's rule).
Centre's control over the State legislation . Under Art. 258 (2), the Parliament is given power
ln addition to the Parliament's power to legislaie to use trje Siate ma6ninery to enforce the Union
directly on the State sublects, the Consiitutton also laws.
provides for the Centre's consent before a Bill . In case of any untoward happenings officials of
passed by a State legislature can become a law the All-lndia Services (e.9. lAS. IPS and lndian
(i) Although the State enloys authority to legislate Forest Services) can only be suspended by the
on the subjects of the State List, the Centre has State. The State cannot ia.ke disciplinary action.
power to direct the State legislature to have . The Centre can deploy military and paramilitary
conformity with the Union Laws, forces in a State even against the wishes of the
(ii) Any legislation passed by the Staie legislature State Government,
for acquisition of private property for public o ln case of disputes reiated to the waters of the
purposes will not become a law unless it has the inter-State rivers or river valleys, the Parliament
assent cf the President (Ar!..31A) ,.. has power to adjudicate. Under this power, the
(iii) Under Article 200, the Governor is empowered Parliament l-ras constituted a 3-mernber River
to reserve a Bill for the Presicient's consideration, Water Triklunal lryhose award, if published by the
Further, under the same Article, the Governor lJnion Gcvernment in the Gazette, is binding on
has been directed to reserve any Bill affecting the concerned States (Ar1.262).
the dignity and functioning of the High Court for For co-ordination biitweei inei States, the
the President's consicieration. President is empowered under;lr-t.__3-61rto

H;
 I[e Cent]G-$tate Belalions
. The Centre and the States are an
feature of federalism. A federal
essential Residuary powers: Artrcle 24g vests
Con"titrtiont the residuary
powers in the parltament. lt
estab,lishes dual policy uuith ihe says ihat the parliameni
Union at the has exclusive power to make any
Centre and the States at the o"rfn"ry lar with respect to
ur.n any matter not enumerated in the
Concurrent List or
endowed with sovereign pou;ei.s tc
be exercisecJ the State Lisi.
in the fielcj assigned to them resoectivety
by the
Constitution Parliament,s power to Legislate
on State Subject
. One is not subordinate to the oihqr
in its own
Though in normaltimes, tfre dis.tr.ibution
of powpr must
field,theffi co-ordinate with
be stricily rnaintained and nerther,r.r"
S,ai"i i;r",;
the other. Centre can encroach upon the sphere
u,fo,,"C io if.r.
. The basic principie of federation is other by the Constitution, but in certain
that the circurnstances, the above system
exceptional
legislative execLi,ve oDd financial of distribution
authoi.ity is
divideC bei,,veen the Centre and is either suspended or the powers of
the States, not the Union
by an;y iaw, passed by the Centre, are exrended over the subjeds
but by the l^r.:l,iT:1r, mentioned
Constitr,tion rtseif n r ;nc brsle Llst i tte
erceptional circumstances are:
1 . Power of the parliament
to legislate in the nationalr*,
A. The Legislative Relat!ons interests ...

. Our Constitution makers folloy;ed the r According to Artiole_

scheme, opting for a. strong Centre
CanadrLan !a9.rf the Rajya Sabha
passes a resolutjon, supported ,

they added one more list _ the

l_lowel,er, by 2l3rd of the
inembers present and voting,
n -Concurrent List. tfrat ii ls-nei"ir.rry ,.
The present Constitutron adopts ,n.' or expedient in the naiional interest
m",noj that th; i
foiiowed by the Government of Parliament shoulcj make laws
India Act, j935 urith respect toany ,

and divides the powers between matter enumerated in the State

the Unjon and List, specifieO in ,
the States in three lists _ the Union the resolution.
List the Staie .
List pnd the Concurrent List. lt shall be lawful for the pariiament
o The Union List to make laws
of I OO subjects
consists for the whole or any par.t of the
territory of lndia
which were with respect to that matter while
!,n",rOlng'3',subjects aOCeO iaterl. the resolution
The subjects mentioneci in the remains in force.
Union List are of
national importance i.e. defence, . Such a resoiution normally lasts
foreign affairs, for ayear and it
banking, currency, coinage, citizenship. may be renewec.l as many trmes
posi as necessary,
and teiegi-aphs, etc. but noi exceecling for a year at
a tirne.
. The State List consists of 2.
(excluCing
6i subjects During a proclamation of emergency
5.subjects which were omitted r According to Art 250, while tfrl emergency
later) These-hre of local importance, operation the parliament shall have power
is in
such as
public oi.der and police, local government, laws for the whole or any part
to make
public health ancj sanitation, -agrrculture, of ihe territory of
lndia with respect to ali matters
justice, rrrrgation etc. rn the State List.
o The Concurrent Lrst consists of 3. Parliament,s power to legislate
with the consent
52 sUOlects of the States
(including 5 subjects which were
Both the Centre and the States
added tater). . According to Art 252, if the legislatures
can make laws of two
on the subjects mentioned in the Concurrent or more States passes a resolution
to the effect
List But in the case of any conflict between that it is desirable to have a law passed
the by the
Centrai and the State laws on the Parliament on any matter in the
Concurrent State List, it
shall be lawful for the parliament
subjects, the Central law will prevail. to make laws
regulating that matter.
 illAltl t[$Y. lndian Polity
470

DISTRICT LEVEL =ZILA PARISHAD

People's Government President, Vice-President Development Administration Chief Secretary,

elected members and Ex-Officio Members Deputy Secretary, Chief Accountant Officer,
Chief Planning Officer

Block Development Officer

Standing Committee

President, Vice-President Secretary Village Level Workers

elected members

GRAMSABHA
College of Eligible Voters

II

C.'
il[0[ t[$Y. tndian polity
469
Rajasthan was the first State to.set up panchayati !.1
-, Election
Raj System in 1959 by Jawahartal Nehru foilowed
by Andhra Pradeih
. All the members of panchayats at the village,
intermediate and djstrict tevets snatt be elected
The basic concept of panchayati raj is the directly by the people
villagers should thiqk, decide and act in their
own o Further, the chairperson of panchayats at
socio-economic interesis. Thus, the panchayati the
intermediate and district levels shall be elected
Raj Act is related to
-vittage self_governance. indirectly - by and from amongst the elected
The gram panchayat chajrs elected by'the .
me.mpgrq thereof . However the Chairperson
members of the gram panchayat, serve as of a
panchayat at the village ievel shall be
members of the B_lock Counc jl (panchayat elected in
such manner as the state legislature determines.
samiti).
Reservation of Seats V,
A block is a large subunit of a district ln some
states, DtocKs
srares,
. Some seats in the panchayat shall be reserved
blocks )are
.are coterminous
rare cotermjnous
cotermi
rilitr]QUS wifh wlin
wrth taluqs
taluqs or
taluqs,
teh:*l for the SCs, STs and womgn. Tne number of
ln other states, taluqs
r^6
or rehsils ^--
are ^tt- 1't
divided
divic
--+ ^'+^k^il^ s reserved seats for SQ/STs riiiti Oe proportionate
into tjlocks. The district councrl (zila parishad)
is- to the ration of population of SCiSTs ro the total
the top level of the system lts jurisdiction inclu jes'
population in the panchayat. t/3rd of total
all village and block councils- within a district. lts seais
wil be reserved for women. lt will inclucj" ,i","'
membership includes tne blo>ck qgr1"il .;glr9,
reserved seats ior SC/STs
_.-

Responsibitity
Significance of zsrd,Anre-nAm.'e .'l.r:. . Panchayats have two main responsibilities:
On 22nd December, tggL, the Congress .a)To plan for and social
government passed the Seventy_third
Amendment, which oave nanr:h Powers and Authorities
constitutio.ngl,"-glalyg. (previously panchayat The Legislature of the state may authorise a
maiiers were considered a state sublect). panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate
taxes, tolls and fees. lt may also provrde for
the
The amendment also institutionalised a panchayat to makd grants-rn-aicl to form
the
tiere.! s.ystem panghaypts (excefl for itates Consoltdated Fund of the state These funds
-g1 can
urith a population of less than 2 million), be used for implementrng plans.
with
panchayats at the village, block and
district
,Evurr. The
levels. nre arnenoment
amendment also stipulated ,nr, ,,i
strpulated that all
panchayat members be elecied for flive_year
terms in elections supervised by state election
commissions.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act was

passed in igg7 but became effective from
20
April 1993, after being published in the Gazette
of lndia. This was includes as part lX of the
Constitution of lndia. The rights and duties
of
panchayats have been included in Schedule
Xl
of the Constitution
,-_

468 IllA0t EA$Y. Indian Polity

(iii) While exercising hi._{n"!9ng__ag the Members of the Legislative Council of State can
administrator of an adjoining Union Territory be elected by following methods:
(in case (i) One-third shall be elected. by members
(iv) Determining the amount payable by the of municipalities, district boards, local
Governrnent of Apsam, N/eghalaya, Tripu1,,a authorities. etc.
and Mizoranl to an Autonomous Tribal (ii) One-third shall
,--- bS sleqlQg_py the members
District Counclt as royalty accruing froir of the Legislative Asse@jl-
licenses for nrrneral exploratron.
--r
(iii) Onetwelfth shali be elected by University
(v) Seeking irrformation from the Chief Minister Graduates.
with regard .,to the administrativs and (iv) Onetwelfth shail be elected bv teachers-rr
legislqtive rnatters of the Statg. (v) Remaining (i.e. one-sixth)shall be noqinated
While exercising the special responsibilities as bv the Go-vernor.
directed by President, the Governor is not bound Normal duratron of Legislative Assembly is 5
by the advice of the council of minister of State. years whereas the Legislatlve Council do not
dissolve but 'every
its one-third members shall retire on
STATE LEGISLATURE the expiry of second year..
. The legislature of State consist of the Governor
_____ Qualification for membership in State Legislative
and one or two Housgs. Assembly :

. Only Jammu &

Kqshmir, Bi-Br, MalarQqhtra, (i) lndiancitizenship.,
Karnataka,
;----'.-.) Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
'p----> --v--^-->
Pradesh and (ii) Completing !-5 y-gars of-Age.
Tgzu{g have bicameplJgqls_Lature i.e Les- (iii) Possessing such. qualification as Parliament
islative Assembly and Legislative Cbuncil both. by iaw may.determine.
H (iv) Do not hold any office of profit uqder the
Legislative Councils in States goverlment. .,
. For Legislative Council membership the age must
be of 30 yeafs or more and rest qualifications
are the sam'e as are for members of Legislative
i
Assembly.
:JO

LocAL GovERNMENT '.-

-7tr

. Uttar Pradesh. ... 100 The Legislature of a state may, be law, make
provisions for a three-level system - villages
.78 ievel, intermeCiate level, and district levei.
.46 Article jd of the Cohstitution directs tfre'State
to organise Village Panchayats
.beganas units of sglf
,40 government. Most siates implementing
this Directive Principle along the lines of the
2z Art. 169 says Legislative Councils can be created -
or aboiishefl through a simple act of Parliament-
recom men dati on s of"the goue rnrrr ent's Balwantrai-
Mqhta Commission report. According to these
on the recommendation of Legislative Assembly.v recommendations, the popularly elected gram .

Though, Legislative Assembly can have minimum panchayat (.\,tillage Council) rs the basic unit. .
strenglh of 60rand maximum of 500,.LeEislative 7.3rd Constitution Amendment Act, 1992 and
Assemblies of - Sikkim, Mizoram. Goa "and 74th Constitution Amendment Act, 1992 inserted
Pondicherry nave 32,- +0,,+p bnd 40 members pagt lX (pqlclrayats) and Part lX A (municipalities).-
:
respectively in the Constitution respectively as well as Xlth
Legislative Council is the .Upper House"The and Xllth schedule respectively. Xlth Schedule
membership of the Legislative Council shafl not contains 29 areas of work.,for the panchayats
be more than one-third of the membership.of -

and Xllth Schedule has 1B areas of work for the

the L-egislative Assembiy and shall not be less municipalities.
than 40. Community Development Programme was
launched on October 2, 1952

{\\^-
L.
\--___--
 The $Iate [xecuflue a
the $tatG legislalure

TI.IE GOVERNOR
o Articie 153 says that there shall be a Governor
(i) rnay give hjs assent
(ii) may withhold his assent
for each S.tatb However .ur" p.rrl.-.";'0"
(iii) may reserve the Bill for the consideration
appointed Governor for two or more States. of
o the president or
Executive power of State is vested in the G-overnor
(iv) may return the Biil (if not a Money Bill)
(Art. 154). for
. reconsideration with his messaqe.
The Govern5r of a State is appointed bv the . Governor is having the obligation tl reserve
President and holds off i6s ., the plea(ur" the
of tt.," bill for the consrderaticn of the president where
. the bill passed by the State legislature endangers
Normal tenure of a Governor is 5 years.
the position of the State High Court
. IArt. 2001
Governor can also reserve the bill if it is
(i) He must be a crtizen of lndia.
(i) against the provisions of the Constitution
(ii) He must hav-e completed age of 35 years.
(iji) He .nJsr not holCany office profit. ) (ii) against the larger interest of the country. ,
of (iii) of grave natlonal importance
. The satary anO ariowiicei ol ft,J'Cou"rnor
are (iv) deaiing with compulsory acquisitioq
orawn trom the consolidated fund of tf..le States. of
property under Art. gtR of the Constitution.
However. when the same person i, ,ppointlJ r When the Siate legislature is not in ,u."rn
as rhe Governor of two or more States. the uni
Governor think that circumstances exist which
ernoiuments and allowances payable to him
shall render it necessary for him to take immediate
be attocited imolg tfre Stqtes in ;rdf-, pr"O"ri,".
action. He can issue ordinance under Ar1.213.
as determined by the president of lndia. .
o The Goyernor is entitled to be consulted by
lf a member of parliament or State legislature
is President in matter of appointment of the juOges
appointed as GovBrnor, his seat shall bLcome
of High Court.
vacant in the concerned Houses. ' o The Governor acts as the Cha;cellor
. Governor has the power to appoint the Advocate of ,
Universitieg in the State. He also appoints
General and the members of the State public the
Vic,e-Chancellors of Universities,in the State.
ServiCe Corii{ssron, to non,inut" on;;;.#;;
r He ensures the laying of the Staie Budget
before
Anglo-tndian cbmmunity to State t"gLtrtr,"
. Governor can not femove the State puOiic
Service o
the I,egislature (Art. 202).,
lntroduction of Money Bill (Art. 2O7) jn the
Commission members aitfrough he can .r.p;f State
them pending inqujry with thJSupreme Court.
; legislature requires his prior recommendation.
r ln the areas State legisliture can enact laws, ,
. One-sixth of the m"bmbers of State Legistaiive
Governor enjoys the power te grant pardons, ,
Councf are nominated by the Govqrnor from
reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment
amongsr the persons having specral t<nowledge
or to suspend or commute sentences in certain
or practical experience jn literature, science,
co-operatiye movement and social service.
ait, ca:es (Art 161). However, Governor can not
. pardon death sentences. -
He appoints Elect,on Commissioner for ihe .
State.
. He decides on ihe question of disqualification
Article_ 163 provides discretionary powers
to him
ot and whether any matter is under his discretionary
the memQeqs of the State legislatureln
consultation
r. sphere, the decision of the Governor shall be
with the eteltiolCommission)of lndia. final.
. The Governor has constitutional drscretion
in the
following cases:
Governor's Assent to Bills (i)
. Reservation of a bill for the consideration
There are four courses open to a Governor of
to the President.
whom a Bill passed by the State legislature (ii)
is Recommendation fcr the imposition of the
presented for assent. The Governor
President's Rule in the State.
 IllA0E EISY. lndian Polity
466

Number of
Constitutional Amended Subiects
Amendment Act

Ninty{hird 2005 It impowerec the sta.te to make special provisions for the socially
and edr:cationally backward classes or the SCs or STs in

educational instrtutrons including private educaiional rnstitution

,)
{whether atdecj or unaided by the state), except the minority
educational instltutions [clause (5) in Art 15]'

Ninty-fourth 2006 freed Bihar f rom the obligation of having a tribal welfare minister
It
and extended the sanre provision to Jharkhand and chhatiisgarh
[Art. 16a( 1 )l

Ninty-f ifth 2A10 To extend the reservation of seats for scs and sTs in the Lok
Sabha and states assemblies from Sixty years to Seventy years

Ninty-sixth 2011 Substituted "Odia" for "OriYa"

Ninty-seventh 2012 Added the words "or co-operative societies" after tl"^]t:td
"or unions" in Article r9(l) (c) and insertion of-arti1j1+Sa 1-3
Promotron of co-operative societies and added Part-lXB i.e., The
Co-ooeraiive Societies
The amendment objective is to encourage economic activities
of cooperatives which in turn help progress of rurai lndia lt
is expected to not only ensure autonomous and democratic
functioning of cooperatives but also the accountability of the
management to the members and other stakeholders'

Ninty-eighth 201 3 To empcwer the Governor of Karna'laKa to take sieps to develop

the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region

Ninty-ninth 2015 The amendment provides for ihe formatron of a National Judicial
Appointments commission. 16 State assen blles oui of 29 States
including Goa, Rajasthan, Tripura, Guiarat anc Telangana ratif ied
the central Legislation, enabling the Presioent of lncjia to give
assent to the bill

One Hundredth 2015 Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) between tndra and Bangladesh

One Hundred first 2416 Good and Services Tax (GST) bill to be rntroduced in all over
lndia which will merge ail lndirect taxes as a single tax system'

rE

el
B.-
L \--
F

lllAllt E[$Y . Indian Potity

465

Arnendment Act
Eighty-sixth n lt made elementary education a fundamental right.
o ll changeci rhe subject matter of Art. 45 in Dir,.ctive pr.inciples.
r lt added a new Fundamental Duty under Art Et A.

EiEhty-seventh it provided for the readjustmerrt anC raliona z_alicrr territorial

constituencies in the States on the basis of the population figures
of 2001 Census and nct i99i Cer-rsus

Eighty-eighth it made a provisicn for serrrice tax by inserting Art. 269 A.

Taxes on services are levied by the Cerrtre but there proceeds
are ccileciFid as wel: as approprrated by hoth the Centi.e and
.re Stales in accorclance wilh lhe pri,rciples formulated by the
Parirament.

Eighty-ninih it bifurcateci National Conirrission lor SCs ancl STs irrto twc
set:arate oodies. namely,National Conrmission for SCs (Ari 336)
and National Ccrmmissicn for STs (Art. 3Sg A)

lJintieth It provir.ied for maintaining tir* erstr,,,rhile representation of the

STs and non STs in the Assarn i-egislatirze Assembly from the
Socoranci l-errirorial Areas Distri:1 lA"i 332(6)1.

Nintv-first -[he
' iotal nr.;rnber cf nlinisiers incii.rding tlre Frime Miriister rn
'ihe central Council of Ministers shali not
exceed '1S?6 of the
icial strengiir of the L-ok Sabha [Art. 75 (]A)l
u A .lemiler of either House oi Pariiarneni belonging io any
Lrolitir_:al party who is disqualifieC on the ground of defection
shail also be disquarlified io be ailpointed as a minister. lArt.
75 (1 8)l
r Ihe toiai nurnber of rninisters inciuding the Chief Ministers in the
Ccuncii of the Ministers in a State sl"raii irct exi;eeci 15% of the
iotat sirength of the Legislaiirie Assembiy of thal Staie. Brrt the
n';nber of rninii;ters int:iuding ihc-: Chief llinister irr a State shall
r':i l-re iess than '12 fArt. 164 (1A)1.
r Tie provision ct ilre tenth Scheclule (Ant;-Defection Law)
u:r':a,ning :o exemplion frc,rn drsqiralitication in case of splii
b;r 1i3rd menrbei"gr of tlre iegisiature party has been deletecJ.
It rneans ti"lat the defectors have no more protection on
gro,;nds o{ spiits.

Iilinty-second
464 lllAllt IASY. lndian Polity

Nurnber,of
Constitutional Amended Suhjects
Arnendment Act
Fourty-fourth 1 978 ,t: The Fundamental Right to Property was abolished.
a The term of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assembiies of
the States reduced to 5 years.
The disputes relating to the qualifications of the members of
the Parliament and the State Legislature shall be decideC by
the President and the Governors, respectively.
The provisions regarding quorum in the legislatures was
changed to as these were before 42nd Amendment.
It was provided that disputes reiating to the election of iire
President and the Vice-President shall be decided by the
Supreme Court and that of the election of the member cf ihe
Parliament and the State legislature shall be decided by the
High Courts.
The national emergency shall not be proclaimed except on
the written recommendation of the cabinet.

Sixty-f irst 1 988 The minimum age limit prescribed to get the Voting Right was
reduced to 18 years from 21 years.

Sixty-fifth 1 990 The National Commrssion for the Scheduled Castes and tne
Scheduled Tribes was given a Constitutional Status.

Sixty-ninth 1 001 The Union Territory of Delhi was named as the National Capita
Territory of Delhi. it also provided for a 70-member State
Assembly for Delhi.

Seventy.third 1992 Provisions relating to the Constitution, elections. finance ano

functions of the Panchayati Raj bodies.

Seventy-fourth 1992 Provisions relating to the Constrtution, election, finance anC

functions of the municipalities.

Seventy{ifth 1994 Provisions for ihe establishment of a Special Administrative Tribunai

for the speedy disposal of the disputes between the househo ce,s
and the tenants.

Eightythird 2000 It provides that no reservation in Panchayats need to be maCe

in favour cf the Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh whclly
inhabtted by the tribal population.

Eighty-fourth 2AO1 Creation of the new States of Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and

Jharkhand.

Eighty-fifth 2001 It provided for consequential seniority rn the case of promotion

by virtue of rule of reservation for the Government Servants
belonging to the SCs & STs with retrospective effect from June
'r995.
 MADE EASY e Indian Polity
462

Important Constitutional Amendment Acts

vo
Policy ove
illl0E IISY. lndian Polity 463

Number of
Constitutional
Amendment Aet

Restriction on the Fundamental Rights widened.

The power of Judicial Review of the Courts was restrrcted.

The duration of the House of the People and the Legislattve

Assemblies of the State extended to 6 years,

Provisions were made for the participation of the workers in

the management of industries

Provisions for the protection of environment, forests and

wildlife

Provisions for the protection of the children and the youth

against exploitation.

No quorum shall b,e required for conducting the meettng of

the House of the People and the Legislative Assemblies of
the States

The Right of the Supreme Court io examine the validity of the

laws of the State under Art. 32A abolished.

The Jury System was given importance rn the functioning of

the Courts

The President shall be bound by the advice of the Council of

lVinisters.

The Central Government was given the power to send Central

Forces in any State or part of State to control the law and
order in that State and the control of such forces shall rest
with the Central Government.

Emergency Provisions : (a) National Emergency may be

proclaimed in a part of the Territory of lndia: (b) The one time
duration of the President rule in a State under the Art. 356 was
extended from 6 months to one year.

Some sublects * protection of the forest and the wildlife,

education, weight and measures, populqtion control and
judicial administration shifted to the Concurrent List.

Provisions for the establishment of the administrative tribunals

for public servants.
llAllE [[$Y. Indian Polity 461

opposition.
,DA'YOU'i'rKn,lW2
. The function of this committee is to examine the
'

Annual Finance Accounts and to examine the . The consultative committees which also consist
reports of CAG of lndia on revenue reports. of members of Parliament, are not Parliamentary
committees. They are the committees attached
(iii) Gommittee on Public Undertakings V to various ministers and department of the
o lts composition is similar to that of Committee on Union Government.
Public Account.
. Only Lok Sabha member can become the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
Chairman of the committee. o Articles 3'15 to 323 of Part XIV of the constitution,
r lts function is to examine the reports and titled 'Services Under the Union and the States',
accounts of public undertakings & to examine . provide for a Public Service Commission for the
their efficiency & autonomous, functioning. Union and for each state.
-4, . The Chairman and other members of the UPSC
(iv) Committee on Welfare of the Scheduled are appointed by the President and they hold
Castes and Scheduled Tribes office for a term of six years from the date of
o This committee consists of 20 members from Lok appointment, or until they attain the age of 65
years, whichever is earlier. They are independent
Sabha and 10 members from Rajya Sabha. The
Chairman is appointed by the Speaker, but a
of the Executive and Legislature in the same
manner as the judges of the Supreme Court.
minister can'noi be a member of the committee.
o lts function is to examine the representation of Functions of the UPSC
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes o All matters of recruitment of higher civil services,
in various services and the implementation of i.e., group 'A' and 'B' civil posts under Central
welfare programmes for them. government, having the minimum pay sale of Rs
10,500 are managed by the UPSC.
(v) Business Advisory Committee o Advise the President in matters relating to
. Each house has one such committee. ln Lok appointments, promotions and transfers from
Sabha it has 15 members including Speaker one service to another of the civil servants.
as an ex-officio Chairman and in Rajya Sabha . All disciplinary matters affecting a person in the
1'1 members including the Deputy Chairman. service of the Union are handled by the UPSC.
The Chairman of Rajya Sabha is the ex-officio o All matters regarding award of pension and
Chairman of the committee. awards in respect of injuries sustained during
service under the Government are within the
(vi) Rules Committee purview of the UPSC.
. Each house has such one committee. ln Lok o Matters of grant of extension of service, re-
Sabha it is consisted of 15 members, including employment and matters of temporary appointment
the Speaker who is the ex-officio Chairman of (exceeding one year) and on regularization of
the committee. Rajya Sabha committee has 16 appointment.
members including the Chairman and the Deputy The main function of the UPSC is to maintain continuity
Chairman. The Chairman of Rajya Sabha is the of the administration, to keep the services free from
ex-officio Chairman of the committee. potent influences and safeguard their rights.

Staff Selection Commission (SSC)

Other Committees o The SSC was established in 1975 and enjoys
o Committee on Petitions, Committee of Privileges, the status of an attached office of the Ministry
Committee on Government Assurance are in of Personnel and acts as an advisory body. lt is
each house of Parliament. Each of the above entrusted with the selection of candidates to all
committees in Lok Sabha has 15 members, while group'B'posts having the maximum pay scale of
in Rajya Sabha they have 10 members. less than Rs 10,200; and all non-technical group
'C'posts in various ministries and departments of
the Central Government.
 ItlAllt t[SI.lndian I
460

8. Types of Governments set up. ln July 2004, rules were amende

(i) Qaretaker Government: Usually, the outgoing. provide for the constitution of seven more
Gov@in the office- committees, thus raising the number of DF
.17
till d'new gpGrnment after eleition takes the from Io 24. Each committee consists <

charge. *"*b"rtiSO tro, Lok Sabha and 15 from F

(ii) lnterim Government: n ndia, interim government

I I
Sabha).
came into power with the lndependence of lndia
a Members of all Financial Committees, the comn
\1
Act, 1g+l on tstlr Rugust and lasted till March on welfare of Scheduled Cas9s and Schet
1952. it was a fullJledged government and able Tribes and the Joint Committee on offices of
to take anY PolicY dectsron. are elected every year by members, acco
(iii) Minority Government: Government which do to the systern'of proportional representation
not have full confidence of Lok Sabha on its own means of single tranferable vote.
and survives on the support of other political lf speaker or, presiding officer himself is me
parties outside government. of the committee then he becomes the Chait
(iv) Coalition Government: When two or more lf he is not a member but his deputy is, ther
po itleglpgl tigs J9IB the govern me nt to ach eve
i is appointed as chairman.
.
I

their common goals. Ministers can. neither become members c

(v) National Government: lt is 'government by Financial Committees nor can they be ask
consensus' or a form of coalition government in appear before them for the purpose of 1

which all political parties participate with having evidence.

no opposition. Such a Government was formed
in Britain in 1940 by Winston Churc"hill during lmportant Parliamentary Committees
worlci war ll. . (i) Committee on Estimates
. The first estimates committee in the post
9. Shadow Cabinet pendence era was constituted in 1950'c
r' lt is a national cabinet formed by the main recommendation of John Mathai, the then fit
opposition party in Parliam,ent where in the minister.
members are assigned certain special function . This committee consists of 30 memb.ers or
to perform. Such members lead to the opposition the members are from Lok Sabha. Origir
during discussion in Parliament. lt is also called had 25 members, but in 1956 its membr
as "Cabinet-in'waiting", was raised to 30. A minister can not be app'
10. Hung Parliament as its member.
When no political party or pre-election coalition of The function of this committee is to ex
political parties is in a position to form a majo"rity whether the money is well laid out with
government. limits of the policy implied in the estimates.
suggest changes if it thinks so.
ParliamentarY Committees The committee acts as the continuous ec<
. Parliamentary Committees are of two kinds- committee.
stanfling committees and adhoc committees '
o Standing commiitees are elec,ted or appointed. (ii) Committee on Public Accounts
every year or periodically and their work goes on, ; The committee was constituted in 199$'
more
---' or less on a contiuous basis.4 - recommendation of Krishna Menon Comt
The adhoc committees are appointed on an
Originally it hadl!-lrem,gers (10 from Lok
adhoc basis as neeglg'1ggs and they c-egpilq, and 5 from Rajya Sabha). Flowever in 1
exist a@the tqs[qlg sleg! membership was raised lo22(15 from Lok
to them. Adhoc committees may be broadly and 7 from Rajya Sabha). A minister can
classifie9 into-I[e iOquty commilleres and select, elected as member of this committee.
or ioi nt comm ittees qn-bt!]S,--- The Speaker appoints the Chairman t

The Fdd-doffiittee of the Lok sabha committee from amongst its members
recommended sitting _up of 1Z--QgpeltmglI-> '1966-67 the Chairman of the committee b
n"ru6i-- .1993'
r- to ruling party but since 1963 the Chairt
Accordinolv on ath April 17 DRSCs were the committee is selected invariably fr<
%^^__-)

Lr
 tlAlll mSY c lndian Potity
459
As per Art. 368, two third of the members of the 4. Half-An-Hour Discussion \ '

House present voting as well as majority should "Ihis

kind of drscussion q matlgJs arising qut of
be absol ute majoiilvGl[e-Eousel the question.s already aniwereO 1n the-House
. Any anianam6nt rn-tl.,e 1Jroil,rg provisions can be held in the Lok Sabha durirfg the last half
requires passing of bill by special majority.and hour of the sitting on Monday, Wednesday and
ratrf icaiion by the legislatures of not less than half Friday. ln Rajya Sabha it can be held on any day
of the States:
(i) The manner of eiection of the president 5. Types of Motions i'
[Art. 54 and Art 551 , (i) Callinq Attention Motiop: A member may,
(ii) Extent of the executive power of the Union with the prior permissicn of the Speaker, call
and the State fArt. 73 and Art 162.1 the attention of a minister to any matter of
(iii) The Supreme Court and the High Courts [Art urgent public importance. lt does not exist in
241, Chap.lV of Part V, Chap. V of pari Vtl the Rajya Sabha, which has insiead "Motion
(iv) Distribution of iegislatirre pov/ers between
of Papers".
the Union and the States [Chap i of part Xl] (ii) Adjournment Motion: This motion is to draw'l',1
(v) Any of the Lists in the 7ih Schedute ..
the attention of the House to a recent matter
(vi) Representation of the States in parliament
of urgent public importance and having
lArt. 80 and Art. B'i 4th Schedutel serious consequences. The consent of the
(vii)Provisions of Art 368 itself .
Speaker and support of 50 members of the
House is required for the admittance of such
Parliamentary Terms a motion,
1. Vote on Account (Art. 115) (iii) Censure Motion or No Confidence Motion:' .

Lok Sabha can grant a limited sum from the It is an expression of lack of confidence in
Consolidated Fund of India to the executive io, the Ministry. At least 50 members shall rrse
spend till the Appropriation Act is passed by the support to permit the move of a motion.
Parliament. There is no discussion on it. (iv) Closure Motion: To cut short the discussion
on any subject a Closure Motion can be
2. Question Hour moved by any member.
The first hour of every sitting in both the Houses (v) Cut motion: lt can be of three types:
is devoted to asking and arrswering questions. (a) Policy Cut: lt disapproves the policy and n'

The timing is from '1.1 to '12 nqr:n euestions are says that amount be recluced to Re. 1
o{ three 1ypes. (b) Econcmic Cut: lt reduces the amount by
(i) Starred Questions: These questions ai.e to a specific sum so as to bring economy in
be anstryered oi-ally on the f locr of the House. the project.
Supplementary questions can alsr be asked (c) Token Cut: lt reduces amount by Fs.100.
here. The objective here is to voice a particular
grievance for which the government is
(ii) Unstarred Questions: These questions are
responsible.
answered ip writi1g and no supplementary
questions can be asked here
6. Special Mention
(iii) Short Notice Questions: These questions A matter which can not be raised under any
related to issues of public importance and established rule of the House, can be raised
can be askecj with notice shortei. than 10,. under the spe_cial mention in Rajya SaLrha. lt is
days presbribed for ordinary question. srnrilar to the ;iNotice Mention ,nd", Fule Siz in
3. Zero Hour '.* the Lok Sabha.
It is an lndran innov4tion and it is in existence
sincj 19Q2. This is the period between end of 7. Guillotine
I the question hour and the beginning of the day's.o Certain "Demalrg!.s_ IoL*grants']. of various
proceedilsr tt sta,ts ut t; ;;;; ,".1 g"r";,, ministers are accqptleQ by
,.- !rre!o! gabhq1ry1llql]-=
goes on upto 1 P.M. There members raise any any discussion. This is_bz{g!ly_ lpne__aue to }
rssue oi publrc importance on very short or even paucity of time.
I without notice.
458 IllAll[ IASY o lndian Polil

general election of Lok Sabha; First Session . Such Bills can be tntroduced in either Hous
of each year (the Budget Session). of Parliament without the recommendation r

(ii) For resolving any dead lock over the passage President. These bills are passed by simp
of a Bill. majority in both Houses.
(ii) Money Bills '
End of the Session . These are defined in Article 110. These Bil

(i) Prorogation
deal with the taxes, borrowings, consolidated
The presiding officer (Speaker) declares the House coniingency funds, audit and accourrting, etc.
adjourned sine die, when the business of the session
o Art. 109 gives special procedure regardir
is completed. Within the next few days the President
Money Bills.
issues a notification for prorogation of the session.
r A money Bill can originate only in Lok Sabha aftr
The President can also prorogue the House while in the recommendation of the President. Though tl'
session.
Bill is sent to Rajya Sabha also but even Rajl
Sabha rejects/returns the Bill (within 14 dal
(ii) Adjournment necessarily), the Bill is deemed to be passed.
This is a short recess , urithin a. session " of the . The Appropriation Bill and Annual Financial,B
Parliament, called by the presiding officer of the (Budget) are Money Brlls..
House. lts duration may be from a few minutes to
days together.
(iii) Financial Bills \/ _/
. Any Bill dealing with revenues or expenditure b
(iii) Adjournment sine die not certified as Money Bill by the Sppaker is
It is a type of adjournment when tne House is ,_',:
l-inancial Btll.
adjourned by the presiding officer r,vithout fixing any . Financial Bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabl:
date or time of the next meeting. on the recomriendation of the Prestdent & shou
Note: The adjournment does not bring to an end r:f be passed by both Houses by simple majority.
a session, but merely postpones the proceedings of
the House to a future time and date. (iv) Constitutional Amendment Bills
l-/ . Under Art 368 with the Powers of Parliame

DoYou Knotv?
to amenci the Constitution, thrs Bill can k
rntroduced rn any of the iwo Houses. witho
. Quo.1u1y i.g the p111mum nu11.Qq! of- 19yb,e-rs' recommendation of the President.
required to be present in the Hguse before it, . Such Bills must be passed by each Houl
can transact any b,usiness. lt is one-tenth of. separately with a special majority (two third
the total number of members in each House. the members present and voting which must k
including the presiding officer. lt means that more than absolute majority).
Quorum consisJs 5Q rygqbers in Lok Sabha . By 24th Constitutional Amendment Act, 197i it
and 25 members in Rajya Sabha. I obligatory for the President to give his assent
o The Constitution has declared Hindi and the Constitution Amendment Bills.
English to be the languages for transacttng
business of the Houses. lt can permit a Types of Majorities
member to acidress the House in his mother- Broadly there are four types of majorities. They a
tongue. as follows:
(i) Simple Majority: More than 50Y. olJhe membe
k present and voting (excludit'g mernbe
Bills introduced in Parliament abstaining).
. Legislative procedure is initiatedJn_t{qlrngt (ii) Absolute Maiority: More than 50% of the tol
+ is oassed bv both Houses
a Bill. when the Bill
of Parliament and assented bv the Presi-dent, it
members i ncl u d i n g aQgtaQl g.',lLe-m!_e-rs_r >
(iii) Effective Majority: More tlian- SOZ ot tl
becomes a Law. . effective strength of the House (vacancies a
a Bills &i'nE crEs-s,i-t"o under fotlowing categories:
-v_-:-- .--*-*,
.
not considered).
(i) Ordinary Bills (iv) Special Majority: As per Art. 61, two third of tl
a These are concerned with any matter other than -
total strength of the House (including vacancier
Financial Bills, Money Bills and Constitutional As per ArI. 249 two third of members of tl
Amendment Bills. House present and voting.
tlA0t tlSY r lndian Polity 457

. The Deputy Chairman of Ralya Sabha is elected to uphold the dignity & pi'ivileges of the House.
by the members from amongst its members- ln o lmmediately after Lok Sabha is elected, President
the absence of the Chairman, Deputy Chairman appoints a Prc-tem Speaker who is senior most
presides over the f unctions anC proceedings of the - member in the House. He acts as the Speaker till
House. Deputy Chairman shall vacate his office if the Speaker rs elected by Lok Sabha.
he ceases to be a member of the Council and he . The party with largest member after ruling party
may resign by wrifing to Chairman and also may _
and having at least one-tenth of the strength of
be removed by a resolution of the Council passed Lok Sabha is recognised as Opposition Party.
by majority of all th6 members of the Council.
:->
The Leader of Opposition in both Houses of
. Each federating unit is represented by at ledst Parliament is entitled to the salary, allowances
one member. and other facilities equivalent to that of a Cabinet
. UP has largest number of Ralya Sabha seats (31) Minister.
& Maharashtra second largest (19) rvrile all the . UP has largest number of Lok Sabha seats
NE States, except Assam have one seat each. (80) followed by Maharashtra (48) and Andhra
. Some resolutron can be initiated only in Rajya Pradesh & West Bengal (42 each).
Sabha, e.g.
(i) A resolution seeking the remova of the Vice-=- Qualification for Election of Lok Sabha Members
President (Article 67) . . He should be a citizen of lndia.
(ii) Any resolutiol seeking creation of one or . He should not be less than of 25 years of age.
more All-lndia services (Article 312). . He should be a registered voter in any of the
(iii) A resoluiion seeking Iegislation on'' any Parliamentary Constituencies in lndia.
subject of the State Lisi (Art 249). o He should not hold any office of profit.
7
Quralitication for Election of Rajya Sabha Sessions of Parliament
Members . The maximum gap between two sessions of the
r He should be a citizen of lndia Parliament can not be more than six months. lt
o He should not be less than of 30 years of age. means that Parliament should meet at least twice
. He must be a registered voter, ordinary citizen ayear. However, there are usually three sessions
in the State or Union Territory from where he is in a year, The sessions are:
intended to be chosen. (i) Budget Session (February to May)
o He should not hoid any office of profit (ii) Monsoon Session (July to September)
(iii) Winter Session (November to December)
The House of the People(Lok Sabha) Note: Winter Session is the shortest session.
o As per Art. 81 there shall be not more than 530 -
representatives from the States, 20 from the UIil Joint Sitting
and not more than z nominat6o m@ . UnderArt. 108, there is a provision of jointsitting -
Anglo Indian com@otal 552. .- of both the Houses of the Parlrhment.
o At present there are 545 members in Lok Sabha, r Lok Sabha speaker presrdes !v.er t[q]!r!!-gtting
of which 530 are from States,ol3 from UTs and..t lArt 1 1B(4)l *

2 nominated by the Presige_lt. -- . l#

There are only three oqcagronq-in the history of,
-
The Parliament has frozen the representation of lndian Parliament that the joint sessions of the
States and UTs in Lok Sabha at 543 till 2026AD. Parliament took place. They are ai tolto*s,
The Constitution through Art. 83 provides normal (i) ln May 1961.ufor Doyry Prohibition Bill, 1959..;
tenure of Lok Sabha to be 5 years. However, (ii) ln May 1918lor Banking Services Commissio{
Parliament by 42nd Constitution Amendment (iii) ln
Act, 1976 extended it to 6years, but the 44th Joint sitting can not be called for resolving
Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978 again fixed deadlock regards to Money Bill"and Constitution-
the original normal tenure of 5 years. Amendment Bills. .

The Speaker is the Chief Presiding Officer of Joint sitting of both Houses can be convened on
the Lok Sabha. The Speaker is elected from the two occasions:
members of the Lok Sabha after the new Lok (i) Special address by the President at the
Sabha is constituted. He has the responsibilities commencement of First Session after each
/.,
illillI ilSY o lndian Polit:
456

:Congi.l s:fl) Jan,

6" lndira Gandhi (died in office)
Congress (l) Oct 31, 1984 to Dec. 2, 19Bg
L- Rajiv Gandhi
Janata Dal Dec.2,1989 to Nov. 10, 1
B,- Vrshwanath PrataP Singh
.1991
o SJP/Janata Dal (S) Nov, '10, 1990 to June 21 ,
Chandra Shekhar
Congress (l) June 21, 1991 to MaY 16, 1996
1C P. V. Narsimha Rao
BJP May 16, 1996 to June 1 , 1996
Atal BihariVajPaYee
OWda Janata Dal June 1 , 1996 to April 21 , 1997
11. Ht r,. D,.':"' Pq;6,, G
.1998
Janata Dal April 21, 1997 to March 19,
12. lnder Kumar Gujral
_
BJP March '19, 1998 to MaY 22, 2004
lJ. Atal Bihari VaiPaYee
May 22,2OO4 -MaY 27,2A14
A Manmohan Singh INC

BJP May 27,2A14 - till date

I3. Narendra Modi

. A person who is not a member of either House can

and two Houses t9 !e k[9wn as the QouLqtl
States (Raiva Sabha or Upper Hor\qe) and tl
also become a minister but he cannot continue
as minister for more than 6 months unless he Uouse6t tfre peopte (t-oX SaOfra or Lower House
secures a seai in either l-louse of 'Parliament
a Parlia@
an c i a I c o nt ro pve r th e exe c utl
(by election or nomination) in the mean time nt h-as
a P ar i ame
I f in I
@
and it is the sole autlority to rdise the t%

- -* _ --_--:4,,12
asure of the President. - ' As per Articlg_80 (ii): -The Council of .State sh
nrt.lz---tst EaFfrinGlls sIETI-6@l eglYglv consist of riot more than 238 elected. membe
,.---.--io-t]prSggJggplg* lt is the principle
reiponsible and 12 nominated members for a peiiod of I
of colleilD6 responsibility. - years.
tf Primd-Minister resigns or'passes away, entire At present the strength of Raiya Sablglgftl
which 233 ere elected andJ? 3le!9[rne!9d;
Art -:,,,
78 envisaqes duties of Prime Ministel in respect Th;;;;Grs to be nomlrfrted bv the Presid(
;:--'-
otffiiJning infor6ation to the-;-^:;:::.,-----=
President. are persons having special knowlqdge
practical experrepce in respect of literqlu
')
science. art and sbcial service. .
€ types of Ministers
rneirecGd *erEe6? eacr,-6tate legislatt
.. . Capinet IVlinisters: Senior most
.. ministeJg
rl^^ +^ elect their-::!::::-:':.:::
representatives- on the basis
congtitute the cabinetrand have the rigt!--Lg,
-l^L+
>
a. means
cabinet r'-r---i-:--:-------:l-rqPresentatioilwith
proportionai- \
attend all the cabine]-meetings -7 -Only '
. -.- --:-l
the p914y singie trel!!&Iqlle Yelg.----
i ltl IsLcr 5 uulrxlqjg
miru-sters deliberate -alq-qqqrg%on
5 .-1_Y:Y:5
r

44th r Constitution
rllatter, z++Lr
matter, doistitutJon Act,
rreirYjlljlllalYl_-_jj-i:>
\/ur r>uruuut I Amendm
Amendment 1978 nalya ilaO na jlpeme!9!!!9!99 wh Ie one th i

-'IG^-G6E='e6E ^r tyg-y€Alg lylAlgliE

n co ro o rat66 Inet lr/ n ste rs 1, n' i i i
of its mem bergjgqlle,eve ry
The members of Rajya Sabha participate
i

--.-,-} ----.--'-7
Ar[icle 352 of the C_onstitgtJ-o1t-.,.
gtater Gwer Id rank to the election and impeaChment (removal) of
Vo Min[fJ;;f Cabirret ' President, except the nominated ones'
Ministers and assist* the latter.Jhey can attend
'cab-1net
if for ln case of emergency declaration under Art l
the meetings. only invited.- any
particular meeting
a@nt,theresolutjonm
Deputy Ministers: They can not hold independent
nu gt-Pelleoel

charge and always asslgt-cabingt or state ministers,

The Vice-Prgsrs!-ent -of lndia is the ex-off
Chairman of the RaiG Sabha. He presides o
or both. TheY never att"ry thepro@aslong
he does nolgqt-qU!€ jt"9!"I of lndia dur
THE PARLIAMENT
. Article 79 provides lhat there shall be a Parliament
vacancy ln tl" {lig@@-€ltn
for th6 Union whicfr shall cr-rnsist of the President
tlAllt t[SY. lndian Polity 455

It isconvention that, after the change of the o TheAttorney-General hold off ice during ihe pleasure
government, the Attorney-General resigns and the of the President, and receives remuneration as the
ne'vvgovernment appoints one of its ovun choice. President may deter,.nine.
He advises the Government of lndia on any legal
matter. He performs any legal duties assrgned The Comptroller & Auditor General of lndia (CAG)
by the President of lndia. He discharges any . Under Article 148, The Presicjent appoints
functions conferred on him by the Constitution cr the Comptroller ancl Auditor General (CAG)
the President. to perform all duiies and exercise power in
. ln the performance of his duties, the Attorney- connectron rr,'rth the accounts of the Union and
General shall have right of audience in all Courts States. His main duty is ro keep a vigilant watch
rn the territory of lndia. on the firrances of the Union and the States, to
. He shali neither advise nor hold a brief against submit reporls io the President and the Governor
the Government of lndia in cases in which he is of the States. ancl to ensure that rhe money voted'.,
called upon to advise the Government of lndia. by the iegislature is spent under appropriate
Nor should he defend accused persons for heads and non exceeded or varied. .
criminal prosecutions without the permission of . He holds office lor a term of 6 years pr till he
the Government of lndia. attarns the age of 65 years, whichever i-s earlier.
o Fie is prohibiied to take appointment as a The President can rernovb him (CA"G)"frcm the
Director irr any company without a permission of office before the expiry of his term on giounds of
the Government of lndia. proved misbehaviour or incapacity" ln short, the
. The Attorney General represents the Union anC CAG acts as the custodian and trustee of public
the States before the Courts but is also aliowed money. He ensures regularity of expenditure and
to take up private practice provideC, the other" looks into the wisdom of the expenditure.
party is not the State,
. He is not paid a salary bul a retainer that is Prime Minister & Council of Ministers
determrned by the President. . The position of Prime Minister in the Councii of
r Although he is not a member of the either House Ministers is described as 'Primus Inter Pares'
of the Parliament, he enjoys the right to attend i.e. first amonE ihe equals.
and spreak !n the Parliamentary deliberations and . The Prime Minister (PM) is appointed by the
meetings (of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya President and other ministers are appointed by
Sabha), without a riEht to vote. the President on the advice of Prrrle Minister
. He is entitled to all the priviieges and immunlties IArt 75 (i)]
as a Member of the Parliament, o Ministers may be taken from members of either
. The retarner of the Attorney General is equal to House and minister who is member of one House
the salary, of a judge of the Supreme Court. has the-right to speak and take part in the procee- .
. He is assisted by two Solicitors-General and four dings of the other House but can rrot vote in the
assistant Solicitors-General. House of which he i1lot membel [Art. BB] ,

Prime Ministers of lndia

sl. Name
.15,
1. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru INC Aug. 194'7 to rnay 27 " 1964

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) INC May'27 , 1964 to June 9, 1964

Lal Bahadr.rr Shastri (died in office) INC June 9, 1964 to Jan. 1 1, 1966
Guljarilal Nanda (acting) INC Jan. 1 1, 1966 to Jan. 24. 1966
3.. lndira Gandhi INC Jan. 24,1966 to March 24. 1977

4. Morarji Desai Janta Party March 24,1977 to July 28, 1979

A. Chaud,hai$leharq-[,,$jn$h, 28 Jan 14,
"ianata Party (S) July 1979 to 1980
 454
ilmt ilSY r tndian potih
The Presidents of lndia

Sl. Name
period
-1. Dr. Rajerrdra pre_sad
...... .......January 26,1950 to May 13, 1962
2. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan ......May 1g, 1g62to May 13, 1967
3. Dr. Zakir Hussain (died in off ice) ..May 13, j 96Z to Niay 3, 1969
varahagiri Venkat Giri (acting) ... .. . May 3, I 969 to July 20, 1960
Justice M. Hidayatullah (aciing)
.,........,July 20, i969 io August 24,1969
4.

5.

6. l.ieelam Sanjeeva Feddy (elected unopposed)

25, 1977 to July ZS, 19BZ

7"

B.

g.

"11.

12.

"tl3l11l'13,*.-- ruty 2s,2012 -tir cjate

t Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952-1962

; Dt. Zaki Hussain 1 962-1 967
3. Varahagiri Venkata Giri 1 967-1 969 Note : Mohammad Hamid Ansarr is the 2nd only Vice_
4. GopalSwarup Pathak President of Indja afler Dr. S. Racjhakrjsnnan who get
1 969*1 974 a
second terrn consecutively.
A
B"D. Jatti 1974*1979
6. Moharnrnad t"l idayatuila.h 1979-1984 ATTORNEY GENERAL OF INDIA
7. R. Venkataramarr 1 984-1 987 " Article 76 states that the presideni shall appoint
a person who is qualified to be appointed as a
B. Dr. Shankar Dayat Sharma 1987-1992 judge of the Supreme Court to be the Attorney
o General of lndia.
K.R. Narayanan 1992.-1997 . He is the first legal officer of the Govt. of Inclia.
1C. Ki'ishan Kant 1997-2AA?.
. The term of office of the AGI is not fixed by the
Constitution of lndia.
 ilillt IASY. lndian Polity
453
The President causes to lay before the parliament
certain reports. These are, Report of Comptroller Proclamation of emergency must be passed
& Auditor General, Recommendations of Finance by both Houses with special majority within
Commission, Union Public Service Commission one month of proclamation.
Report, Report of Special Officer of Scheduted A proclamation once approved shall remain in
castes, scheduled tribes and other backward force for a period of six months.
castes and Iinguistic minorities.
The President has the power to grant pardons, While proclamation of emergency is in operation
reprieves, respites or remissions or punishment following effects are seen:
or to suspend, remit or commute the sentences
of any person in all case. The President is the (i) Extension of Centre's power to enact laws
only authority to grant pardons in case of death on any matter of State List [Art. 353(b)].
sentence on the advice of Council of Ministers (ii) Centre is empowered to alter the method
(ArL 72).
of distribution of revenues between Union
and States [Art 354].
Power's of President under Article 72\2
(iii) President may extend the normal life of Lok
Sabha by a year each time tArt. 83(2)1.

Completely absolves the offender

Commutation Substitution of
one form of THE VICE PRESIDENT
punishment to lighter form r Article 63 provides that there shall be a Vice-
President of lndia.
Reduction of the amount without o Article 64 says that the Vice-President shall be
changing its character
ex-officro Chairman of the Council of States and
-a^ ^--!!.*:
Snall not hold any other office of profit.
Awarding a lesser punishment on
special ground e.g. pregnancy. V ce- P res d e n t g e{glq|qyjo: g_gBjrqelel
i i
! eI
{qLyf^g+Ia and not for being Vice-President.
Temporary suspension of death Vice-President is etilteA--bi-tb.f.rd ;"il"g"
sentence. consisting allthe members (elected + nominated)
of the Parliament.
He holds oifice for 5 years or until his successor
Powers of President during Emergency
enters upon the office.
President has been given extraordinary power
to declare emergency to meet any kind of threat Vice-President may be removed by a resolution
to country. Constitution provides three types of of the Council of States passed by a majority and
emergencies: agreed to by the Lok Sabha. A resolution seeking
(a) National Emergency: Due to war, external removal of Vice-President can only be initiated rn
aggression or armed rebellion (Art. 352). Rajya Sabha.
(b) State Emergency: Due to failure of Constitutional For election as Vice-Presldent a person must
machinery in States (Art. 356). (a) be a citizen of lndia, (b) has compteted the
(c) Financial Emergency: Due to financial instability age of 35 years, (c) be qualified for election
(Art.360). as a member of Rajya Sabha and (d) not hold
any office of profit, under the Central or State
DoYou Know? Government.
o During National Emergency all Fundamental Vice-President while discharging the functions
fiights except those under Article 20 and 21 of the President, have all the powers and
are suspended. immunities of the President and be entitled to
o Promulgation under Article 352 can be made
such ernoluments, allowances and privileges of
only when Union cabinet ministers headed by
the President.
the Prime Minister asked him in writing.
 452 illAllt EISY.lndian Po

Qualifications for Election as President (Art.58) out in the name of the President (Article 53
1. He must be a citizen of lndia. Arlicle 7l!_n
2. He must have attained 35 years of age. Hfh-a-power to appoint the Prime Minister a
3. He must be qualified to be a member of the Lok on his advice to appoint other Ministers of 1

Sabha. Union (Art.

'<:-7 75).
4. He must not hold any office of profit under Central He also appoint's, the Attorney General of lnr
or State government or any local or other authority. (AGl); Comptroller and Auditor General
Exception for this are a sitting President or Vice- lndia (CAG); Judges of the Supreme Court a
President of lndia, Governor and minister of the High Courts; the Governor of a State or the
Union or of any State. Governor or Chief Commissioner or Administra
(Lieutenant Governor of Delhi, Pondicherry a
Tenure of President (Article 56) Andaman & Nicobar lslands, Chief Commissiot
. President shall, not withstanding the expiration for Chandigarh, Administrator for Dadra & Na1
of his term, continue to hold off ice until his Haveli and Daman & Diu) of a Union Territc
successor enters upon his office. The President members of the Union Public Service Commiss
shall hold off ice for five years in general. Removal and Joint Commission; for a group of Stat
of President be as follows: the Chief Election Commissioner and otl
(i) President may resign by writing to Vice- members of the Election Commission; Finar
Presrdent. Commission, a Commission on official langual
ii) President may, for violation of the Constitution a special officer for the SC/ST area; Commiss
v/
J
be removed from office by impeachment to investigate the condition of Backward Class
(Article 61) and Special Officer for linguistic minorities.
. ln case of vacancy caused by resignation, death The President is the Supreme Commander
or impeachment, a new President should be the defence forces, however the Parliament c
elected within six months. regulate military powers (Art. 53).
. ln above cases, the Vice-President acts as an All treaties and international agreement i

acting President till the new Prestdent enters the negotiated and concluded in the name of Presid
office. During such period he receives the salary though sublect to ratif ication by Parliame
and the facilities of President's post. President receives and sends Ambassadors e
(removal) of the President (Art.61) other diplomatic representatives.
vl o
-^impeachment President has power to summon and prorogue
Under Article 61 of the Constitution, the Prestdent
Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha (Art. 85
of lndia can be impeached for the violatton of the
The President can call a joint session in case c
Constitution, which is solely to be decided by the
Parliament.
conflict between the two Houses on ordinary
. (Art. 108).
The procedure for impeachment can be initiated
in either House of the Parliament.
President addresses the Houses of Parliam
. The impeachment procedure is quasi-judicial in separately or jointly after each general elect
nature because after a resolution to this effect and at the f irst session, each year (Art. 87).
is passed by the originating House, OV-g :/g:_- Certain bills require prior approval of the Presid
majority (resolution supported by not less than / for introduction in the Parltament. These
Money Bill, Finance Bill of first class, Bi!l for
*2_53-pJ=!!g^ryflbers of the House and to be recognition of new State, or alteration of St
moved only after a prior notice of 14 days to the
President), the other House sets up a Committee boundaries or a State Biil for imposing restrict
on freedom of trade and commerce.
to investigate the charges against the President.
. The President can defend himself by taking The President enjoys Veto power usually cal
pocket Jeto, which can be used for withhold
service of the Attorney-General of lndia or any
bill for any time (Art. 1 1 1).
other lawyer of his choice. lf the second House
also passes the Resolution with the same 2/3rd President may promulgate ordinances Uflr
majority, the President stands impeached.
Articlel23 except when both the Houses are
session.
Powers and Functions of the President al Ordinance issued under Art. 123 must rece
"/.,/'/ . The executive power of the Union is vested in the approval of Parliament (both the houses) wit
President and all executive functions are carried six weeks of the reassembly of the Parliamenl
Ihe llnion Exeoutiue

THE FmEstoEtur oF rNDrA

a Article 52 says there shall be a President of lndia.
a Articie 53 says that all executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the President

Election of the President (Article 54 & 55) . For nomination of a person for the eiection of
n The provisions dealing with the election of the President minimum 50 eiectors need to be
Presicient are provided in Articles!4 and 55 and proposers and further 50 electors need to be
the President and the Vice-President (Elections) seccnders of the nomination papers. In case
Act of 1952, which was amended in 1974. cf Vice-President election 20 proposei's and 20
. The President is elected by the members cf an seconders are required.
electoral college consisttng of . No elector shall subscribe whether as proposer
(i) the elected members of both the l-louses of or seconder, more than one nomination paper at
Parliament, and the same election.
(ii) the elected mernbers of the Legislative . The value of vote of an MLA and MP is such
Assemblies of the States that a true federal character of the office of the
. The nominated members of both the Houses ot,J-/ President is maintained, by striking a balance
Parliament, the nominated members of the State between the States and the Centre.
Legislative Assemblies and the members of the . To be declared elected to the office of ihe
State Legislative Council (in case of a Bicameral Presideni, inore ihan 50?1, of the valici votes are
Legislature), do not participate in the election of required by a Presidential candidate.
the Presicient. . Amount deposited by a candidate shali be
. The President's election is held in accordance forfieted if at the election, canciidate is nct
with a system of proportional representation elected and the number of valid vr:te poiled bv
by means of a single transferable vote and ihe such candidate does not exceed one sixth of the
voting is done by secret ballot. number of votes necessary to secure the return
of a candidate at such election.
Value of the vote of an MLA = ln case of any dispute regarding the eleciion
Population of the State 1 of the President, only the Supreme Court is
authorised to intervene in the matter.
Total elected Members of 000
State Legislative Assembly
1
r lf the election of the President is declared voio,
acts of the President tili the declaration, cannot
This means that value of the vote of an MLA be invalidated.
differs from one State to another. This is done to
given equality of representation in terms of the
population.
r Disputes regarding election of the Presideni
Value of the vote of an MP = are under the jurisdiction of Suprerne Cor.rrt
only.
::.r.:,,r.,.lr,..:|flfrfi|rrg;gJ.g6l6*$f::1ry l:\{rclll.l.ll:::,li.l:..t ,. . No petition can be iled on account
f of
vacancies in elecroral college.
lotal elected Members o The <iispute can be brought in iront cf Slr6:reme
of Parliament Court onry after the elections are over
-
H[0E E[$Y r lndian Polity
450
(v) To promote common brotherhood ancj establish a Don't drop the Flag on vehicles.
dignity of women. a Don't hoist it upside dourn. lt must not touch the
(vi) To preserve the rich heritage of the nation's ground.
composite culture. Must fly higher than all other flags except that of
(vii)To protect and irrrprove natural environment. the UN or other nattons.
(viii)To clevelop scientific temper, humanism and a Don't fly a damaged flag.
spirit of inquiry. a The amended code came into effect from January
(ix)To safeguard public property and ablure 26,2A03.
violence.
(x) To strive for excellence in all spheres of individual
and collective activity.
(xi) lt shall be duty of every citizen of lndia who is a
parent or guardian to provide opportunitres for filed a PIL in the Delhi High Court challenging
education to his child or ward as the case may the resirain on his right to f ly the Fiag.
be, between the age of 6 and 14 years, (addeci . Delhi High Court gave ruling that the flying
by 86th Constitution Amendment Act, 2002). of Tricolour is a Fundamental Right ancj the
Supreme Court subsequently recommended
THE NEW FLAG CODE these to the Union Cabinet to reiax the unduly
. One can hotst the f iag only from sunrise to sunset. stringent rules about flying the Tricolour.
. The ratio of width to length of the flag should be . Now, one can fly/hoist the flag under the
2.3. guidelines of new flag code.
. Don't use the flag as a shroud for funerals.
II
IllAltE EASY r lndian Polity 449

Article 47: To bring about the prohibition of with the maintenance of efficiency of administration,
intoxicatrng drinks and drugs that are injurious to in the jobs and appointments to Union & States.
heaith.
Article 350 A: To provide adequate facilities for
Article 48: To Prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves instruction in the mother tongue at prlmary stage to
and other milk and drought animals. children of linguistic minorities.

WESTERN LIBERAL PRINCIPLES Article 351: To promote the spread of Hindi language.
Article 44: Uniform civil code.
Difference between Fundamental Fights and
Article 45: Education to children below 6 years of age. Directive Principles of State Policy
Article 49: To preserve historical monuments.
FRs DPSPs
Article 50: Separation of judiciary from executive.
Article 51: To promote international peace and amity. Negative obligation Positive obligation
of the State of the State
DIRECTiVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY Non-Justiciable in
n Articles 9!Jl__{eal with the proyisln of the Court of Law
D rective' Pri ncjp]5;-s,, wh c tr aricon-tifieO n
i i i

Patllt ol-1lg-C-onstitution . This feature of the Foundation of Foundation of

Constitution is taxer tronrldtana. ^-. political democracy and economic
. These are a kind-ot Oirections-o/instructions democracy
to the State in order to grow lndia as a welfare
State. Note: ln case of conflict between the Fundamental
o Article 36 directs the State to secure and orotect - Rights and Directive Principles, Fundamental Rights
a social order which .trnffi would prevail.
oeoole.
Article 37 savs that Direciive Principles.are non- FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
justiciable in the court b he . These are based on erstwhile USSR model. Ten
governance of the State. duties were included in the lndian Constitution
by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 and Eleventh
DPSP added by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 duty was added by B6th Arnendment Act 2002
Article 39(g): Toprotect children against exploitation , Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are
to provide opportunities for their healthy development
in conditions of freeddm and of dignity.
- co-relative. 1 1 Fundamental Duties of the citizens
towards the State have been enumerated in
Article 39A: Equal opportunity for justicq-and free Article 51-A in Part-lV A of our Constitution.
legalaid. t There is no provrsion in the constitutton for direct
enforcement of any of these duties nor any
Article.43A: Right olworkers to pa sanction to prevent their violation.
ment of indusiries.
-------) Supreme Court pointed out the foundation of
Article 48A:. To protect the environment, forest and the "composite culture" expressed in clause
wild animals. (f) of Article 51-A in tire Sanskrit language and
l----) Iiterature.
DPSP added by 44th Amendment Act, 1978
Article 38(2): State shall minimise inequality in List of Fundamental Duties for Citizens
income, status, facilities and opportunities among (i) To abide by and respect the Constitution, the
individuals and groups. National Flag and the National Anthem.
(ii) To cherish and follow the noble ideals of the
Directives in Other Parts (not in Part-lV of freedom struggle.
Constitution) (iii) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and
Article 335: Claims of scheduled castes & scheduled integrity of lnciia.
tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently (iv) To defend the country and render national
service when required.
 448 illAlll IASY. lndian Polity

1991 the Supreme Court ruled that the Certiorari 3. Protection of life and personal liberty (Art 21)-
can be issued even against administrative 4. Prohibition of Traffic in human bein$s and forced
authorities affecting right of individuals. la99gr_(AL?q>
5. Quo warranto: Means "what is your authority". 5. Freedom of religion (Art 1q_&l_29)
It is issued to ensure that the person holding a 6. Freedoni as to payment of taxes for promotion of
public office is duly qualified to hold the office. any particular religion (Art.27).

Amendability of Fundamental Rights (FRs) SOCIALIST pRtNCtpLES

. ln Shankari Prasad Vs-lnLpn_of lndLa (199?) and
Saiian
J' Sin-qh Vs State of Ralasthan
g uueE g 0965) Cases, Article 38: lt directs the State to secure and_plglqclg"
F-. 'LE
-.
-
Supreme Court held that Parliament can-amend
--- social order which stands for the welfarc of the people.
FRs byexercising its pow@
. tnGotaknathv/sffi
#+.}
Supreme tolrt*.TelJ t6ai rRs have been-given
a Tp!€q9!ge$al^p9n$!9!., bv the Constitution Article 39 (a): Citizens (men and women) shall have
and are not amenciable. the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
24th Amendment Act, amended tl9!g lAanO Article 39 (b): Ownership and control of material
Article 368. and made the FRs amendable.
*=+) -
ln Kesavananda Bharti V/s State of Kerala (1973)
resources of the community shall be dibtributed so
as to subserve the coflrrnon good.
,

Case, Supreme Court held that Parliament can

amend any provision of the Constitution but Article 39 (c): Economic system shall operate in
amen-dments shall not be a manner that does not result in the concentration
tution. Thus, Judiciary of weatth ano m@hi- coirmon
evolved the Theory of detrimen
LdSU, Article 39(d): Equal pay for equal work, without any
.1976
/a 42'd Amendment. inserted that Parliament sex discrimination.
Yr- ,-i4W
"almeniFfi-Jro-lroiJirry can not interfere in it. (e): Health and strensth of workers and
ln
l{ilelyqUrllglgsq1-eQQ-supreme couit ruLeo *lt]f]: 1t
a
" terytergseslehiJdegmust not be abused'
that Judicial Review.Ls the basic structure oittre

o
6"..tffi."iJ" ,r..i"o
At present FRs are amendable but keeping basic
Article 39 A: Equaljustice and free leqal aid. ,
Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public
structure of Constitution untouched.
assistance in cert
FRs not Available to Aliens Article 42: Provision of just and humane conQitions
1. Rights not to be discriminated against on grounds of of work and maternityleiffi
race, caste, religion, sex or place of birth (Art. 15).
Article 43 A: Participation of workers in manage#ent
2. Righttoequalityof opportunityin publicemployment
of industries.
(Art. 16).
3. Right to six fundamental freedoms (Art. 19). Article 45: Provision for childhood care and
4. Right to suffrage (Art. 326). education of children below the age of six years.
5. Cultural and education rights (Art. 29, Art. 30).
6. Rights to hold certain off ices i.e. off ices of President, GANDHIAN PRINCIPLES
Vice-president, Governor of States, Judges
of
Article 40: Organisation of village panchayats.
Supreme Court or High Courts, Attorney General of
lndia, Comptroller and Auditor General, etc. Arti cte +]JWefSIg i9leggIgyrygg->
7. Right to contest election and get elected to either
Article 45: The State shall endeavour to provide
House at the Centre or State level.
early childhood care and education for all children
until they complete the age of six years.
Fundamental Rights Available to Any Person
(Except Enemy Aliens) Article 46: Promotion of education and economic
1. Equality.before law and equal protection of law interests of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and
(Art. 14). other weaker sections.
Protection in respect of conviction for offences (Art. 20)
L?
lllA0t IASI o lndian PoliV 447

for group of citizens who are economically and . Article 24 deals with prohibition of employment
socially backward of children in factories, etc.
Article 16
. lt says that there shall be equality of opportunity Right to Freedom of Religion (Art.25 to 28)
for all citizens in matters relating to employment . Article 25 deals with freedom of conscience
or appointment to any offrce under the State. and free profession, practice and propagation of
r No citizen shall be drscriminated on the basis of religion.
race, religion, caste, sex, descent, place of birth . Article 26 deals with freedom to manage religious
or residence. affairs.
. This is confined to the lndian citizens only. o Article 27 deals with freedom as to payment of
taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
Article 17 o Article 28 deals wrth freedom as to attendance
. lt says lhal Untouchability is abolished and its at religious instruction or religious worship in
practice in anyform is forbidden. The enforcement
certain educational institutions.
of any disability arising out of untouchability shall
be an offence punishable in accordance with
law. Cultural & Educational Rights (Art.29-30)
r Article 29 deals with protection of language,
Article 1B script and culture of minorities.
. lt says that no berng a mrlitary or
title not . Article 30 deals with right of minorities to
academic distinction, shall be conferred by the establish and administer educational instrtutions.
State. No citizen of lndia shall accept any title
from any foreign State.
o Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art.32)
The awards, Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, . Article 32 deals with right to move to the Supreme
Padma Bhusan and Padma Shri, called as The
Court for the enforcement of Fundamental
national Awards would not amount to title within
Rights including the Writs of (i) Habeas corpus,
the meaning of Art. 1B (i).
(ii) Mandamus, (iii) Prohibition, (iv) Certiorari and
(v) Quo warranto
Right to Freedom (Art. 19 to 221
r Article 19 says that all citizens shall have the
r ght WRITS
(a) to freedom of speech and expression, 1. Habeas corpus: Means 'to have a body of i.e.
(b) to assemble peacefully and without arms. to be produced before the court. lt can be issued
(c) to form associations or unions. against State and private individuals.
(d) to move freely throughcut the territory of 2. Mandamus: Means 'we order or we command'.
lnd ia. It can be issued against a public authority or
(e) to reside and settle in any part of the territory inferior courts for purpose of enforcing legal right
of lndia. only. lt can not be issued against President and
(f) to practice any profession, or to carry on any Governors.
occupation, trade or business. 3. Prohibition: Means 'to forbid' lt is issued by the
. Freedom of press is implicit in Art 19 (a). higher courts (Supreme Court or High Court)
. Article 20 deais with protection in respect of to the lower courts or quasi judicial bodies
conviction for offences. (Tribunals, etc.) forbidding the later to continue
Article 21 deals with protection of life and proceedings there in excess of its jurisdiction
personal liberty which it is not legally vested.
Article 21A deals with right to elementary 4. Certiorari: Means 'to be informed'. lt is issued
ed ucation. to quash the order of a lower court or tribunal
o Article 22 deals with protection against arrest in excess of jurisdiction. While the Prohibition
and detention in certain cases. is available during the pendency of proceedings
and before the order is made, Certiorari can be
Right Against Exploitation (Art. 23 to 24) issued only after the order has been made. Hence
o Article 23 deals with prohibition of traffic in we can say that Prohibition is of preventive nature
hurnan beings and forced labour. while Certiorari is of curative nature. However, in
 446 IllAllt EASY. lndian Polity

(i) Fundamental Rights mentioned in Art. 15, Art. 16 municipalities, panchayats, district boards,
and Art. 19 of the Constitution belong to citizens improvement trusts, etc. within the territory
alone. of lndia or under the control of Government
(ii) Only citizens are eligible for certain offices viz. of lndia.
(a) The President [Art. 58(1) (a)]
(b) The Vice-President [Art. 66(3Xa)] Classification of Fundamental Rights
(c) Judge of the Supreme Court [Art. 124(3)] Originally Constitution provided for seven Fundamental
(d) Judge of a High Court lArt. 217(2)) Rights viz.
(e) Attorney General [Art. 76(2)] (i) Right to_equglrjy (Articles 14-18) ,
(f) Governor of a State [Art. 157] (ii) Rioht to freedom (Articles 19-22\ .
(g) Advocate General lArt. 1651 (iii) Right againsi exploitation (Article( 23-24) -
(iii) Only citizens of India have been given the Right of (iv) Risht tgt6aa"" (nrtidesZ@,
Suffrage for election to the House of People (Lok (v) "tAiggn
Cultural & educational rights (Articles 29-30
Sabha) and the Legislative Assembly of every State (vi) Right to
and the Right to become a Member of Parliament (vii) Right to
and the Right to become a Member of Legislature
of a State. But, Right to property was deleted from the list of
the Fundamental Rights by the 44th Constitution
Amendment Act, 1978 and after amendment, it was
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
. Part-lll of the Constitution from Article 12 to 32 - made legal right under Art. 300-4 in part-Xll of the
Constitution. Thus, at present, there are only six
contains Fundamental Rights,
Fundamental Rights.
o Part-lllpf
L-\
the Constitution is called co!!ls!-g1eae4,
ot'ihe-don stitution and tog ethe part- V-, I

-witn
(Directive filnc,Oe of State Policy) -/constitutes
Right to Equality (Articles 1tl-I8),"
the conscience of the Constitution.This chapter Article 14^
ot t,ffieioei6rioed . <-
as the lt says that the State shall not deny to any person
Uaw_a @laaLtnXia equality before Jhe lafi6;Jh;;qffil protection of
Fundamental Rights are individual rights and these the laws within the territory of lndia.
rrghts are enforceable against the arbitrary invasron It is available to any person including legal
by the State except, in the casg_g!3rt.J_GL, persons viz. statutsry corpor?tion companies,
Art 1z3x 18 (3-4), ?qna A\!+\['ere these etc.
+rt
can be enforced against private individuals also The concept of equality before law is of British
FRs are not absolute rights and Parliament could origin whG the-con?ept of equal protection of
put reasonable restrrction. The grounds for the laws has been taken from the Constitution of
restriction may be advancement o.-L-.Q9s, STs . USA
O!9. women and chlldren; general. puOTii
"
The concept of rule of law is a negaiive concept
order; decency, morality, sovereignty & intergrity while the concept of equal protection of laws is a
of lndia; security of State, friendly relations with positive concept.
foreign States, etc. . The concept of equality before law is equrvalent
Article 13 provides for judicial review of all legis-- to the second element of the concept of the
lations'ln-G-615. 'rule of Iaw' propounded by A.D. Dicey, the
o Absolute Fundamental Rights are given under British jurist. But certain exceptions to it are,
Article 17 and Article 24. - the President of lndia, State Governors, Public
-=-;)
Riglfts outside part lll are:' Servants, Judges, Forergn Diplomats, etc.,
(i) Art. 3004-: Rioht to acouire orooertre. who enjoy immunities, protections and special
(ii) ArJ-39+ : Freedom of commerce & trade privileges.
(iii) A[316' Rishttry Article 15
. According to3rt. 12 'the State' includes the . lt says that the State shall not discriminate
(i) governmqlland Parliament of]nelia_ against any crtizen on grounds only of religion,
(ii) government and Legislature of States .. race, cast, sex, place of birth or any of them.
(iii) all locaT-'or other Z[thorities suctr as . Under Art. 15 (3) & (4), government can make
special provisions for women & children and

t"
 tllA0E EASY. lndian Polity 445

./\ (throughout
application under section 5(1)(a) LOSS OF CITIZENSHIP
the period of lwelve months immediatelv pefore The Citizenship Act, 1955 prescribes three ways of
making app losing citizenship whether acquired under the Act
aggrggAle in the EIGHT YEARS prece-Qing the or prior to it under the Constitution viz. renunciation,
twelve months). termination and deprivation.
(ii) Persons of lndian origin who are ordinarily (i) Renunciation
resident in any country or place outside undivided It is a voluntary act by which a person, after
lndia under section 5(1)(b). acquiring the citrzenship of another country,
(iii) Persons who are married to a citizen of lndia and gives up his lndian citizenship. This provision is
who are ordinarily resident in lndia for SEVEN subject to certain conditions.
YEARS (as mentioned at (a) above) before
making application under section 5(1Xc). (ii) Termination
(iv) Minor children whose both parents are lndran It takes place by operation of law when an lndian

citizens under section 5(1)(d). citizen voluntarilV acquires the citizenship of

(v) Persons of full age whose both parents are another country. He automaticaiiy ceases to be
registered as citizens of lndia under section 5(1) an lndran citizen
(a)or section 6(1)can acquire lndian citizenship (iii) Deprivation
under section 5(1)(e). It is a compulsory termination of lndian citizenship
(vi) Persons of full age who or either of the parents by the Central Government, if
were earlier citizen of Independent lndia and (a) the citizen has obtarned the crtizenship by
residing in lndia for ONE YEAR immediately fraud.
before making application under section 5(1Xf). (b) the citizen has shown disloyalty to the Cons-
(vii)Persons of full age and capacity who has been titutron of lndia
registered as an OVERSEAS CITIZEN OF INDIA (c) the citizen has unlawfully tradecl or comm-
(OCl) for five years and residing in lndia for CNE unicateci with tlre enemy during a war.
YEAR before making application under section (d) the citizen has, witl'rin five years after
n 5(1Xg) regist:'ation or naturalisation, been imprisoned
, in any country for two years.
Clarification: A person shall be deemecj io be a
(e) the citizen has been ordinarily resident out of
person of lndian origin if he, or either of his parents,
lndie for seven years contirruously.
was born in undivided lndia or in such other territory
which became part of lndia after the 15th Cay of DoYou Know?
August,1947.
. A person not bom in lndia, but having acquired
citizenship by registration or otherwise can
(4) By Registration (Section 5(4))
become Prims lvlln;ste. of india,
5 Any minor child can be registered as a citizen of . The Constitution does not diff erentiate
lndia under Section 5(4), if the Central Government between an ordinary and a naturalized citizen
is satisfied that there are "speciai circumstances" as far as eligibility to contest for Lok Sabha
justifying such registration. fach case would be
seat is concerned [here arter any mentber
considered on merits. is Constitutionally entitled to become PM,
provided the requisite support in l-ok Sabha is
(5) By Naturalisation (Section 6) available.
Citizenship of lndia by natr:ralizaticn can be acquired . lt may be ncled that in the USA, the
by a foreigner (not illegal migrant) who is ordinarily Constitution permits naturalised citizens to
resident in lndia for TWELVE YEABS (throughout the become members of the Senate only but not
period of twelve months immediately preceding the the President.
date of applicaticn and for ELEVEN YEARS in the
aggregate in the FOURTEEN YEARS preceding the
I tvvelve months) and other qualifications as specified
SPECIAL RIGHTSTO INDIAN CITIZENS
Constitution of lndia has provided foliowing rights to
in Third Schedule to the Act. the citizens of lndia only, which are not available to
aliens:
GitiEGllslBim a
tumdamelttal HEghts

The Constitution of lndia provides for single citizenship for the entire country. The pjgvrsrolr Iqlating
tocrtizenshtparecontaiftheConStiiutionoflndia,Article5-tg9-{the '10
oetffir,e wfro are lndian citizens at the comniencement of the Constitutigr Article provfdes
ConslliuTon
ror t w tratfralSimade oy ParlEfr-ent
Undernrticte-ttffisslysavesthepowerofParliamenttomakealatvtoprovidefors{ch
..--*----* ,
matters.
Act. 1955 provides
The Citizenshiptr----ia----> es for acquisition
acQuisition
-.:'--'-" of lnd citizenghip. after
-- lndian tter tne
the commencement oT_Ine
,.--..::;-:;::-;=:r^^
of-the
' ' descent
Constitution bv birth, """:;-' -w: istratinon
reqistrati-on. naturalization and incorporatlon of
oi territory and deteiffiation
of lndiai citizenship. tt ET66 makes necessary -rrre provisions folllgjglnrq!:9! and deprivation of lqiian
,.0"r .i,.*r"'r1"gs
+
iitizensr,ip EyrEJ@GscrBe the fflG;liEFi[IEure
"itJ""rn,o "Jr,r,. .,#
tor acqutsrtron ol Inolan cltlzensnlp -

ACQUISITION OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP is a citizen of lq91q-Qylelgtnt if his father

lndian citizenship can be acquired by birth, descent, was a 6mZe"C h.rdra by nnr, afrr,e trme of his
registration and naturalization. The conditions and birth. ln case the father was a citizen of lndia by
procedure for acquisition of lndian citizenship as per descent only, that person shall not be a citizen of
the provision of the Citizenship Aci, 1955 are given lndia, unless his birth is registered at an lndian
below: Consulate within one year from the date of birth
or wrth the permission of the Central Government,
(1) By Birth (Section 3) after the expiry of the said Period
(i) A person born in lndia o.! or after 26th Janu3ry. (ii) A person born oqJS:-{e.-.t@ta-on or after 10th.
l-

1950 but before 1st Julv, 1987 is citizen of lndia December l992"but before 3rd !ecember 2004.
----4> _--_-,---.-_-,-'
by Oirtn irrespeErve of the nationality of his is considered a's a citizen of lndia if either of his
parents. parents-4 was a citizen of lndia by birth at the tirne
(ii) A person born.in lndia on or after 1st July,19Qf- of his birth. ln case either of the parents was a
but before 3rd December, 2004 i; considered citizen of lndia by descent, that person shall not
if either of his parents is a be a citizen of lndia, unless his birth is registered
-'-_- of- lndia bv,*birth
citizen
--)
citizeh of lndia at the time of his birth at an lndian Consulate withrn one year from the
(iii) A person born ln lndia o? %-Alle{*qGp_€aA!tel., date of birth or with the permissicn of the Central
20*04ois considered citizen of lndia by birth if Government, after the expiry of the said period.
both the parents are citizens of lndia or one of (iii) A person born outside lndia on or after 3rd
the parents is a citizen of lndia and the other ts December, 2004 shall not be a citizen of lndia,
not an "illegal migrant" at the time of his birth unless the parents declare that the minor does
not hold passport of another country and his birth
An "illetal miglanl" as defined in section 3(U(Q) of,
is registered at an lndian Consulate within one
the Act is a foreioner who entered lndia
year of the date of birth or with the permission of
(i) without avdg_lgglpg! qr other prescribed the Central Government, after the expiry of the
travel documents.
said period.
( ii
) with a vai d p assP--91lor_ollrfl -plqggJiQa{! rav*
i

documenti-Fut idm-alns in lndia beyond the

permitted period of time (3) By Regisga'lrt'1-(Sealipns$ ))
lndian citizenship by registration can be acquired
(not illegal migrant) by:
(2) By Descent (Section 4)
(i) A person ogn_pulgCI9_l_Agf9-on or aPgl-Z9+-s (i) Persons of lndian origin who are ordinarily
ut ore 1 0LLe_cgES{e9?-: resident in lndia for SEVEN YEARS before making
I an u qy_l9Q[ b bef
 illllE IASY o lndian Polity 443
Nagaland (1963) Arunachal Pradesh a Union Territory was given the
The State of Nagaland Act 1962, formed the new status of a State by the State of Arunachal Pradesh
State of Nagaland with effect from lst February Act, 1986.
1964 comprising the territory of the Naga Hills and Goa became the 25th State of lndia.
Tuensang area which was previously a tribal area in
Chhattisgarh (2000)
the sixth Schedule of the Constitution forming part of
It became the 26th State of lndra on 1st November
Assam.
2000.
Haryana, Chandigarh (1966)
ln 1966, Punjab was bifurcated to create Haryana as Uttarakhand (2000)
the 17th State & Chandigarh as UT. It became lhe 27lh State of lndia on 9th November
2000 with the name Uttaranchal. However, it was
Himachal Pradesh (1971) renamed as Uttarakhand in 2007.
Himachal Pradesh was upgraded from the status of
a Union Territory to that of a State by the State of Jharkhand (2000)
.15th
Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970. It became the 28th State of lndia on November
2000.
Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya (1972)
ln 1972, the two UTs of Manipur and Tripura and
Telangana (2014)
the sub-state of Meghalaya got statehood. Thus
It became the 29th State of lndia on 2nd June 2014.
Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya became the 19th,
It separated from Andhra Pradesh.
20th and 21st State of lndia respectively.
Sikkim (1975) DoYou Know?
During British rule Sikkim was a lndian State ruled by
Chogyal subject to the British Paramountcy. Sikkim By the 69th Constitution Amendment Act, 1991
got the status of an associated State in 1974 by the with effect from February 1, 1992 the Union
35th Constitution Amendment Act, 1974. Sikkim got Territory of Delhi has been named as National
the status of a full fledged State in 1975 by the 36th Capital Territory of Delhi.
Constitution Amendment Act, 1975
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Goa (1987) II
Mizoram got statehood in .1986. Earlier by the act
of .1971, Mizoram was provided a status of Union
Territory.

r.
The Unlon & itsTerritory

. Article 1 to 4 of Constitution deals with the Union existing States shall be introduced in either
and rts TerritorY. House of the Parliament, only on the recommen-
. Art. 1 says lndia that is Bharat, shall be a Union dation of the President.
of States rather than Federation of the States. . The President, before introducing the Bill in the
. Art. 3 deals with the formation of new States out Parliament, shall refer it to the concerned State
of the territory of the existing States. The lndian Legislature for its opinion within a specified time
Constitution empowers the Parliament to alter the limit.
territory or names etc. of the States without their . lf the State Legislature does not give its opinion
consent or concurrence. within the specified time limit, the time limit may
r Art. 264 (4) of the Constitution says that any be extended
territory which may at any time be acquired by . The Bill may be introduced even if the opinion
lndia by purchase, treaty, cession or conquest has not come.
will obviously form part of the territory of lndia. . The Parliament is not bound to accept or act
These will be administered by the Government of upon the views of the State Legislature.
lndia subject to the legislatlon by the Parliament . lt rs not necessary to make fresh reierence to the
State Legislature every time on an amendment to
the Bill, proposed and accePted.
Re-organisation of States
. ln 1953 State Reorganisation Commission
was set up under the Chairmanship of Fazl Ali' New States & UTs created after 1956
H.N. Kunzru and K.N. Panikkar were the other Maharashtra and Gujarat (1960)
two members of the commission. The bilingual State of Bombay was divided into
. The Commission submitted its repo( in 1955 and Maharashtra and Gujarat. Gujarat became the 15th
broadly accepted the language as the basis of State of the lndian Union.
the reorganisation of the States. But it reJected the
theory of "one language - one State"' lts view Dadra & Nagar Haveli (1961)
was that the unity of lndia should be regarded as The Portuguese ruled this territory until its liberation
the primary consideration in any redrawing of the in '1954. By the 1Oth Constitution Amendment Act
country's political units. 1961, Dadra & Nagar Haveii became the Union
. lt suggested the re-organisation of 27 States of Territory of lndia.
various categories into '16 States and 3 Union Goa, Daman & Diu (1961)
Territories. lndia acquired these three territories f rom the
. The State Re-organisation Act, 1956 was Portuguese by means of Police action in 1961. Goa,
passed by Parliament to give effect to the Daman & Diu were added as a Union Territory of
recommendations of the commission with certain lndia by the 12th Constitution Amendment Act, 1962.
minor modrfications. As a result, 14 States and Later in 1987, Goa was made a State and Daman
6 UTs were created on November 1, 1956. and Diu, a separate UT,
Pondicherry (1962)
Procedure for creation of new States
It was ruled by French till 1954, it includes 4 districts
o Parliament can form new States, alter the area,
viz. Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. From
boundaries or names of the existing States by a
1954 to 1962 it remained as acquired territory and
law passed by a simPle maioritY.
by the 14th Constitution Amendment Act, 1962 it was
. The Bills for the formation of new States or
made Union Territory of lndia.
alteration of the boundaries or names of the
Illlllt EISY o lndian Polity 441

Democratic Political justice implies that all citizens should have

India follows Representative Parliamentary Democracy equal political rights, equal access to all political
where MPs, MLAs & Panchayat Members are offices and equal voice in the government.
directly & indirectly elected by the people. Preamble
however envisages not only political democracy but Liberty
also social & economic democracy. The term 'liberty' means the absence of restraints
on the activitres of indrviduals and at the same
Republic time, providing opportunities for the development of
Republic means that there exists no hereditary ruler individual personalities
in lndia and all the authorities of the State are directly
or indirectly elected by the people. Equality
The term 'equality' means the absence of special
Justice privileges to any section of the society and the
The term justice in the Preamble embraces three provision of adequate opportunities for all individuals
drstinct forms socral, economic and political. Social without any discrimination.
justice denotes the equal treatment of all citizens
without any social distinction based on caste, colour,
race, religion, sex and so on. Economic justice
denotes no discrimination between people on the The term socialistic pattern of societywas adopted
basis of economic factor, lt involves the elrmination of as a goal of the lndian State by the Congress in
glaring inequalities in wealth, income and property. 1955 in AvadiSession.

II
The PreamHe

The Preamble to the Constitution sets out the (iii) Equality - of status, oPPortunitY
main objectives which the Constituent Assembly (iv) Fraternity - to promote fraternity among all
rntended to achieve. assuring the dignity of the individual and unity
The Preamble which ts based on the "Obiectives and integrity of the nation
Resolution" was drafted and moved by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru and adopted by the Constituent The Preamble
Assembly. lt has been amended by 42nd
We, the People of lndia, having solemnly resolved
Constitution Amendment Act,1976 by which three
new words - Socialist, Secular and lntegrity to constitute lndia into a
Sovereign Socialist
were added. Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all
its citizens:
The Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati
Vs. State of Kerala (1973) Case over ruled its JUSTICE, Social, Economic and Political;
earlier decision of 1960 and made it clear that LIBERTY of Thought, Expression, Belief , Faith and
the Preamble is a part of the Constitution and Worship;
is subjected to the amending power of the
Parliament, provided basic structure of the EQUALITY of Status and of Opportunity; and to
promote among them all;
Constitution as found in the Preamble is not
destroyed. However, it is not an essential part of FRATERNITy sssurinQ the dignity of the individual
the Constitution. and the Unity and lntegrity of the Natron;
. The Preamble is non-iusticiable in nature like ln our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day
Directive Principles of State Policy and can not of November, 1949, do hereby Adopt, Enact and
be enforced in a court of iaw. Give to ourselves this Constitution.
. N.A. Palkhivala, an eminent jurist termed
the Preamble as the 'identity card of the
Constitution'.
. lndia was a dependency (colony) of the KEYWORDS IN THE PREAMBLE
British Empire till the passage of the lndian Sovereign
lndependence Act, 1947. From August 15,1947 It means that there is no authority outside lndia on
to January 26, 1950 lndia was having a political which the country is dependent in any means.
status of a dominion in the British Commonwealth
of Nations. lndia declared herself a Sovereign Socialist
Republic on January 26, 1950. However, Pakistan It was added by the 42nd Constitution Amendment
remained as a British dominion till 1956. Act, 1976. The Constitution aims to achieve socialistic
" The idea of socia!, economic and politicaljustice pattern through democratic means i.e. the lndian
has been taken from the Russian Revolution of brand of socialism is a democratic socialism and
1917. not a communistic socialism.
. The rdea of liberty, equalityand fraternitymentioned
in the Preamble of our Constitution has been taken
Secular
from the French Revolution (1789-1799)
It was also added by the 42nd Constitution Amendment
. The Preamble states that the objectives to be Act, 1976. lt means lndia is a Secular State. lt means
secured to everY citizen are: the principle of Sarua Dharma Samabhava is vested in
(i) Justice - social, economic & political lndia. Secular do not means that lndia is non- religious
(ii) Liberty - of thought, expression, belief, faith and or anti-religious, instead every citizen is free to adopt or
worship not to adopt any religion.
Illillt EASY r lndian PoliV 439

Art. Deals with

3713 Special provision with respect io the State of Assam.

371C Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur.

271 n Special provision with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh

371E Establishment of central university in Andhra Pradesh.

-
371F ,$peroial p Vis'ionwith,,:i65.pecliothe State of ,Sikkimi

371G Special provision lvrth respect to the State of Mizoram.

371H Special provision wiih respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh.

3711 Special provision with respect to the State of Goa.

Schedules of the Constitution

Schedule Deals with

First Name and territorial extent (States and Union Territories)

Second Emoluments, allowances. prrvrleges of President, Governors, Speakers, etc.

Third Forms of Oaths or Affirmations

Fourth Allocation of seats to various States & UTs in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

Fifth Provision as to admrnistration and control of scheduled areas arrd scheduled tribes

Provision as to administration of tribal areas ,in.Ifie',::'SIale of'Assam, Mie.g,iiAlaya,, Tii,p.Uila an d:

Sixth
Mizoram

Seventh Division of power between the Union and the States (Union List, State List & Concurrent List)

Eighth Languages (originally 14 but presently 22) recognizedby the Constitution, namely Assamese,
Bengali, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindl. Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri,
Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi. Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu, Sindhiwas
added by the 2'1st Constitution Amendment Act, 1967 while Konkani, Manipuri and Nepuli
were added by the 71st Constitution Amendment Act, 1992. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali
were added by the 92nd Constitution Amendment Act, 2003.

Ninth I Acts and regulations (this schedule was added by the lst Constitution Amendrnent Act, 1951)
Tenth r Disqualification of the members of Parliament and Siate Legislatures on the ground of
defection. This schedule was added by the 52nd Constitution Amendment Act, also known as
Anti Defection Act (1985)
Eleventh Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats. lt has 29 subjects. This schedule was
added by the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992
Twelfth Powers, authority and responsibiiities of municipalities. lt has 1B sublects, This schedule was
added by ihe 74th Amendment Act, 1992.

II
 lllA0t EASY. lndian Polity

Deals with

Legislation for giving effect to international agreements

262 Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys.

Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council.

265 Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law.

consolidated Funds arrd Publrc Accounts of lndia and of the states.

Oontinioency'Fund,.

Grants from the Union to certain States (discretionary grants)'

Finance Commission.

Borrowings by the Governrnent of lndia.

Borrowings by States.

300A Persons not be deprived of property, save by autlrority of law (right to property)'

301 Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse.

312 All-lndia Services.

Public Servtce Commissions for the Union and for the States.
l

Functtons of Public Service Commissions.

Administratrve Tribunals.

Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission.

Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the People.

335 Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to services and posts,

National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)

338A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

Official language of the Union.

Proclamation of Emergency (National Emergency).

provisions of Emergency in case of failure of Constitutional machinery in States (President's rule)

360 Provisrons as to financial emergency.

Effect of failure to comply wrth, or to give effect to, directrons given by the Union (President's rule).

Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution & procedure therefore.

370 Temporary prcvisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmlr.

Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Guiarat.

3714 Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland'

.-:([
MAIIE IASY. lndian Polity 437

Art. Deals with

3B State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the peopie.

4A Organisation of village panchayats.

44 Uniform Civil Code for the citizens.

46 Promotion oi eciucational and eccnomic interests of scheduled castes, scheduied tribes and other
weaker sections,

50 Separation of judiciary from execuiive.

51 Promotion of internatlonal peace and security.

51A Fundamentai Duties.

IZ Power of President to grant pardons, etc. and to suspend, rei'nit or commute sentences tn certain
CASCS,

74 Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President.

7B Duties of Prime Minister with regard to the furnishing of information to the President, etc.
.110
Def inition of Money Bills.

112 Annual Financial Statement (Budget).

IZJ Powers of the Presideni to promulgate ordinances during recess cf Pariiament.

143 Power of the President to consuit Supreme Court.

tc5 Apporntment of Governors.

161 Power of Governor to grant pardons. etc. and to suspend, ren'lit or commute sentences in certarn
cases.

6 Council of Minrsters to aid and aovise the Governor.

6 Duties of Chief Minister with regard to the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.

169 Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.

200 Assent to bills by Governor (incluCing reservation for President).

ttJ Power of Governor to promuigate ordinances during recess of the State L"egislalure.

226 Powers cf High Courts to issue certain Writs.

23944 Special provisions with respect to Delhi (inserted by 69th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1991).

249 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter rn the State LisL in the nationai interest.

250 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any maiter in the State List if a Proclarnation of
Emergency is in operation.

251 lnconsistency between laws rnade by Pariiament under Articles 249 and 250 and iaws made by
the legislatures of States

252 Power cf Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation
any other State
byr
 ilIADI IASY. lndlan Polity
436

X The Scheduled and T:ibal Areas 244 to 244-A

I
XI Felations between the Union and the States 245 to 263

xil Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits 2641o 300-4

XiII Trade, Cornmerce and lntercourse within the Territory of lndia 301 to 307

XIV Services under the Union and the States 308 to 323
.1976)
XIV-A Tribunals (inserted by 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 323-4 to 323-B

XV Elections 324 to 329-4

_
XVI Special provisions to SCs, STs, OBCs and Anglo-lndians 330 to 342

XVII Official Language 343 to 351

XVIII Emergency Provisions 352 to 360

XIX Miscellaneous 361 to 367

XX Amendmeni of the Constitution 368

XXI Temporary, Transttional and Special provisions 369 to 392

XXII Short title. Commencement, Authoritative text in Hindi and Repeals 393 to 395

lmportant Articles of the Gonstitution

Art, Deals with

Name and Tei'ritory of the Union

Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or narrtes of existing States.

14 Equaiity before Law.

1A Prohibition of discrimination on grourids of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

16 Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

17 Abolition of untouchability.
.18
Abolition of titles.

19 Protection of certain rights regarding freecic.rm of speech, etc.

9i Protection in respect of convicticn for offences.

21 Piotd,cti6 n ..,ofl:fif e rah d :,,OeisDh al r fi be rtV :

214 Right to elementary education (added by 86th Ccnstrtution Amendment Act, 2002).

ZZ Proteotion against arrest and detention in certain cases.

JU Right of rninorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

31C Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.

JZ Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights including Writs.

--iu
il[0[ EISY o lndian Polity 435

Sources of the Constitution at a Glance

Sources Features borrowed

Government of lndia Act of 1935 Federal Scheme, Office of Governor, Judiciary, Pubiic Service
Commissions, Emergency provisions and administrative details.
British Constitution Parliamentary government, Bule of Law, Legislative procedure,
single citizenship, cabinet system, prercgative writs, parliamen-
tary privileges and bicameralism

US Constitution Fundamental Rights Independence of Judiciary, Judicial review,

impeachment of the president, Removal of Supreme Court and
High Court Judges and post of Vice-President.
lrish Constitution Directive Principles of State Policy, nomination of members to
Rajya Sabha and method of election of president.

Canadian Constitution Federation with a strong Centre, vesting of residuary powers in

the Centre, appointment of state governors by the Centre, and
advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Austral ian Constitution Concurrent List, freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse,
and joint sitiing of the two Houses of Parliament
Weimar Constitution of Germany Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency.
Soviet Constitutron (USSR, now Russia) Fundamental duties and the ioeal of justice (social, economic
and political) in the Preamble.
French Constitution Republic and the ideals of Iiberty, equality and fraternity in the
P'eamble.
South African Constitution Procedure for amendment of the Constituting and election of
members of Rajya Sabha.
Japanese Constitution Procedure established by law.

Parts of the lndian Constitution

Part Deals with Articles

I The Un,ion: and,.iltS,iTe11'i!t0,ry 1 ta,,,A

ll Citizenship U ro':l:'.:1

lll Fundamental Rights 12 to 35

IV Directive Principles of the State Policy 36 to 51

IV-A Fundamental Duties (inserted by 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1976) 5 t-A

V The Union Government 52 to 15"1

VI The State Governments 1521o 237

vilt The Union Territories 239 Io 242

IX The Panchayats (inserted by 73rd Constitution Amendment Act, 1992) 243 to 243-0
iX-A Th€ MuniCirpalities'r(ins,erled by 74th Constitution Amendment Aot, 199.2) 243-P to 243-ZG

IX-B Th,e Co-operativerS.oCieti6sr (inserted by 97th Amendment Act, 201 1) 243-ZHto 243-ZT
 Ieatures ol
lnilian Gonsiltution

FEATURES OFTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA 8. Directive Principles of State Policy

1. Three-tier Government 9. UniversalAdult Franchise & Single Citizenship
(i) Central Government 10. Emergency Provisions
(ii) State Government
11. Drawn From Various Sources
(iii) Panchayati Raj Government
12. Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility
2. LengthiestWritten Constitution
Originally it consisted of a Preamble, 395 UNITARY FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION
Articles (which were divided into 22 parts) and 1. The States do not have their own Constitution as
8 Schedules, while the American Constitution in the USA and Australia where the States have
originally consrsted of only 7 Articies. their own Constitutions also.
2. Uniform and single citizenship (USA & Australta
3. Federal System with Unitary Bias have double citizenship)
Essential characteristics of a federation are: J. Parlrament can change the territorial extent of
(i) Minirnum two tiers of governments (lndia has a State without its consent
3 tiers of government). Parliament has exclusive control over the Union
(ii) Distribution of powers between the units List subjects as well as residL-rary power vests
forming the federation. with the centre.
(iii) Supremacy of Constitution 5. With the consent of two-th rd malority Rajya
(iv) Written Constitution. Sabha can authorise Parl ament io make laws on
(v) Rigidity of Constitution. any State subject tA"t.2a9).
(vi) lndependent Judiciary 6. lf there is national emergency, Parltament has the
However, the lndian Constitution also contains a right to make laws with respect to State subjects
large number of unitary or non-federal features viz. a automaticaliy (Art. 250)
strong Centre, single Constituion, single citizenship, 7. On the request of two or more States, Parliament
all lndia services, emergency provisions and so on. can legislate on particular State subject (4r1.252).
Hence, the lndian Constitution has been variously 8. Parliament can make iaws on State Lists to comply
described as federal in form but unitary in spirit. with the international agreements (Art. 253).
It is called quasi-federal by K.C Wheare. 9. ln the case of President's rule in State all the
powers of the State Legislaiure shifts to the
4. Parliamentary Form of Government hands of the Pariiament (Art. 356).
Features of Parliamentary Government are: 10. The Governor of a State is appointed by the
(i) Presence of nominal and real executives. Presrdent and the former is not responsible to the
(ii) Majority party rule. State Legislature (Art. 155).
(iii) Collective responsibility of the executive to 1 1. Parliament can give some f inancial orders or can
the Legislature. order to reserve money bilis passed by States
(iv) Leadership of the Frime Minister or the Chief (Art.160).
Minister. 12. Centre can give administrative directions to the
(v) Dissolution of the Lower House (Lok Sabha). States (Art. 256).
13. The all lndia services official are appointed by Cen-
5. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and
tre, but are paid and oontrolled by States. (An. 312).
Judicial Supremacy
14. Juciges of High Courts are appointed by the
6. lntegrated and independent Judiciary President under Ari.217, and States do not play
7. Fundamental Rights & Fundamental Duties any role in this

i',1\
tillt t[$Y. tndian potity
433
lndian lndependence Act, lg47 Committees of Constituent Assembty
o This act called for the two dominions, namely
lndia and Pakistan. ,. Ccrnmittse .:r rr,-,Chiifman,
o lt asked power to be transferred to the lndians on
D raf t in g C o11 m r!!gg........-_,.'* . B. R. Am ka1-_
August 15, 1947. ...... bed

Union Constitution Committee .............J.L. Nehru

Framing of Cohstitution of tndia
o The Constituent Assembly was set up in
Noverrnber 1946 as per the Cabinet Mission plan Provincial Constitution Committee ....Sardar patel
of 1946.
The members were elected indirectly by the
Union Powers Committee,-.. .. ...J.L. Nehru
Provincial Assemblies in the ratio of one member Committee on Fundamental Rights & Minorities
per million population. .Sardar Patel
There were a total of 389 members in the
The Ste-qlllglQqrntnillee_
). . ........... . . K. M. Mu nsh i
Constituent Assembly, of which 296 were elected +
by the members of the Provincial Assemblies and Rules of Procedure Committee.... Rajendra prasaO I
the rest were nominated by the princely States.
Its first meeting was held on 9t[ggSe_mberlgaO_,
with Sachidanand Sinha as the lnterim president.
He wai-tnJrdest mem[ier of the assembly and Drafting Committee of Constituent Assembly
was elected as Interim president following the was the most important committee among all the
French practice. Later, on Decentber 1j, 1946 committees. lt was set up on 29th August 1947.
Rajendra Prasad and H.C. Mukherjee were It consisted total 7 memqglg_1lglugittg_ch,glrmgl.
-- .-'-.',/,.
elected as the President and Vice-president of 1. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman)
the Assembly respectively. Sir B.N. Rau was
appointed as the Constitutional advisor to the 2. N. Gopalswami Ayyangar
Assembly. 3 Alladi Krishna Swami Ayyar .,
Jawaharlal Nehru moved the o!le9!yes- 4t
resolution in the Assembly on Deceiberl3I
5. Syed Mohammed Saadullah
1946. lt was adopted by the Assembly on January:'
22:)947_r_ 6. B L Mittarlrgqtaced by N. Madhav Rao due to
The Constituent Assembly formed committees ill health)
for framrng the Constitution. Chairman of some 7. D,P. Khaitan (died in t94B and was replaced
important committees are given below. -/-z by T.T. Krishnamachari)

IT
 4g2 tllAlll IASY r lndian Polity

.Forthefirstti@ninthe.]nQian.oMuslimsweregivenSeparaterepresentation
(Central) Legislative Council was-allowed. and hence Lord Minto came to be known as the
F?tner ot 9om8una ercc
Government of lndia Act,1858
v- o lt brouoht an end to the Companv's rule and Government of lndia Act, 1919 (Montague-
transferred power to the Qritis[ prown. Chelmstord Reforms)
. lt chan!-ed the designation of Governor General
' Mgllggggwas the then Secretary ojvicero;
state for
of lndia to that of Viceroy of lndia apd he was ln6la and Chelmsford was t6ehA-n Qf
appointed as the direct representativ'e of British lndia._-_-----...7
Crown in lndia. o The idea of Responsible Government was
Dual government introduced by Pitt's Act was emphasised uponJ
abolished by this act.
r-- . All administrative subjects were divided into two
a This act proposed highlv centralised administration. o groups viz. c-entral and provincial.
a A new office of Secretary of State . Provincial subjects were further divided into two
was created and he was vested with compl% parts- transferred and reserved.
authoritvjrnd control over lndian administr . The tra@ were io be
The Secretary of State +ryas a member of the administeied by the Governor with the aid of
British Cabinet and was responsible ultimately to ministers responsible to the Legislative Council.
the British Parliament. While Governor was not responsible toward
Legislative Council in the discharge of 1eserygg
lndian Councils Act,'l 861 subiects. >
. Governor General- was empowered to issue Separate representation was grven to Sikhs,

.
case of emeroencv.
ord-ln-an-nces in
-
partic-iFEtion-of some non-official- members in
Christians, Anglo-lndians, Europeans, etc.
A high commissioner for lndia was appointed
Viceroy's Executive Council permitted. whose duty was to look after lndian trade in Europe.
For the first time lndian Central Legisiature was
tndian Councits Act,1892 4 maqg-9iggrllelq two H o u ses).
l(
. The Universities, District
+ boalds, Municipalities, - For the first time direg!-gl_e_cllsry l! the country
; and Chambers of Commerce-were
Zamindars,
_,- were introduced lt granted franchrs-e to a limited
number of peoole on the basis of property, tax or
Council-which were to be education.
. lt also provided for the establrshment of the Public
-members
The of the Legislatures were now Service Commrssion. wh ch was established
entitl.e_d to l?lg_p4=f1-debate--over Annual in 1926.
9tal_qftenr-ol^!€y5rn!9oan d ExpetQl&t-rc> e
Budget. They could also put questions within
Government of lndia Act, 1935
certain limitations.
. Establishment of an All lndia Federation inclusive
of Governor's Provinces, Chief Commissioners
lndian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) Provinces and States.
o Morlev-was the then Secretarv of State for lndia Council of States having 260 members (156 from
-__--
and .:
Lor-d,lltlintoWas the then Viceory of lndia. .
# to bring in 'a British lndia & 104 from Indian States) was to
. l[ was the first ever attempt be permanent House with 1/3 members to retire
representative and popular element in the every three years.
governance of the country.
Federal Assembly having 5 years duration
The principle of election was introduced, but only
consists of 375 members (250 from British india
in some cases.
and 125 from lndian States).
A provision was made for the assgciation of lndians=-
It abolished the Council of lndia, established by
Council
with the. Elecutive oy and
the Government of lndia Act, '1858.
Governors. Satyen@ame the
-
join
The Act provided for a Federal Court and a
first lndian to the Viceory's Executiv6 Council.
Federal Bank.
He was appointed as Law Member.

r$&.
 Gonstitution of lndia:
Historlcal Bacfig]ound

What is Constitution?
Constitution of a country is the legal document which provides the basic structure of the political system
and defines the powers of main organs of the State and demarcates their responsibilities and jurisdictions.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS e lt created a new body called Bgard of Control n

o lt was in 1,q31 when the idea of Constituent to manage theJ:olitical affairs while Court of .
Assembry for rndia was put fmaaTa-i6aJ;Et Directors were allowed to manage the conrheTclE[
timebyuJ_*Bqy-+ affairs.
o ln 1935,
+-..., the lndian National Congress (lNC) . The Company's territorres in lndia were for the
demanded a ConstitrLent Assembly to frame the first time called British possessions in lndia'.
Constitution
ln 1938, Jawaharlal l.lehru,. on behalf of INC Charter 4c1,1793__n
declared that the Constitution of Free lndia must . SaEries oT thffimbers of the board to be drawn .

be framed withoutm by a fror tf,- '

-+
-
Uonstrtuent Assembly elected on the basis of
Adult Franchise. The demand was accepted by
-.-----.---.--\ Charter Act, 1813 -
.
British Govdrnment du"ing Aug.tsr Or+er 1940,- . Compqlylg-lmolQpqlAover trade was abolished
ln lg@"u";;60;;ffi" in trade with China
Cabinet came to lndia with draft orooosal of and for trade in tea retained.
rne grrusn G-ver-nffidr on rne-GFfia--oi an>
Constrtutional position of the British territoleq_ln*
independent Constitution, to be adopted after lndia was explicitly defined
the World War ll.
This act asked Company to spend one lakh
r The Cripps
}]+--,
proposals.-
:,_ _) ov
were reiected -/ the rupees every year on the edu-cat-ion of lndnns -'
N/usl m Leaoue which wanted lndia to be divided
Christian missionaries were permitted
., .,_\ to oreach
into frffion?moul staiei I'io separate
'itl'.r their religion in lndia.
ConstiluentAsse-mblies -
o Final y, the Constituent Assembly was constituted
Charter A_c! !9!!.[r-
in November,1946 under the scheme formulated . Company lost its monopoly over trade with China ",
by the CatOi*ffii.sron Plan.
also and it was astieO-lo ctgse 1!e le11mele.lg|-
b u s n es s. Th e C om p a DLp qc=aCI,q apuf-ly ad!u:,>
i

LANDMARKS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OFTHE n strativet_gdy t mad e the Gov_er1q

i I
9 g!_qql !t
CONSTITUTION Bengal astheGov@
Regulating Act, 1773 o This act asked government to abolish slavery i
/". lt made a provtsion of Suprare CrylS]*Igt," lndia.
William Calcutta jomprising on-e.Chef Justrce
and three other luOges Charter Act, 1853
o lt prohibited the servants of the comoanv from . Separation of executive and legislative functions -
\ enoaorno rn anv Dflvate trade or accepttng of the Governor GeneraGtounEll.-
\ preserrts or bribes trom the natives. o lt provided for addltion of _slXneumembqrsealled_-
Legislative Councillors to the Council. lt was known
Pitts's lndia Act, 1784 as I nd i a nlQe4!rq[!eg!9!4!iy9 tqg ncj!_.,
o lt made a provision of separation in company's . An open, cofllpe_t1lion sy{gq of selecticn and
commercial and political aciivities. r ec ru i t me rtt_ol c ivLL -s_etWULLS_Utas i ntro d uc e d-.
 418 IllAllI tA$Y e Modern lndia

Dead or Doornail Jawahar Lal Nehru

Bowlatt Act is a Preventive Murder Montagu

Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Every blow ihat is hurled on my back will be a Lala Lajpat Rai

nail in the coffin of the British Empire

Jai Jawan Jai Kishan Lal Bahadur Shastri

List of Some
Badshah Khan (or Bachcha Khan) Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Frontier Gandhi Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Mahatma Gandhi

Netaji (Given by Mahatma Gandhi) Subhas Chandra Bose

Gurudev (Given by Mahatma Gandhi) Rabindranath Tagore

Mahatma (Given by Rabindra Nath Tagore) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Beacon of Light of Asia Subhash Chandra Bose

Chacha Jawahar Lal Nehru

Deenbandhu C.F. Andrews

Deshbandhu e.H. Das

Father of lndian Unrest Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Father of the Local Self-government Lord Ripon

Grand Old Man of lndia Dadabhai Naoroji

lndian Einstein Nagarjuna

lndian Napoleon Samudragupta

Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan

Lal, Bal, Pal Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and bipin Chandra
Pal

Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak

[4ahamana Pt. Mandan Mohan Malaviya

Man of lron/lron Man of lndia Sardar Patel

Nightingale of lndia Sarojini Naidu

Parrot of lndia (Tuti-e-Hindustan) Amir Khusaru

Patriot of'Patriots Subhash Chandra Bose

Punlab Kesari (or Lion of Punjab) Lala Lajpat Rai

)
|_rl
 lllAllt tlSY. Modern lndia
417

$ummary : Freedorn Movement

,,,::, \9;6;,:,:.,,. Led by:
Sepoy Mutiny toc/ First war of lndependence due to dissatisfaction of the
-1. .'. lndian soldiers. I

_',J
.1BBO
lndian National Congress lnitiated by A.C. Hume; president. Womesh
i
Chandra Bonnerjee. i

Swadeshi Movement I YUb Boycott of foreign goods.

Home Ruie Movement 19"16 Led by Dr. (Mrs.) Annre Besant
Lucknow Pact 1916 Hindu-Muslim unity which weakened the British.
Civil Disobedience 1920 Non-violent non-cooperation movement led by
Gandhiji.
Khiiafat Movement 1 920 Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali led the movement for
restoration of Khilafats, alienating Muslims from the
British.
Chauri-Chaura incident 1922 Mob clashed with poiice, killing 22 poticemen. Gandhiji
called off the civil disobediences movement.
Non-cooperation Movement 1922 With Gandhiji's support of the Khilafat movement, ]

Hindus and Muslims launched the non-cooperation I

Swaraj Party 1922 Gandhiji's decision to cail off ihe civil disobedience j

movement, led to the formation of the Swaraj party ]

initiated by Motilala Nehru.

Dandi March 1930 Gandhiji launched the movement to break the salt law
Quit lndia Movement 1942 Led by Gandhiji, asking the Br:itish to ieave tndia.
Direct Action Campaign 1 946 Launched by Muslim League, resulted in heavy riots.
Note: Khan Aboul Gaffar Khan started 'Red Shirt Movement' at the iime of Civil Disobedience movement
and also founded a party named as 'Khudai Khidmatgar,

:, 'r,.,List ol $ome lmportant Slogan/Statements

Back to Vedas Dayanand Saraswati
lnquilab Jindabad Mohammad lgbai
Dilli Chalo Subhash,Chandra
of revolt of 1857)
Jai Hind Subhas Chandra Bose
Give me blood and I will give you freedom Subhas Chandra Bose

Do or Die Mahatma Gandhi (while launching Quit lndra move

\ in 1942)
- ------ l

My ultimate aim is to wrpe every tear from

I
Jawahar Lal Nehru
i

every eye i
 ,]

J
l
[arly Medieual Inilia

GURJARA PRANHARAS, PAIAS & RASHTRAKT'TAS The Rashtrakutas

The Gurjara Pratiharas
a This dynasty was found ed by Dantidurg.
. Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was founded by a Rashtrakutas were called Ballahara by Arabs.
Nagabhatta-1.
a Their capital was Mankir or Manyakheta (present
e
,l
r Al-Masudi, an Arab traveller calls the Gurjara Malkhed near Sholapur, Maharashtra).
Pratihara kingdom, Al-Juzrand the king, Baura. Arab travellers refer Rashtrakuta ruler as the king
r o The Pratiharas revived under Vatsaraja's son and of the kings (malik-al-muluk) of Al-Hind.
successor Nagabhata-ll, who also defeated Pala Krishna-l built the famous Shiva temple (rock cut
king Dharmapala. temple at Ellora).
. Bhoja, also known as MihirBhojawas the greatest Dhruva incorporated the symbols of Ganga and
king of Pratihara dynasty. Bhoja was a Vishnu Yamuna rnto Rashtrakuta emblem.
worshipper. Bhoja called himself 'Adi Varaha'. Amoghavarsha composed one of the earliest
o Bhoja defeated Kalchuris of Gorakhpur and the text in Kannada literature, the "Kaviraj Marga".
Chandellas of Bundelkhand. Bhoja also recovered He ended his life by taking Jal Samadhi in the
Kannaujfrom Palas. Tungabhadra river.
-{ o Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapal. The Rashtrakutas also fought constantly against
!
I
o The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and in the south
lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja. against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas
i
. RaiashekharwroleKarpurminjari, Bal Ramayan, of Madurai.
Bal Mahabharata and Kanya Mimamsa. The greatest Rashtrakuta rulers were Govinda-lll
and Amoghavarsha.
Krishna-llldefeated the Chola king Parantaka-l and
The Palas
o The Pala Kingdom was founded by Gopala. annexed the northern part of the Chola empire.
. Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmapala. He then pressed down to Rameshwaram and set
o Dharmapala was defeated by the Rashtrakuta up a pillar of victory there and built a temple.
The Rashtrakutas patronized not only Shatvism
ruler, Dhruva.
o The Gurjara Pratihara ruler, Nagabhatta-ll also and Vaishnavism but Jainism as well.
t The great aprabhamsha poet, Svayambhu lived
defeated Dharmapala.
i o An Arab merchant Sulaiman, who visited India in at the Rashtrakuta court.
t the middle of the ninth century, wrote an account
I
,/r, of Pala Kingdom. He calls it Ruhma (means CHOLAS OFTHANJAVUR
Dharma, short for Dharmapala). o Cholas were the greatest among all the south
o The Palas were the followers of Buddhism. lndian dynasties.
o The Nalanda University was revived by Dharma- . Vijalaya Cholawas the founder of Chola dynasty.
pala. He also founded the Vikramshila University . Rajaraja-l annexed important territories in lndian
which became second only to Nalanda in fame. Ocean like Maldive lslands and Sri Lanka (northern
o The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural part) also called Anuradhapura, thereby making
Iinks with south-east Asia. Cholas a naval power. Cholas maintained a huge
o The powerful Sailendra dynasty, which ruled over navy.
Malaya, Java, Sumatra and neighboring islands Rajaraja-l constructed Brihasdiswara temple
was Buddhrbf in faith. He sent many embassies at Thanjavur. lt is also called Rajarajeswara
to the Pala court and sought permission to build temple. lt is the tallest temple in South lndia.
a monastery at Nalanda for the benefit of foreign Rajendra-l was the most important Chola king.
students. He controlled the whole of lndian Ocean. His
influence reached south east Asian islands.
416 Ill[0E EISY. Modern lndia

Important Battles in lndian History L

Name of Battle Period Battle Won by Significance

between

Battle of Talikota 1 564-65 Combined forces Muslrm forces Destroyed Hindu ki;tgdom
of 4 Muslim of the Deccan; sealed t,te
rulers of Deccan fortunes of Vijaynagar e xpii'e,
and Ramraja of
Vijaynagar

Battle of Garh & I 5b4 Akbar and Rani Akbar

Katanga Durgawati

Battle of Haldighati 1576 Rana Pratap and Akbar Rana Pratap fought gall,ar:ily
Akbar and took refuge in a remote
fortress.

Battle of Dharmat 1 658 Aurangzeb and Aurangzeb

Raja Jaswant
Singh (led Mughal
Army)

Battle of Samugarh 1 658 Aurangzeb and Aurangzeb Aurangzeb captured the

lmperial forces Mughal throne.
led by Dara Sikoh

Battle of Plassey 1757 Siraj-ud-daula English forces Fought at Plassey. The

and English forces English i:ecame masters of
led by Clive Bengal: foundation of British
rule.

Battle of Bedara 1 759 East lndia East lndia

Company and Company
Dutch

Battle of Wandiwash 1 760 East lndia East lndia

Company and Company
French

Third Battle of t1b I Ahmed Shah Ahm6d Shah Gave a setback to Marathas
Panipat Abdali and Abdali .., in the north; sealed destiny
Marathas of Mughal empire and made
British entry easier.

Battle of Buxar A.D,,,1764 J,oint' forces of English forces Led to English occupation of
Muslims ,, and lndia.
Enqlish

Third Mysore War 1790-1792 Eng'lriSh rForces Tipu Sultan

English had to sign
forces treaty of the
and Tipu Seringapattanam
Sultan
IllAllt IASY. Modern lndia 415

Revolutionary EventslCases
Organisation Place Year Founder
Manikatalla (Calcutta) and Alipur Manikatalla, 1 908 Aurbindo Ghosh
Bcmb Conspiracy Case Calcutta Alipur
lv4urder of Curzon Wyllie London 1 909 Madan Lal Dhingra
Atternot to murder Hardinge Delhi 1912 Ras Bihari Bose and Basant Kumar
(Vicero5 ) (Delhi Bomb Case)

Kakorr Train Dacoity Case Kakori 1925 Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashafaoulla
Mur, er of Saunders Lahore 1928 Bhagat Singh
Assembly Bomb case Delhi 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutta
Chittagong Armoury Dacoity Chittagong 1930 Surya Sen
Murder of General Dwyer London 1 940 Udham Singh

lmportant Battles in lndian llis_tory

Name of Battle Period Battle Won by Significance

between

Battle of HydasBes 326 B.C. Alexander and Alexander Fought on the banks of the
Porus .,!helum, which is called
'Hydaspes' in Greek; opened
relations between lndia and
the Wes

Kalinga War 260 B.C. Ashoka and Ashoka Vast destruciion and
King of Kalinga bloodshed changed the
(Orissa) attitude of Ashoka and he
embraced Buddhism

First'Battle of Tarain 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan Prithviraj

or Thaneswar and Mohd. Ghori Chauhan

Second Battle of 1192 do Mohd. Ghori Establishment of an lslamic

Tarain empire in lndia.

First Battle of Panipat 1 526 lbrahim Lodhi and Babur Onset of the Mughal empire
Babur in lndia.

Battle of Khanwa 1527 Babur and Rana Babur

Sanga

Battle of Chausa 1 539 Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri

and Humayun

Battle of Kannaul 1 540 Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah became emperor
and Humayun of lndia.

Second Battle of l55t) Akbar and Hemu Akbar Ended Afghan rule,
Panipat strengthened mughal rule
 Ill[Et EASY o Modern lndia

Name ol the PaperlJournallBooks Name of the Founder/Editor/Author

Discovery of lndia Jawaharlal Nehru

Gita Rahasya Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Arctic Home of Vedas Bal Gangadhar Tilak

lndia: A Nation Annie Besant

Rarbindra Nath Tagore

How lndia wrought her Freedom Annie Besant

Life Divine Aurobindo Ghosh

The Story of lntegration of lndian States V.P. Menon

Some of the lmportant Revolutionary OrEanisaiion/Farties

Organisation Place Year Founder

Vyayam Mandala Poona 1896 - 97 ChaP:BllaY grot,hbrs

Mitra Mela Nasik (Later Poona) 1 901 Savarkar Brothers

Anushilan Samiti Midnapur 1 902 Jnanedra Nath Bose

Abhinava Bharata Poona 1 904 Vikram Damodar (V D.) Savarkar

Anushilan Samiti Dacca 1 907 Varindra Kumar Ghosh

Hindusian Bepublican KanP'ttv., 1924 Sachindra Nath Sanyal

Association/Army (H. R.A.)

Bharat Naujawan Saoha Lahore 1926 Bhagat Singh

Hindustan Socialist Republican Delhi 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad

Association/Army (H.S.R.A. )
lndla Home Rule Society London London 1 904 Shyamji Krishna Verma
(lndia House)
Gadar Party San Francisco 1913 n Singh

lndian lndependence League Berlin (Germany) 1914 ;,ndia,.N.at,h

Forward Bloc Calcutta 1 939 Subhash Chandra Bose

Revol utisnary Event$/Cases

Organisation PIace Year Founder
Murder of
Rarrd and Amherst Poona 1897 Chapekar Brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna
(Piague Commissioners)
Attempt to murder Kingsford Muzaffarpur 1 908 Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki
(a Vindictive Judge)

\**-
 l-

illDt EI$Y. Modern tndia

413
Name of the paper/Journal/Books
Name of the Founder/EditorlAuthor
Rast Goftar, '1851
_ Dadabhai Naoroji
Amrita Bazar Patr-ika, 1868 Sisirkumar Ghosh & Motital Ghosh.
(Bengaii and later, an English daily)

The Hindu,l B78

G.S Aiyar, Viraraghava-chari & Subba Rao pandit
The Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai
Kesari 8o^ laharatta, l gBl Tilak, Chiplunkar, Agarkar

K.K. Mitra
,1906 Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta
Bande Mataram, paris Madam Bhikaji Cama, Aurobindo Ghosh
Ghadar, San Francisco
Ghadaifzrry
l
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
I
Devendranath Tagore

lshwar Chandra Vidya Sagar

tJ
K. M. Panikar
Bandi Jivan Sachindranath Sanyal
National Herald, i93B Jawaharlal Nehru
Al-hilal
r Azad
Young india, Harijan, Indian Opinion
Mahatma Gandhi
New lndia, Commonweal
Annre Besant, Bipin Chandra pal
Ghulamgiri (Stavery)
Jyotirao Phuie
Prabhudha Bharat, Udbodhana
Vivekananda
Comrade Maulana Muhammad Ali
Satyarth Prakash Dayanand Saraswati
Poverty and Unbritish Rule jn lndia
Dadabhai Naoroji
Economic History of lndia
R.C. Dutta
The lndian Struggle
Subash Chandra Bose (An Atrtotriography)
Unhappy lndia
Lala Lajpat Rai
lndia wins Freedom
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Why I am an Atheist? Bhagat Singh
My Experirnents with Truth Mahatma Gandhi (An Autobiography)
(in Gujarati L.anguage)
Hind Swaraj
ndhi
 tllAltE EASY. Modern lndia
412

Year Venue President Bemarks

1 905 Banaras G.K. Gokhale Resentment against partition of Bengal
1 906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji The word 'swaraj' was used for ihe first time by the
President
1907 Surat Rash Bihari Ghosh Split in the Congress into moderates and extremists
1 908 Madras Rash Bihari Ghosh Constitution for the Congress was drawn
1 909 Lahore Madan Mohan Malaviya Drsapproval over formation of separate electorates
on the basis of religion.
191 1 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dhar
1916 Lucknow A.C. Malumdar Congress merger & Pact with Muslim League
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First woman President
1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Malaviya Resignation of moderates like S.N. Bannerit
1919 Amritsar Pandit Motilal Nehru Jailianwa!a Bagh Massacre was condemned
,1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariyar Change in the Constitution of the Congress
1920. Calcutta Lala Lalpat Rai nclusion of Khilafat issue on the agenda of Congress
1922 Gaya C.R. Das Formation of Svuarai Party
1923. Delhi Abul Kalam Azad
.192 Mahatma Gandht
i Belgaum
Kanolir
1s25 | rrnprt Saroiini Naidu
Sarojini Nai First lndian woman President
1927 Madras I
M.A. Ansari lndependence Resoiutton passed for the first
the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru First All lndia Youth Congress came into being
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Poorna Swaraj Fesolution
1 931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National
Economic Policy.
1 934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad Formation of Congress Socialisi Party
.1936
Lucknow I Jawaharlal Nehru The President urged the Congress to adopt Socialism
as its goal
1 938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose National Plannirrg Committee setup under the
Chairmanship of Jawanarlal Nehru.
1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose Resignation of Bose (Bajendra Prasad took over) and
formation of Forward Bloc
'1940 Ramgarh I ROut Kalam Azad
1946 i Meerut J.B. Kripalani
" Special $essions of Congress

Newspapers & Journals

Name ol the Paper/JournallBooks Name of the Founder/EditorlAuthor

Bengal Gazette, 1780

I
James Augustus Hicky

Mirat-ul-Akbar (in Persian), 1822 Raja Rammohan Roy (Akbar ll gave the Raja'to him)

Samvad Kaumudi (in Bengali Language), Raja Rammohan Roy

1821
mA[E IASY. Modern lndia
411

DoYou Know?
r demand
During CalcuttaSession in 1906, Dadabhai Naoroji wasihefirstto usethe word Swaraiforthe
of fLrll lndran control cver all legislation and finances, on the mociel of the self-governing colonies of
Naoroji.
Canacja, ireland and Ausiralia. The word 'Corigress' v/as also given by Dadabhai
. Ghosh conceived
Tilak,s conception o! swarajmeant sorne sort of Self-Government whereas Aurobindo
of Swaraias contplete independence from fcireign ruie'
hike of workers'
" Gandhiji undertook nis flrst hunger strike at Ahmeclabac (19r18)for the mriiwage
. Gandniji's fii.st Ctvli Dtscoedience ltlovement vrias ti-re Rowlatt Satyagraha.
. Gandhiji's firsi Non-Cooperaiion Nlovement was the Kheda Satyagraha'

" Gandhrji {cunoed the sabarrnaii Ashrarn at Ahmedabad ln 1916

e in December I920'
The Nagpur Session of Congress made changes in the Constitution of tne Congress
a ,h{industan Hepublican Association' was founded in 1924 to organise an arrned revoluttion. ln
The
-1g28, under iea<lership of Chandra Shekhar Azad changed it's name to the'Hindustan Socialist
11.ie

Republican Association' (HSRA).

o Ashfaqulla, were
ln the,Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925)', fcur persons, includlng Fam Prasacj Bismil and
hanged.
r Chittararijan Das, was popularly known as Deshbandhu'
ln Malabar.(nortnei-n Kerala), Maplahs(muslir;.r peasants) created a powerfui anti-zaminclar rnovement.
t-he
Parliament
lndian lnclependance Act was implemented on iSth August 1947 and Sovereigrriy of British
was abolrsheci. Dori.lirirorrs cf lndia and Pakrstan were created. Each domirlion to have a
Governor
General. pakistan was to comprise Sind, British Baiuchistan MFP West Pr..rnjab and East Bengal.

Pre-Congress Nationalist Organisations

Founder (s) Year Place
Organisation
Lglgleiqe,s:!?i9{ I D'"varakanath
Landholciers' Socie'ry _;Y:va,q^4 ,1y":
a,ii Tagore 1830 Calcutta
_ a___ 1_ ,--
tndia qol,ety Atjam
I william Aq?!L-
II UUU
aQO
British lndia Sociery _-!/ill?-! ,-l--
--*1qry ---!9td91-
British lndia Association ioL_, lI

Dgyq$,un4!
agl!rag! rLng_cre
; '1851
)^ra
Calcutta

x9999ation-,- -qq94l'' \iqgl?l 866 London

-,
1

-1?9i!9g r olEIlL.'n1! f_ot !uo / London

Natiorral inoian Association I fvt a ry Ca rpente r ( b
g i o rap he

S.H Clriplunkar, G.V. Joshi, M.G' Ranacie, etc. 870 Poona

-
1
Pcona Sarvajanik Sabha
Anand f,4ohan Bose 1872 London
lndian Society
Ananclamchan Bose and S.N. Bannerii 1 876 Calcutta
!ndian Association
'1885 Bombay
B"*b-y Pt.""Ooi"V n-r""*t,oi l eH"t-*n"n frrfoluii-f*Ung, Badrr-rddin Tyabji
r,In
ULU,
E LV.

Deccan Educatiori Society I trt c Ranade v G' Chibdonkar. 1 884 Pune

Sorne lmportant Congress Sessions

-Year Venue Fr*sident Rernarks

1885 Bor-nbay I wC n-"1ne!i rlll T-?-9"t:s1'u'
leao I Catcurtta Daciabhai Nlaorov -={tluryi'o
1'
1-ry{f bel9lt"lqs9!ej-Iol,?91?1i9 €9
1aa7 Ll:rlr:iq - Rarlrrrrtdin Tvabii First y!9'11+"si99ll-
lr'l i'/lusiirn President
-- L--tl{4'".
ils
itse
,---r-- - -?:9ry99{ve!i'-
|-_--
-
Ail;hrb.J 1 q"gq9.y!," ___ _ I rirst rnstrsh Presiclg1_____
l
--
:_
1896 Calcut:a Rahimtulla M. Sayani Firsr tirne Vande Mataram was sllng
410 IllAllE EASY o Modern lndia

e electing the Constituent Assembly

INA was formed by Captain Mohan Singh
(iii) Section A: Non Muslim Majority Provinces
in Singapore. Subhas Chandra Bose had (Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central
escaped to Berlin in 1941 and set up Indian
Provinces, Orissa, Madras).
Legion there. ln July 1943, he joined the INA
(iv) Section B: Muslim Majority Provinces rn the
at Singapore, There Rasbehari Bose handed
north-west (Sind, NWFP & Punjab)
over the leadership to him.
(v) Section C: Muslim Majority Provinces in North
" Azad Hind Government and the lndian National east (Bengal, Assam).
Army was formed on 21 October 1943. . Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for
. INA had three fighting origades named after grouping only till the formation of a Constituent
Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru RaniJhansi Brigade Assembly. On 29th July 1946, Jinnah withdrew his
led by Laxmi Sehgal was an exclusive women earlier acceptance of the plan and f ixed '16 August
force. 1946 as Direct Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali,
. Laxmi Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Garmukteshwar were the storm centres.
Singh Dhillon were put on trial at the Red Fort.
o Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru ancl Nehru lnterim Government
appeared for the defence and the Muslim It came into existence on 2nd September
League also joined the countrywide protest, 1946, in accordance with Cabinet Mission's
proposal and was headed by J. L. Nehru.
Muslim League refused to join it iniiially.
Shimla Conference (June-July 1 945)
o lt was proposed by Sit'Wavell. Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join
. Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive on 26 October 1946.
Council with only lndian members The Viceroy 8th December 1946: lnterrm Governments
and the Commander in chief would be the only begins its session with Liaqat Ali Khan of
non-indian members of the council. Muslim League as the Finance Minister.
r 'Hindus & Muslims'would have equal representation.
The lnterim government, obstructed by its
o Talks broke down due to Jinnah's demand for League members and bureaucracy was
the Muslim League to have absolute choice in reduced to a figurehead and was unable to
choosing all Muslim members and a demand for
control the communal carrage.
communal veto, though it had ministries only in
Assam and Sind.
Attlee's Announcement
Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946) . Prime Minister Attlee on 20 February 1947
. Members: Wavell, Pathick Lawrence (Secretary announced that the British would withdraw from
of State), Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. lndia by 30 June, 1948 and Lord Mountbatten
. The Mission reasoned that the rlght of communal would replace Wavell.
self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also o Partition of the country was implicit in the provrsion
had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed that if the Constituent Assembly was not fully
majorities in West Bengal and Easterrr Puniab, as representative then power wouid be transferred to
well as in Assam proper. more than one Central Government.
. The Plan proposed rejection of the demand for a
fullf ledged Pakistan. The other recommendations Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)
were: . The Plan declared that power would be handed
(i) For a very loose union of all the lndian over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of Dominion
territories under a centre that uvould control Status to lndia and Pakistan.
merely the defence, the foreign affairs and the
. Boundary Commission was to be headed by Radcliffe.
communications, leavrng all other subjects to
. lndependence for Bengal and accession of
the existing Provincial Legislatures. Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out.
(ii) Provincra! Legislatures would elect a
o Mountbatten Plan was to divide lndia but retarn
Constituent Assembly. The members would maximum unity.
divide up into three sections A, B and C while
 IllA0t t[SY r Modern lndia 409

programme and Harijan campaign while many passed on B August 1942 at Gowalia Tank,
other party members wanted to fight the elections Bombay. Gandhili told the British to quit and
t' o ln the elections to the Central Legislative Assembly "leave lndia in God's hand". Hrs message was Do
in November 1934, the Congress won 45 seats or Die'.
out of the 75. The government announced the o ln ihis movement, all the prominent leaders like
holding of elections of the Provrncial Legislatures Gandhi, Nehru, Patel etc. were arrested but the
in February 1937 under the Government of India other leaders like Jai Prakash Narayan, Ram
Act 1935 which promised provincial autonomy. At Manohar Lohia, Aruna Ashaf Ali, Usha Mehta (she
the Lucknow Session (April 1936), the Congress ran All-lndia Congress Radio) etc. continued the
decided to contest them. The Congress frameC . revolutionarystruggle.
a detailed political and economic programme at o Violence spread throughout the country and
the Faizpur Session (December 1936) under the parallel government were established tn some
Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru. places viz. 1. Balia (Uttar Pradesh), 2. Tamulak
(Bengal) 3. Satara (Maharashtra) 4. Talchar
August Offer (1940) (Orissa) Finally, the movement was, however,
. The Viceroy (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal crushed by the government.
that included:
(i) Dominion Status in the unspecified future. Public Participation
(ii) A post-war body to enact the Constrtution. . The participation was on many levels. School
(iii) Expansion of Governor-General's Council & College students remained in the forefront,
women actively participated and workers went on
with representation of the lndians.
(iv) Establishing a War Advisory Council. strikes There were no communal clashes during
(v) Right to Secede for some provinces. the movement. Repression was severe.
. Communist Party of lndia due to its People's War
line did not support the movement. The lndian
The Cripps Mission (March-April 1942)
o After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese, the princes and the landlords were supporting the
war effort and therefore dld not sympathize with
British decided to send the Cripps Mission to
the movement.
lndia for constitutional proposals, whrch included:
(i) Dominion Status to be granted after the war . Some Congress leaders like Rajagopalachari
also did not participate.
with the right to secede (any province could, if
it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union
Rajagopalachari Formula (1 945)
and negotiate directly with Britain).
(ii) Constiiution making body to be elected from . ln 1944, C. Rajagopalachari proposed that after
Provincial Assemblies and Princes' nominees the termination of the war, a Commission could be
after the War. appointed for demarcating contiguous distncts in
(iii) lndividual princes could sign a separate the north-west and east where Muslims were in
agreement with the British which in effect absolute majority. ln the areas thus demarcated,
accommodated the Pakistan demand, a plebiscite would be held on the basis of adult
(iv) British would however, controlthe defence for suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of
war period. separation from Hindustan.
. The Congress did not want to rely upon future . Jinnah objected, as he wanted Congress to
promises. lt wanted a responsibie government accept two-nation theory and wanted only Muslims
with full powers and also a control over the of the northwest and east of lndia to vote in the
country's defence. Gandhiji termed the proposals plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V"D. Savarkar
as a post dated cheque on a crumbling bank. condemned the plan

Quit lndia Movement (1942) lndian NationalArmy

o ln the back-drop of the failure of Cripps Mission
imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude
. ln March 1942 a conference of lndians was
towards lndians who were left behind in Burma held in Tokyo, and they formed the lndian
and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien lndependence League. At the Bangkok
and meaningless war, Quit lndia resolution was Conference (June, 1942) Rasbehari Bose was
elected President of the League.
 lllA0t IASY. Modern lndia
408

the earlier Non-Cooperation Movement (1921- British government refused to concede the basic
22) because the policy of Non-Cooperation nationalist demand for freedom on the basis of the
Movement was affecting the administration of the immediate grant of Dominion Status.
Government by non-cooperation whereas the Civil
r The Second Round Table Conference ended with
Disobedience Movement aimed at paralysrng the Ramsay MacDonald's announcement of :

administration by performance of specific illegal

(i) Formation of two new Muslim malority
acts,
Provinces (North Western Frontier Province
and Sind).
Chronology of events in CDM (ii) Setting up of an lndian Consultative
o 12lh March, 1930 : Dandi March was undertaken Comrnittee.
from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi by Gandhiji' (iii) Setting up of three expert committees on

. lBth April 1930 : Chittagong Armoury was raided Finance, Franchise and States.
by Surya Sen. (iv) Holding out the prospect of a untlateral British
r January 1931:First Round Table Conference' Communal Award if lndians failed to agree
. 5th March, 1931: Delhi Pact' signed between on the minorities issue'
Viceroy lrwin and Gandhiji.
. 23rd March '1931: Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Communal Award and Poona Pact
o On August 16, 1932 McDonald announced the
Sukhdev were executed
proposal on minority representation, known as the
. March, 1931 (Karachi Congress): lt accepted
Communal Award which recommended:
Delhi Pact, and Civil Disobedience Movement was
withdrawn, The session also passed the resolution
(i) To double the existing seats in Provincial
Leg islatures
for Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy'
. Sept.-Dec. 1931: Gandhiji participated rn Second
(ii) To retain the system of separate rlectorate for
the minorities
Round Table Conference alongwith Sarojini Naidu'
. (iii) To grant weightage to Muslims in Provinces
Dec. 1931:Gandhiji returned and launched CDM
where they were in minoritY.
but the movement was brutally suppressed by
(iv) To recognize depressed classes as mtnortty
force.
. community and make them entitled to the
April, 1934;Themovementwaswithdrawnformally'
right of seParate eiectorate
First Round Table Conference (1 930) r Gandhiii's Objections: Gandhiji reacted strongly
. The First Round Table Conference summoned in to the proposal of graniing the right of separate
London in 1930, between British and lndians to electorates to the depressed classes He
discuss the Simon Commission Report regarded the depressed classes as an integral
. The National Congress boycotted the Conference' part of Hindu societY
. Muslim League was represented by Mohammed' . To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept
Ali, Agha Khan and Jinnah. his viewpoint, Gandhiii then rn the Yarvada Jail,
. Hindu Mahasabha was represented by Moonje. resort to fast unto death. ln an anxrety to save his
o Depressed class was represented by B R' life, the Poona Pact was concluded between him
Ambedkar. and Ambedkar on 25 SePtember 1932
. Princes were represented by the Dewans of
Third Round Table Conference
Hyderabad and Mysore respectively
. Thrs conference ended with no result. o Third Round Table Conference was scheduled
to be held in London (1932). The Congress did
not participate in it while Muslim league as a party
Delhi Pact (Gandhi-lrwin Pact, March 1931)
participated without Jinnah and princes were
. Lord lrwin agreed to release all political prisoners
absented.
except Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev . The discussion led to the passing of the
. Gandhiji agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience
Government of lndia Act, 1935 also called as
Movement and participate in Second Round Table
'White PaPer'.
Conference.
lnitiation of Quit lndia Movement
Second Round Table Conference . Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhiji
. Gandhijr attended the Second Round Table vvanted to focus upon hrs viliage reconstruction
Conference alongwith Sarojini Naidu. But the

r-il
 L.
IllillE EASY. Modern lndia
407
Slmon Commission and lts Boycott o For the dominion, Nehru Report recommended
. in November 1927, the British Government 'Dominion Status on lines of seif-governing
appointed an ali white, lndian Statutory dominions as the form of government desired by
Commission, known as the Simon Commission lndians.
(after the name of its Chairman Sir John Simon). r The Report recommended equal rights for women,
Tne commission was appointed to review the freedom to form unions, and dissociation of the
performance of reforms of 1919 and suggest State from religion in any form.
further reforms . lt rejected separate communal electorates. lt
. At its Madras session in 1927, presided over by proposed reservation for the Muslims at the center
Dr. Ansari, the Natlonal Congress decided to and in Provinces in which ihey virere in minority.
boycott the Commission at every glzgs and in So, Muslim League rejected the report and hence
every form. Nehru report failed.
. The Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha and r After that, Jinnah, the leader of Muslim league,
all the Poiltical groups (except the Justice Party drew up a list of demands, which was called
t, in [t/adras and the Punjab Unionists) decided to '14 points of Jirrnah'.
boycott the Commission, o lt was the first ever effort by lndians only towards
Reasons of boycott of Sirnon Commission nraking their constitution.
(i) All the menrbers of the commission were
Englishmen. lrwin's Statement (October, 1929)
(ii) Constitutional Reforms were due only in 1929 o "lt is implicit in the l9'17 (Montague's Statement)
but the Britain's Conservative Secretary of that the natural issue of lndia's progress, as
State, Lord Brikenhead appoirrted the Simon contemplated there, rs the attainment of Dominion
Commission, before the due date. lndians Status".
were not prepared for that. o He proposed Round Table Conference after the
(iii) Brikenhead, had constanily talked of the submission of the Simon Report.
inability of lndians to formulate a concrete
scheme of Constitutional Reforms. Lahore Session and Poorna Swarai (Dec.192g)
(iv) lt was seen as a violation of the Principle of . lryrin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion
seif-determination and a, deliberate insult to Status, which the Britislr were reluctant to concede
the seltrespect of the Indians. immediately. Jawaharlal Nehru replaced Motilal
. ln 1928, Simon commission report came in lncjia. Nehru as the lndian National Congress President
lndians objected and Anti Sir-non commission at Lahore and the major decisions taken at Lahore
agitation was started and cali for'Simon Go Back' Session u;ere.
begins. ln Oct. 1928, the agitation in Lahore ied (i) Round Table Conference to be boycotted.
by Lala t-alpat Rai in which Saunders announced (ii) Poorna Swaraj or complete independence as
lathi charge and Lala Lajpat injured and later on, the main aim of Congress.
died due to rrrternal injuries. (iii) Launched a Prograrnme of Civil Disobedience
c After his death, Bhagat Singh and his comrades including non-payment of taxes.
killed Saunders in December 1928. (iv) On December 31, 1929 the tricolour was
r After the slrong protest against Simon commission, hoisted on the bank of River Ravi.
Government cf England said that all the plartres (v) January 26th, 1930 f ixed as the First lndepen-
should prepared their own cor.nmon report. As a dence Day to be celebrated every year.
result, Nehru Report was prepared.
The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
Nehru Report o To achieve the goal of Complete lndepenCence,
r AII important Indian leaders and parties held Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) vras started
the conference in February 1g2B to meet the by Gandhiji with the Dandi March on [Varch 12,
challenge of the Simon Commission and appointed 1930. He started his march alongwith 78 followers
a subcommittee under the chairmanship of Motilal from Sabarmati Ashram to the small viliage Dancji
Nehru io draft a Constitution. (Navsari District) to break the Salt Law. Gandhi
. The report was finalised by August i928, and covered a distance of 240 miles in 24 days.
called Nehru Report. . The Civil Disobedience Movement differed from
 IIIAIE IASY. Modern lndia
406
. After this massacre, Gandhiji withdrew this o The attack on a local police station by angry
movement and called it as "lt was my Himalayan peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district
Blunder". of UP, on February 5, 1922, changed the whole
o To enquire into this massacre, British government situation. Gandhiji shocked by this incident and
appointed Hunter Committee but in 1920, the withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement to
committee said that only 379 people lvere killed. prevent the public mass from demoraltsation.
Later on, this report was called by Gandhili as a . On the failure of this movement, Subhash
Official Whitewash. Chandra Bose said it as a "National Calamity".
. To show his protest against the massacre,
Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood. Swaraj Parly (1922)
. ln 1940, Sardar Udham Singh murdered Michel . After the withdrawal of non-cooperation
O Dwyer in England, r,vho gave orders for movement, congress committee decided no
Jallianwala Bagh massacre. actrve movement can be started because people
were not ready at that time only constructive work
The Khilafat And Non-Cooperation Movement can be done. But the congress cornmittee was
(1 el e-22) differ in their rriews and two groups were formed.
. A Khilafat Committee was formed under the (i) Pro-changers : They demanded counctl
leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam entry and deviated from the general idea of
Azad and Hakim Ajmal Khan, and a countrywide congress. They said "We may be parallelised
agitation was organised. the Govt by reside within the council, so
. The All - lndia Khilafat Ccnference held at Delhi elections should not be boYcotted"
in November 1919 decided to withdraw all Some important leaders are:- C.R Das, M.L.
co-operation f rom the government if their demands Nehru Lala Lalpat Fai.
were not met. (ii) No Changers: This group completely
. The Khilafat Committee launched a Non- agreed lvrth the party's decisron and they
Cooperation Movement on August 31 , 1920. do not want any kind of change against the
. Gandhiji became one of the leaders of the Khilafat decision of congress.
Movement to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity. They thoughi loining councils leads to
. l"he Congress held a special session in September deviation from the main goal and arise of
'1920
at Calcutta and an annual session in political corruption,
December 1920 at Nagpur and passed a Some important leaCers are'- Leaders:
resolution to Iaunch Non-Cooperation Movement. V. Patel. C Baigopalachar and Rajendra
. On the basis of Lucknow Pact Anti-Rowlatt Agitation, Prasad.
Jallianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat Movement and . ln December 1922 Gaya session of congress,
Swaraj, the Congress launched the Non-Cooperation under the presidentship of C R. Das, council
Movement. The Tilak Swaraj Fund was started to entry resolution not passeC, As a result, C.R.Das
f inance the Non-Cooperation Movement. has left the post of congress president and
. The main emphasis of the movement was on announced an other party known as 'Swarai
boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, elections Party' in which C.R Das appointed as president
to Provincial and Central Assembly. Advocacy and M.L. Nehru as secretary.
of the use of Charkha, Swadeshi education. Top . ln 1923, Central Legislative Assembly (CLA)
lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up elections, the Swaraj Party won 42 seats out of
their legal practice. 105 (421105) and attained absolute maiority in
. Some swadeshi (positive prograrnmes) like provinces.
Swadeshi Education (establishment of Jamia Milia . ln 1924, M.L. Nehru was elected as leader
lslamia in Delhiand KashiVidyapeeth in Banaras), of opposition and he demanded round table
Hindu-Muslim unity, Removal of untouchability, no conference for framing the constitution.
tax campaign etc. were implemented. . ln '1925, due to the death of C R. das, resulted
. Non-Cooperation Movement progressed Swaral party declined.
powerfully from January, 1920 to early February, Note: 1925: Vitthalbhai Patel: First elected
1922 and it was the first well organised lndian lndian speaker.
movement.

\_-
.\r
tlfllt IASY. Modern lndia 405
(ii) Ahmedabad MillWorkers Strike
Literary Works: Hind Swaraj (190g), My
' ln the year 1917-18, severe famine
Experiments with Truth (his autobiography
conditions and plague affected the lndian
written in Gujarati language).
farmers and people's. So, in Ahmedabad
mill owners given bonus to the workers and As an Editor: lndian Opinion, Harijan, Young
asked them to return the bonus partially. lndia (in English and Gujarati- named Navjeevan)
. After conditions got improved, workers Other Names: Mahatma (Saint)- by Rabindra-
demanded extension of salary but the mill nath Tagore, Rashtrapita (the Father of the
owners were against the demand. So, in Nation) * by Subhash Chandra Bose, Nanga
19'18, Gandhill intervened in a dispute Faqir/Traitor Faqir - by Winston Churchill,
between the workers and mill owners and he
Note : U.N.O. declared Oct. 2 as "lnternational
took a fast unto death to force a compromise.
. Finally, the mill owners agreed to give a
Non-violence Day".
raise of 35 per cent in wages to the workers.
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha
(iii) Kheda Satyagraha . ln .1919 Sedition Commrttee headed by Justice
. ln 1918, a terrible famine had struck Kheda Rowlatt passed the Rowlatt Act on 1B March,
and a large part of Gujarat and virtually 19.19, whereby war time restrictions of civil rights
destroyed the agrarian economy. were to be made permanent by:
The British government insisted that the (i) System of special courts.
farmers not only pay full taxes, but also (ii) Detention without trialfor 2years maximum.
pay the 23"/o increase stated to take effect (iii) Greater police powers,
that very year but the farmers demanded o This Act authorised the government to imprison
the exemption of land revenue due to the any person without trial and conviction in a Court
famine conditions. of Law.
Gandhiji and Vallabh Bhai Patel enquired . This Act also enabled the government to suspend
into this matter and finally found that the the Right of Habeas Corpus which had been the
actual suffers was small farmers, So, they foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
must be get exemption. . To disobey this Act, Gandhiji founded the
To protest the government's decision, a Satyagraha Sabha, whose members took a
Satyagraha was called which was initiated pledge to boycott and non-cooperate with the
by Mohanlal Pandya along with the support government,
of Gandhiji, Vallabh Bhai Patel, lndulal o lt was first countrywide agitation by Gandhiji
Yagnik, Mahadev Desai. and marked the foundation of Non-Cooperation
The government finally sought to foster an Movement.
honourable agreement for both parties. . During March - April 1919, the country witnessed
The tax for the year in question and the a remarkable political awakening. There were
next would be suspended and the increase hartals, strikes, processions and demonstrations.
in rate reduced, while are confiscated o This all lndia strike was proposed to be peaceful
property would be returned. but this was not happen, a lot of violence was seen
in certain areas of the country mainly in Punjab.
Facte about Gandhi So, British government recruited General Dier in
Amritsar.
. Date and Place of birth: Oct. 2 1869 and
Porbandar, Gujarat.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
o Father: Karamchand Gandhi, Mother: o A large crowd had gathered on 13 April 1919
Putalibai, Political Guru: Gopal Krishna (Baisakhi Day) at Amritsar in the Jallianwala
Gokhale. Bagh, to protest against the arrest of their popular
r Literary lnfluences on Gandhi: The Kingdom leaders, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
of God is within You (Leo Tolstoy), Unto the . General Dyer,Ihe military commander of Amritsar,
Last (John Ruskin's), Civil Disobedience ordered for the infamous massacre in which
(Thoreau), and the Gita. almost 2000 people were ktlled.
 IilAllE IASY o Modern lndia
404

The Home Rule League Movement (1916-1917) not able to be a part of this society'
. Establishment of two Home Rule Leagues; One by
. Gandhiji came to lndia in the year 1915 but his
Bal GangadharTilak in April 1916 at Poona and active participation into lndian politics can be
the other by Annie Besant at Adyar Ashram near traced with the Champaran Satyagraha (1917),
Madras in SePtember 1916. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) and Ahmedabad Mill
. Workers strike ('1 91 B) respectively
Under this movement, Tilak covered Karnataka'
Central province and Berar while rest of lndia was
. During the Gandhian period, the oblective of
covered by Annie Besant. ln this movement, Annie Congress was the attainment of Swaraj by all
Besant was supported by Motilal Nehru, Surendra legitimate means.
Nath Banerjee and Mohammad Ali Jinnah Gandhiji advocated the adoptlon of the policy of
o The idea of starting a Home Rule League Satyagraha (literally persistence in truth), i e , non-
originated with Annie Besant in as early as 1914 violent, non-cooperation towards the government'
and it was influenced by an lrish revolution' Gandhiji emerged as the most popular and
. The main objective was to attain home rule for lndia acceptable figure in lndian politics because of his
as self government within the British empire (on technique of mass mobilization.
the lines of the autonomous colonies of Australia'
New Zealand etc.). (i) ChamParanSatYagraha
o For instance, Tilak, who had demand complete . The British indigo planters in Champaran
independence for lndia during the Anti Partition (Bihar) oppressed the lndian culttvators
Movement had, however, made it very clear tn most severely. He forced the lndlan farmers
1916 when he declared. The Swarai of today is to grow indigo in 3/20th part of the land
within the Empire and not independent of it'' which is under the control of British Planters,
for which lndian farmers would also pay
Activities of the Home Rule Leagues rent/taxes.
o Promoting political education and discussion . But in the year 1917, chemical die was
through public meetings, organising libraries invented in Germany and also condition
and reading rooms containing books on national of famine occurred in lndra. So the indigo
politics, holding conferences, farming experienced a huge loss As a result,
. Propagation through newspapers, pamphlets, the British levied a huge tax amount on lndian
posters, PlaYs, natronal songs, etc' farmers as a compensation of the loss'
. Collecting funds, organising social work and . Gandhiji went to Champaran on instance
participating in local government activittes' of Raikumar Shukla, a local farmer and
Many moderate nationalists, who were dissatisf ied started making enquiries of the grievances
with the inactivity of Congress joined the Home of the cultivators.
Rule agitation. . The district authorrties ordered him to leave
. Soon, British government took action against the Champaran and he defied the orders The
League and in June 1917, Annie Besant was government, then was forced to appoint
arrested. a committee of inquiry on which Gandhiji
served as a member.
GANDHIAN PHASE (1917-1947)
. The British planters under the guidance
o On January 9, 1915, Gandhili returned from South of government, signed an agreement
Africa where he was worked as a barrister but grantrng more compensation and control
due to some racial discrimination he returned to over farming for the poor farmers of the
lndia. Gandhiji's Satyagraha was actually started region and cancellations of revenue hikes
in South Africa initiallY. and collection until the famine ended' Thus
o The first participation of Gandhiji in congress Gandhiii emerged successful in his first
session was in 1901, Calcutta session under the struggle against oppression in lndia'
presidentship of Bal Krishna Gokhale Gandhili
. Some of leaders associated with Gandhili
assumed Gokhale also as his political guru in this Satyagraha were J B Kripalani'
. Gokhale established Servants of lndia Society Rajendra Prasad, Mahadev Desai, Narhari
in 1905 and he wanted to admit Gandhiii as a Parikh etc.
member but other party members were not agree
. Based on this movement, a book 'Neel
with Gandhiji's opinion. As a result, Gandhiii was Darpan'was written by Dinbandhu Mitra

\
----

ilA0E IASY. Modern lndia

402

Demands of Moderates Tilak), the Bengal group (represented by B C PaI

o Civil rights of lndians. and Aurobindo Ghosh) and the Punjab group (led
o lndians rn Council. bv Lala l-ajpat Rai).
. Reduction in Administrative and Military expenditure'
. The extremists advocated boycoit of foreign
c Swarajwithin British crown goocls, School/Colieges, Councils & Courts'
. Stop economic drain, Services, whereas promoted the use of Swadeshi
goods, national education and passive i'esistance'
Achievements of the Moderates . Social reform mcvements like Arya Sarnaj and
. l"hey succeeded in creating a wide national Theosophical Society gave impetus to political
awakening among the people and training them radicalism. The political radicals derived
in the art of Political work. inspiration frorn threir traditionai cultural values'
. They popularised the ideas of democracy' civil . Ramakrishna Paramhansa, his discipte Swami
liberties, secularism and nationalism among the Vivekananda and Swami Dayananda, etc also
people of lndia. played avital role in the birth of extremist philosophyr'
. They exposed the exploitative character and the . Aurobindo Ghosh publishea New lamps for old in
evil results of British Policies. 1893-94. lt was the first systematic critique of the
. The drain theory popularized by Dada Bhai Naoroji mr:cierates.
(pior-reer of drain theory), Datt, Wacha and others . Tilak asserteci, 'swaraj is my birth Right and I will
\,vas an open indictment of Britain's economic role have it'. He was the editor of 'Maratha' (iVaharatta)
in lndia. in English and the 'Kesari' in Marathi
. Their main achievement was the appointment
of a Public Service Comrnrssion in 1886, whiclt Surat Split of 1907
caused disappointment and the enactment of the
r Surat session of congress l9O7 vr;as nelo on the
lndian Counciis Act 1892 which did not modify the bank of river l-api, under tl're presdentship of
basic Constitlttion. Ras Bihari Ghosh. ln this sesston, congress was
. They succeedecl to start the simultaneous split into two groups which are - Nloderates and
examination for the ICS in London and lndia and Extremtsts,
appointment of the Welby Commtssion on lndian
. Moderates views differ with tne extremist and
expenditure (1895). they were not agreed with the Tilak's views
. The moderates however failed because they ,At the Calcutta Session of Congress in 1906,
coulcl not realtse the importance of mass struggle' the extremist leaders - Bipin Chandra Pal and
They also could not realise the true nature of the Ar-rrobindo Ghosh wanted Tilak to become the
British for a considerable time President of the Congress, But the m'lderaies
were in no mood to accePt hiti't.
EXTREMIST PHASE (1905'1919) . LJltimately a compromise was hurriedly made
r Extremists advocated the adoption of Swaraj as and four maior resolt.;tions were passed on
the goal of the Congress to be achieved by more Boycott, Swadeshi, Nationa Education and Self
self-reliant and independent methods' Government and they secured a smooth passaEe
in the open session, Bui the policies oi moderates
lmportant Extremist Leaders and extremists were different. Thus, the mocierates
. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Eipin were determined to sPlit
Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh. Therefore the Congress split in tl-re nationalist
ranks at the Surat Session of 1907'
Dernand
. CompletelndePendence. . After the split feared with the popularity of Tilak
British gave him imprisonment for six years and
Methods sent him to [VandalaY in Burma.
e Swadeshi and boYcott methods' . B.C. Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai left lndia and
. All lndia protest movement backed by Masses' Aurobindo Ghosh took asylum in Pondicherry and
make an ashram known as Aurobindc, Ashrarn.
Causes for the Rise of Extremism
. Partition of Bengal (1905) PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)
. Rise of three groups ofexiremists viz' the r On the grounci of efficient administration of
Maharashtra group (headed by Bal Gangadhar Bengal, on 20th July, 1905 Lord Curzon issued

:!
_{ir1
Ihe Inilian llational
Mouemenl

The second half of the 19th century witnessed the full With the foundation of INC in 1885, the struggle
growth of an organised National Movement in lndia. for lndia's independence was launched in a
lmportant factors of grolvth of Indian Nationalism are: small, hesitant and mild but organized manner.
. Administrative, econom c and political unification The first two decade of INC are described in
of the country history as those of moderate demands and
. lnf luence of western educat on and thought. a sense of confidence in British justice and
r A renalssance in ri'e soc ety as a result of socio- generosity.
religious reforn ;-noverrents.
e Development of ,ap d means of transport and
Opinions about INC
communications,
Emergence of a mcdern press and lmpact of "lNCirepresonts,'only a mieroscopic minorities".
contemporary European movements, Lord Dufferin
Practice of racial d sc'irnrnation by the British in "The congress is tottering to its fall. and one of my
-
almost every sphere of ife great ambitions. while in lndia, is to assist it to a
Acceleration provided by Lord Lytton's regime peaceful demise."
and the llbert Bill controversy Lord Curzon
The history of the lndian Natlonalist Movement "lNC is a begging institute
-
can be studied under three phases:
(i) Moderate phase or early nationalist phase - Aurobindo Ghosh
"lNC should distinguished between begging and
905)
(1 BB5-1
claiming the rights "
(ii) Extremist phase (1905- 1919) BalGangadharTilak
(iii) Gandhian phase (1919-1947) 'li N C playirn,g,',wj.tl1,,,,bubb.iesll
-
' r,r,,r gi,pi,h Chandra Pal:
FORMATION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
(r.N.c.)
. The lndian National Union was formed in 1884 MODERATE PHASE (188s-1 905)
by A.O. Hume an Englishman and a retired o The moderates used the of methods
civil servant, in association with various national constitutional agitation for demanding reforms.
leaders who called for a conference in Pune in Their aim was not to be aggressive for attaining
December 1885. independence lest the British should suppress
. The conference received the unanimous support this.
of all Indian leaders, but the venue was shifted . They preSented their demands to the British
to Bombay for various reasons (esp. outbreak of government through petitions, prayers, protests,
cholera in Pune) meetings, speeches and resolutions.
o Further, the leaders decided to rename lndian . They targeted only educated masses for the
National Union as lndian Natronal Congress. political activities.
. The first session of the lndian National Congress o lnspite of their many failures, moderates laid
was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in strong foundations for the National Movement to
Bombay underthe president ship of W.C.Bannerji, grow upon and that they deserve a high place
a veteran lawyer of Calcutta. among the makers of modern lndia.
. lt was attended by 72 delegates from all over lndia. . Moderate Leaders - Dada Bhai Naroroji, A.O.
. From 1885 onwards the INC met every year and Hume, Badruddin Tayebji, M.G. Ranade, W.C.
its cause spread rapidly among middle class Bannerji, Surendra Nath Bannerji, Gopal Krishna
lndians. Gokhale, Anand Mohan Bose, Ras BihariGhosh.
 lllAllt t[SY o Modern lndia
400
. Observation of Deliverance Daylry Muslim League Lord Mountbatten (1 947-1 948)

in 1939. . Last British Viceroy of lndia.

. Divide and Quit slogan at the Karachi Session o First Governor General of lndia after lndepen-
(1944) of the Muslim League dence,
. August offer, 1940.
. Announced the June 3,1947 plan.
. Cripps Mission, 1942.
. lndian lndependence Act of 1947 for the partition
. Quit lndia Movemenl,1942-. of lndia.
. Partition of lndia and Pakistan's coming into being
on 14th August, 1947
Lord Wavel I (1 944-1947) .
. C.R. formula, 1944. Appointment of two boundary commrssions under
. End of Second World War 1945 Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
. Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its
proposals by Congress. C. Rajagopalachari (1 948-1 950)
. Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on the
. The last Governor General of free lndla.
16th August, 1946.
. The only lndian Governor General rematned in
'1948 to 25th January, .1950.
. British Prime Minister Attlee's announcement office from 21st June,
of 20th February 1947, that power would be
'1948
transferred to the lndians by June,
. Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference in
'1945.

. No Sessions of the Congress were held in 1930, 1935 194.1 to 1945 and 1947.
.1915
r Lord Willingdon participated in the Congress Session of in Bombay.
. Savitri and the Life Divine were written by Arabindo Ghosh.
r Gita Rahasya was written by Tilak in Mandaley Jail in 1911.
. Bankrm Chandra Chatterjee wrote Durgeshnandini in Bengalr in i864. His journal Bangadarshan is a
unique contribution to Bengali Literature.
o First published work of Raja Ram Mohan Roy was Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin in Persian.
. Biography of A.O. Hume was written by Wedderburn.

rI
IllAltt IASY r Modern lndia 399
Lord Minto-ll (1905-1 91 0) Formation of Swaraj Partyl:y C.R Das and h.4otilal
r Morley-Minto Reforms (lndian Councils Act of Nehru i 922
r 909) Viclent incrdenls at Chauri Chaura and Gandhiji
e Muslirn League was formed by Sallrrullah in '1906 calied off the l'.Jon-Cool-reration Movement (1922)
at Dacca and Agha Khan was appointed as first Decision was iaken to itold sirnuitarieous
president of l-eague examinatir,.rs for ine lC)S bolh in Deihi and L_onrJon
. The partition of Bengal came inlo force on October iruitheffect frrnr I923
10, r906. f:ornration ci Rashlr"iya Swa'yarlsevai.< Sangh
. Surat Session and spiit in the Congress (.1907) (RSS) in 1925.
. Tilak sentenced to six years imprisonment on 6 Kakori train robhery in t925.
charge of sedition. a Irlurder cf Swai-ni Shradonanano in '1926.
o Execution of Khudrram Bose April 30, 1908. a Itloplair Rebi,.llion in Keraia (Malabar Coasi) in ig2'1

Lord Hardinge-ll (1 91 0-1 91 6) Lord [rwin (1S26*19S1]

o Partition of Bengal was reversed in 19'11. . Appc\intnrenl of Simc'n Commissian in 1927
. A grand Durbar (3rd Delhi Darbar) was held at . The Simon Commission came to !ndia ii'r 1928.
Delhi in honcur of King George V in '1911. in -1928, Nlehru Report recommends principles for
. Capital of lndia shifted from Calcutta io ffielhi "
the new Consritutron of lndia.
. Bomb thrown ar the ccnvoy of Lord l-lardinge on o ln Lalrore Session of '1929 Corrgress aciopted the
his entry into Delh; goal of complete lndependence for india.
. Ghadar party forrned at San Francisco and o Civil Disobedience Mcvement started in .1930.
began the Ghadar movements. . Gandhiji hegan Dandi Mai'clr to manufa"cture
n Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan illegal salt on March '12th '1930
Mohan Malviya in 1915.
" Gandhi-lrvuin pact oi 1931 and the suspe-.nsion cf
Civil Disobedicnce Movemeni,
Lord Chelmsford ('l 91 6-1 92X ) r Jawahar Lai Nelrru hoists il"re tricolour of tnciian
. Lucknow Session of Congress (1916) and lnclepencjence cn the oank of riirer Flavi al i_ahore
Lucknow Pact between the Congress and !\luslim on lstJanuary 1930
League (1916). . All lndia Youth Congress, formed in 1928.
o Forrnation of two Horne Rule Leagues by Tilak at . Appointrlent of Harcourt Butler" lnrli;tn Siaie.q
Pune and by Annie Besant at Adyar (rreai' Madras) Cornmission in 192V.
in 19.16. o Firsi Bound Taole Conference in 1930
r Arrival of Gandhiii and formation of Sabarmati . Murder of Saunders, the ASP of L-ahore
Ashram and Champaran Satyagraha in 19-16.
o Launch of Channparan Satyagraha (191 7), Kheda Lord t1/illinEdon (1 931 -1 936)
Saiyagrana (1918) and Satyagraha at AhmeCabad r Second Boi:rd Table Conference in -1931
(1e18) o Ramsay N/ac Donaid annoi:nced ile Cammunal
e Montagr-r's August Declaraiion (l917). Award (nroctlfied by the Poona Pact) rn 1?32.
. The Governnrent of India Act of '1919 whicir o Thircl Round Tabie Conference tn '1932.
introduced dirarchy in the Provtnces, The Gcvernr,,rent o{ lndia Act, 'l 935 pass..rd
o "
Rowlatt AcL 19'19 and the Jalianwala Eagh n l,"aunch of inCividual Civil Disobedierrce il,4ovemeni
Massacre on 13 April. 1919 in 1933
o Khilafat rnovement (1919-1920) and non- o Fourrdatic',n of Ccngress Socralist Pariy .1gll,i
Cooperation Movernent {1 920- 1 922). r Birrn-la segrarated frorn lnclia
.1035
o Formation of Saddier Comrnission for education in . l\ll lrtrjiia Kisair liabha 1936.
ivt/.
. Appointrnent of S.P. Sinha (First lndian tc l:ecorne LorcJ l-in I ith gcv,r ('i 936-t 944)
a Governor)as Governor of Bihar. o First Genei'al E!eciiorr (1936"1937)
. Sr-rbhas ChariCra Bose elecierl as the Pre*qident of
Lord Reading 921-1 926)
{1 ConEress at tlre 5'1st session of Congr;:ss ( l-cl3S)
o Formation r:f C.ommunist Party of lndla in '1921 by o Resignation of Suhlras Chandra Bose in ig3B anci
M N. Roy in Tashkent {*rrnalion of Fr:rward Bloa.
398 ItlA0t t[SY o Modern lndia

. The lndian Penal Code (1858), Code of Criminal The first organised (or successful) Census was
Procedure (1859) and High Court Act (1861 ) were held in 1881.
introduced. Appointment of the 'Hunter Commission' on
. lndigo Revolt (1859-60) by the lndigo farmers of school education in 1882.
Bengal. The llbert Bill controversy (1883-84). This
. Appointment of iames Wilson as the first Finance Bill was prepared by the law member of the
member, who introduced the lncome Tax. Viceroy's Council, Sir C.P. llbert. This bill
r Slavery was declared as illegal in lndia. suggested that lndian Judges can also try the
cases of Europeans but this bill was rejected
Lord John Lawrence (1864-1869) and later on it was proved as immediate cause
. Establishment of the High Courts at Calcutta, in the formation of lndran National Congress.
Bombay and Madras in 1865. Local self government Acts were passed in
o Bhutan War ('1865). various Provinces during 1BB3 to 85.
Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya said "Ripon was
Lord Mayo (1869-1872) the greatest and the most beloved Viceroy
. Establishment of Department of Agriculture and whom lndia has known".
Cornmerce.
o Decentralisation of Finance. Lord Dufferin (1 884-1 888)
. Establishment of Statistical Survey of lndia. o Formation of the lndian National Congress in
. For the first time in lndia a Census was held in 1 885.
.1871
bui it was unsuccessful. Third Burmese war (annexation of upper and
c He was assassinated by a Pathan in Andaman. lower Burma, 1BB5).
. Establishment of Mayo college in Ajmer and Rajkot A famous statement said by Dufferin about
Colluge in Kathiawar for political training of Indian congress "A Microscopic minority' .

princes.

Lord Curzon (1 899-1905)

Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
A Famine Commission was appointed under the
. Parliament passed the Royal -l-itles Act of 1876
Presidency of Sir Anthony Macdonnell.
and Queen Victoria got a title of 'En'lpress of lndia'.
The lndian Coinage and Paper Currency Act of
. Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was passed. This '1899 introduced.
act also called 'Gagging Act'. Under this act, No
Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under
lndian language newspaper can wrote/preach
Sir Andrew Frazer to review Police Admtnistration.
anything seditious if this is found to happen, then
a He organized the 2nd Delhi Darbar in 1903.
alt the persons related to that newspaper may be
arrest and the paper would be banned.
a He passed the Ancient Monuments
.1904
. Preservation Act, and also estakrlished the
Lord Lytton held lst Delhi Durbar in 1877, where
Archaeological Department.
the Queen was declared as 'Kaiser-i-Hind'.
. The partition of Bengal on 16th October, 1905
A Famine Committee under Sir Richard Stratchy
(it was cardinal blunder of Curzon).
appointed.
. The second Afghan War (1878-80).
The result of this partition was the beginning of
. The maximum age limit for candidates of lndian the Swadeshi Movement and boycott of British
goods.
Civil Services (lCS) exams was lowered from 21 to
.19
years. About Curzon it was said that "Curzon knew the
. The Arms Act (1878). art of making enemies like James-ll of England".
Establishment of Department of Commerce and
lnd ustry.
Lord Ripon (1880-1884)
o He was appointed by the liberal party undei' A famous statement Curzon said about congress

Gladstone.
was "Congress is tottering to its fall and I will
. give it a peaceful demise".
The first Factory Act of 1BB1 to improve child
labour conditions.
. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act,
'1882 hence,

Ripon known as 'Liberator of lndian Press'.

IllAllE IASY o Modern lndia 397
o Gurkha war or The Anglo-Nepal war (1814-1816) . He also introduced Doctrine of Good of Governed
and the Treaty of Sagauli. under which Awadh (1856) and Punjab (1849)
. He abolished the censorship of press. were annexed,
. Establishment of the Ryotwari System in Madras . Charles Wood's Dispatch on lndian education
by the Governor Thomas Munro. was accepted, which is called Magnacarta of
o The Ryotwari and Mahalwari System introduced British education,
in Bombay by the Governor Elphinstone. r Railway minutes of 1853 and laying down of first
r ln the north-western Provinces the Mahalwari railway line connecting Bombay and Thane in
System was introduced. 1 853.
. Post Office Act, 1854 was passed and first time
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) postage stamps were issued and Postal and
. He was appointed as the Governor General of Telegraph system was established.
Bengal from 1828 to 1833 but after enactment o First telegraph line laid between Calcutta to Agra.
of the Charter Act of 1833, he became the First . He established Public Works Department. The
Governor General of lndia. He was also known objective behind the formation of this department
as the liberal Governor-General. was construction and maintenance of canals,
. He was famous for the social reforms he roads, bridges, etc.
introduced, such as abolition of Sati (1829) with . Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and annexation
the help of Faja Ram Mohan Roy, Suppression of of Punjab in 1849
Thugi (1830) and suppression of infanticide and r Abolition of titles and pensions.
child sacrifices. . Shimla became the summer capital of lndia and
. Randhakant Deb opposed abolition of SatiPratha. permanent headquarters of army.
o Macaulay report on English education was o Competitive examination for lndian Civil Services
passed and English language accepted as the were started.
official language of lndia, after recommendations . Headquarters of the Bengal Artillery were shifted
oI Macaulay. This report was based on downward from Calcutta to Meerut.
filtration (it means teach some people and they . An Engineering College was established at
willteach further many more). Roorkee.
. Opium trade was regularised, licensed and duty . The Charter Act of 1853 Passed.
paid. . Widow Remarriage Act (1856) : The main
. Salaries of civil servants were reduced along with contributor to pass this act was lshwar Chandra
the bhatta of military officers. Vidyasagar.
o ln higher courts, Persian was replaced by English
as the court language. Lord Canning (1 856-1 857)
. He established the irst medical college
f in . Universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras
Calcutta. were set up in 1857.
. Annexation of Mysore (1831), Kachar (1834) and . The revolt of 1857.
Coorg (1834). VICEROYS
o After the Government of lndia Act, 1858, the
Lord Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836) Governor-General was called Viceroy of lndia.
. He is called as 'Liberator of the lndian press', as he
removed allthe restrictions on the press in India. Lord Canning (1 857-1 862)
. First Viceroy of lndia.
Lord Dalhousie (1 848-1 856) o Proclamation of Queen Victoria and the
. He introduced 'Doctrine of Lapse'for annexing Government of lndia Act, 1858.
the dependant States whose ruler died without a o He was appointed as Secretary of lndia
natural heir to succeed him. . Transfer of lndian administration to the Brrtish crown.
. Some important lndian States viz.
Satara . lndian Councils Act of 186l was passed by which
(1848), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Central and Provincial Legislative Councils were
Jaitpur & Sambhalpur (1854) and Nagpur (1854) established.
were annexed by the enforcement of the Doctrine . Official end of Dalhousie's 'Doctrine of Lapse' in
of Lapse. 1 859.
Gouernors-Genoral &
Uiceroys oI lndia
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA
. ln 17g11g2, Sanskrit college was established in
Varanasi bY Jonathan Duncan
Warren Hasti n gs (177 2'17 85) . lntroduction of the Permanent Settlement in
. He succeeded Clive in 1772 and became the f irst Bengal and Bihar in 1793
Governor of Bengal for two years and in 1774' r lntroduction of lhe Cornwaltis Code on the basis of
after enactment of Regulating Act of 1773, he distribution of Powers in 1793.
became the first Governor-General of Bengal' . Introduction of civil service in lndia'
r He passed the Regulating Act of 1773 and also
end the dual system of administration ln 1772 set
up by Clive. Sir John Shore (1793'1798)
. Appointment of collectors to manage revenue and . Famous for his policy of non-intervention'
justice related to revenue affairs
o Charter Act of 1793.
. Transfer of the treasury from Murshidabad to
o Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas
(1 7e5)
Calcutta.
The Supreme Court was set up at Calcutlain 1774
Lord WellesleY (1 798-1 805)
and Calcutta Madarasa in 1781
The Rohilla war between the Rohillas and the
. lntroduction of Subsidiary Alliance System in
1798, to bring lndian States under the control of
Nawab of Awadh (1774).
British political power. He converted British empire
The first Anglo-Maratha war (1775-82) and the
in lndia into British empire of lndia because he
Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
covered largest area.
a Pitt's lndia Act of 1784.
a Foundation oI Asiatic Society of Bengal with
o The fourth Anglo - Mysore war (1799)
. Treaty of Bassein between Baji Rao ll and the
Wiltiam Jones in 1784. lt was established due
English (1802).
to the rising interest of Englishmen into lndian . The second Anglo-Maratha war (1803 - 1805)'
Culture.
Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the
. The First subsidiary treaty was signed with the
"1798 and 1800 followed
Nizam of Hyderabad in
Maharaja of Banaras, which led to Hastings'
by Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), Bhonsle (1803)'
subsequent impeachment in England under the
Gwalior (1804), lndore (1817)and Udaipur, Jaipur
charge of taking bribes, but later he was acquitted '
& JodhPur (1818).
He was the only Governor General against him .1801'
impeachment proceeding were done.
. Formatton of Madras Presidency in
o First English translation of Bhagwadagita was
. He described himself as Bengaltiger'
done by Charles Willkins and the introduction
. He founded the Fort William College at Calcutta
was written bY Warren Hasttngs.
Lord Hastings (1 813-1 823)
. Ended the policy of non-interventton'
Lord Cornwallis (1 786-1 793)
. Established lower grade courts and Appellate o Military operations against Pindaris (1817 - 1818)

courts.
. The third Anglo-Maratha war ( 1816-1818)'
o District Judge post started.
. Abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of all his
. territories in 1818.
The Third Anglo-Mysore war (1789-92) and the
Treaty of SeringaPatam in 1792.
. Creation of Bombay Presidency in 181B'
. . By 1818, all the lndian territories excepting the
To suppress the brrbery, he increased the salaries
Punjab and Sindh had been brought under British
of the employees of the Company and police
control.
off icers.
ilillt IASY. Modern lndia 395

'"Name of the
Movement

Santhals ,Rajmah,al,H,i!,!,s,
1855-56 Sidhu & Revolt of Santhals and establ ishment
(Bihar)' :':' :
"',',:':',,: Kanhu of their own government (July,
1855); defeat of British under Major
Burrough by Santhals; transfer of
the disturbed area tc the military
and final suppression of the revolt
by the end of 1856; creation of
a separate district of Santhal
Paraganas to prevent Santhals from
revolting again in future.

Mundas Chhota Nagpur 1 899-1 900 Birsa Munda Foundation of a ne\/ religious
sect, with Singh Bonga as the only
true god, by Birsa (1895); British
fears over Birsa's preachings
among Mundas, and arrest and
imprisonment of Birsa (1895-97);
release of Birsa and revival of his
doctrine (1BgB); revolt of Mundas
and their attack of churches and
police stations (1899): defeat of
Mundas by British (Jan 1900) and
capture of Birsa (he died of cholera
in jail in June 1900).

Bhils Banswara and 1913 Govind Guru It began as a purif ication movement,
Dungapur but later deveioped into a political
(southern movement; failure of their attempts
Rajasthan) to set up a Bhil Raj due to British
armed intervention,

Chenchus Nallamalai Hills 1921-22 Hanumanthu Their rrrrevolt againstr,.lncleasinQ

(Andhra Pradesh) British control over forests.

TTI
-

IllAlt[ EISY c Modern lndia

394

Name of the ,AreaAf- \/oar Leader{s} Course of the Movement

Movement fected and Consequences

Mcrvement of Sherpui' 1ii25,-rJ3 l(ararn Resentment of the Under Kararn Shah (found-
Pagal Panthis (East Ben- Shah and peasants againt the er), it was rnainlY a i'eligious
gal) Iipu oppression of the movement, but under TiPu
zamindars (son and successor of Shah)
it becar-ne a Politlcal rnove-
ment against the oPo'e sstve
zamindars and British; its
firral suppression bY British
after large scale militarY oP-
erations.

Kuka Funja0 la+c- t z Bhagat Degeneration of Sikh Though lt started as a re-

lv'!ovemerit Jawahar reiigion and loss of ligious reforrn movement,

Mal Sii,rh sovereignty it became a movement for
(founder) the restoration of Sikh sov-
ereignty after the annexation
of Punjab by ihe British.

Tribal Movements

Narne af the Area Affected Year Course of the Movernent and

Msvement Consequences

Chuar uprtsir:g Nanbhurn and 1768 & 1832 Raja ijelrance ol u

t
Barabhunr (\A/est Jagannath ^l-..^.-^.

Bengal) by the

Bhii Upr'!sing Khanoesh 181l'tc iB4B Sewaram BeginninE of revolt of Bhils with
British occupation of l(handesh
(1817) and thetr def iance of British for
30 years; frnal suppression through
military operations combrned with
conci liatory rneasltres.

Khasrs Khasi Hills (Assanr 1829-32 Tirut Singh Unsuccessful attemPts of the
& tuleghalaya) and Bar manik Khasis to drive awaY the British
(Chiefs of from therr" territory; surrender of
Nounklow all Khasi chief s, including Tirut
and hlolim Singh, to the British in 1832.
re spectively)

Kols Chlrota l.lagpur

.1831-32 BuddhLt Suppression of the revolt after
Bnagat extensive militarY oPerations bY
Britishr and death of Bhagat.
IllAllE IASY o Modern lndia 393

Kheda Gujarat 1 918 Gandhi Ji and Vallabh Bhai Patel (lnitiated by

Mohanlal Pandya)

Moplah Kerala 1921 Sayyad Ali and Sayyid Fazl

Bordoli/Borsad Gujarat 1 928 Vallabh Bhai Patel (ln this movement, Patel
bestowed the title of 'sardar')

Telengana Andhra Pradesh "1946 Kumaraiya and Sundararya

Forest Satyagrah South lndia 1 931 NVRamaNaidu,NGRanga

Non Tribal Movements

Name of the Area Al- Year Course of the Movement

Movement fected and Consequences
,Kalchh , Katchh 1r8.1i6r:l.q Rao Anti-British feeling Fini,t defeat and deposal
:'Aa:nattion and Bharmal due to British expan- of Rao Bharmal: imposi-
Kathiawar (ruler of sionist policy and tion of Subsidiary Treaty on
Katchh their interference Katchh.
in internal affairs of
Katchh.

Kittur Rising Kittur (near 1824-29 Chan- Death of

Shivalinga Revolt of Channamma (wid-
Dharwar in namma Rudra Desai (chief) of ow of late Desai) in 1824 and
Karnataka) and Ray- Kittur (1824), leaving murder of English officers rn-
appa no male to recognise cluding Thackeray (collector
the adopted issue; of Dharwar), conquest of Kit-
refusal of the British tur and its annexation by the
assumption of admin- British; revolt of the people
istration of Kittur by of Kittur under Rayappa who
British. declared independence
and setup the adopted boy
as the Desai (1829); cap-
ture and execution of Ray-
appa by British, and death
of Channamma in Dharwar
Prison
Satara Satara- 1840-41 Dhar Rao Deposal and banish- Revolt of the people of Sata-
Disturbances (Maha- Pawar ment of Pratap Singh, ra urrder Dhar Rao in 1840;
rashtrla) and the popular ruler of their revolt under Narsingh
Narsingh Satara by the British and seizure of Badami in
Dattatreya 1841; defeat and capture of
Petkar Narsingh by the British (he
was transported for life).
Wahabi North l,ndie 1820-VO Sayyid Degeneration of the Fight of the Wahabis against
Movement and Dec- Ahmad lslamic society and the British for 50 long years,
can (iounder loss of power to the and their final suppression
of the British (Aims - same by British after a series of tn-
Mcve- as above) als in the 1860s
ment)
 IllA0t IASY. Modern lndia
392
Remark
Name ol the organisation
Poona Agarkar, Its arm to remodel the education of the
Deccan Education SocieiY 1 BB4
Ranade, young in order to prepare them for the
Chibdonkar service of the countrY.

Bombay M.G. Ranade Its aim was to remove the social evils
lndian Natronal Social 1887
prevalent in the lndian society and to
Conference promote the welfare of women

897 Belur Swami Its main aim was to carrY on humani-

Ramakrishna Mission 1
Vivekananda tarian relief and social work'

905 Bombay Gopala Krrshna Its aim was to train lndians in

Servants of lndia SocietY 1

Gokhale different fields for the service of their

motherland.

909 Poona [r4rs Ramabai Its aim was to promote the welfare of
Poona Seva Sadan 1

Ranade women.

191 BombaY N. M. Joshi Its aim was to secure for the masses
Social Service League 1
better and reasonable conditions of
life and work

1851 | BombaY Naoroji Furdunii, tts aims were to re{orm the

Fahnumai MazdaYasanan Zoroastrian religion, to modernise the
Dadabhai
Sabha (religious reform
Parsi women; Avesta sacred book of
Naoroii, S.S.
organisatron for Parsis)
Bengalee and the parsis, Ahura Mazdatheir God,
others Zoroasterjounder of their religion)'

1866 1 Deoband Maulana Hussain Its aims were to resuscitate classical

Dar-ul-Ulum
Ahmad and Islam and to imProve the sPiritual
others and moral conditions of the Muslims'
The liberal interpretatron of lslam
by its founders created Political
awakening among its followers Some
of them, like Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, played an important role in the
national movement.

886 Aligarh Sir Syed Ahmad Its aim was to promote the education
Muhammadan Educational 1

Khan and others of Muslim masses on western lines

Conference
(this and other educational and social
service activities of Sir Syed and his
followers are together known as the
'Aligarh Movement ).

PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Movement Place Year

Bengal 1 859 Bishnu and Digambar Biswas

Indigo Revolt

Bihar 1517 Gandhi Ji (lnitiated by Rai Kumar Shukla)

Champaran

I
Po[ular MouemGnts
asainst British Bule
Socio-religious Movements

Name of the organisation Year Place Founder Remark

AtmiVa,,,Sarbh,a 18.15 ealcutta Rammohan Roy Its aim was to attack the evils
in Hinduism and to propagate
monotheism.

Brahmo Samaj 1 B2B Calcutta Rammohan Roy It was inrtially known as Brahrno
Sabha and its aim vrras the same as
above.

Tattvabodhini Sabha 1 839 Calcutta Debendranath Its aim was to propagate Rammoharr
Tagore Roy's ideas.

Brahmo Samajof lndia 1866 Calcutta Keshab chandra i A group of Brahmos under Sen
i Sen i established this new organisation
j after seceding from tl^re original Samaj
i (established bir Roy) over the question
: j of socia! reforms. After this secession,
ihe old one came to be knolvn as the
:-.._
1
Adr Hrahmo Sama1.
'--
Prarthana Samaj 1867 Bombay Dr Atmararn i ln 1870 it was Joined by
I Pandurang i H,t"C Ranade and H.G. Bhandarkar.
Its aim was reformation of Hindu
I

religious thought and practice.

Arya Samaj i 1875 Bb,mii6Ay,, Swami Dayanand I lts main aims rryere reform of Hinduism
Saraswatr I and prevention of the conversion oi
I Hindus to other religions

Theosophical society 1 875 New Madame H.P. TheV came to lndia (1879) and
I
York Blavatsky and established their headquarters at
(usA) Col. H.S. Olcott Adyar near Madras (1882). lts mail
aims were promotion of
ancient
I religions and phiiosophies forrnation
I of universal brotherhood of man, eic.
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj 1878 Cal0utta Anand Mohan I As the result of a second schism
Bose, Shivanatha among the Brahrnos, a group of
Shastri, etc. young followers of K.C. Sen left him
over the question of management of
I tfre Samaj and social reforms.
 trADt EASY. Modern lndia
390

English caPutred Jhansi. Begum The Begum of Awadh was com-

HazraI pelled tc hide in NePal atter the
Mahal capture of Lucknow bY CamPbell.

English authoritY was 4:; Rani The Rani of Jhansi died in the
.1858
re-established. Laxmi bai battle field in Jur-re

tr Tantia Tantia Tope escaPeci to the 1un-

Centres of Revolts & their Leaders Tope gles of central lndia in April 1859
He was betraYed bY a zamindar
1. Delhi Bahadur Shah was the nomtnal friend and was captured rn;hile
leader. The real ccmmand was un- asleep and Put to death after a
der Generar Bakht Khan. '1859.
huriecltrialon 15th APril
2. Kanpur The revolt was led bY Nana Sahib. b. Kunwar The leader of ihe revolt in Bihar
Most of the fighting was done bY Singh dred on 9ih MaY 1859 after suc-
l
I
Tantia ToPe. Azimullah Khan was cessfuliy carrYing on the revolt
another loyai servant of Nana Sahib'

J. Luc- The revolt was led bY Hazrat Mahal

know the begum of Awadh. Maulvi Ah- Suppression of the Revolt
madullah of Faizabad was also one
of ihe great leaders. 1. Gen. John Captured Delhi on SePlember
Nicholsan 20,1857.
4. Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai assumed the lead-
ership of the sePCYS. Later, she 2. Lieutenant K..illed Bahadur Shah's sons
capiurecl Gwalror with the helP of Hudson and grandsons in Delhi
Tantia Tope and Afghan guards.
Sir Hugh Defence against Nana Sahib's
E
J, Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Proclaimed
hrmself as Nawab Nazim. Wheeler forces in the oeginning

6. Arrah Kunwar Singh, the rurned Zamindar 4. Colonel Supressed Banaras rebellion
of Jagdishpur was the main leacier. James Neill and put to death all susPected
rebels and disorderlY seooYs

OPINION OFTHE HISTORIANS ABOUT 5. Sir Colin Final recoverY of KanPur on

.1857.
THE NATURE OF REVOLT Campbell 6th December He caP-
1. V.D. Savarkar : First War of lndian tui-ed Lucknow on 21st March
lndependence 1 B5B
2. Disraeli : A National Revolt
3. R.C. Maiumdar : Neither first nor National nor o. Henry Chief Commissioner of
War of lndePendence Lawrence Awadh (died).
4. Abul Kalam Azad :lndian National characier
nad sank verY low 7. Maj. Gen. Defeated the rebels (Nana
Havelock Sahib's force) on JulY 17, 1857.
Fate of the Leaders of the Revolt

He rryas arrested and dePorted to B. Vincent Eyre Suppressed the revolt at

Rangoon where he died in 1862. Arrah in Aurgust 1857

After being defeated he refused 9. Hugh Rose He kilied Rani Laxmibai anci
to surrender and escaPed to
'1859, never to be
suppressed the revoli at
Nepal in earlY J hansi.
heard of agaln.
II
Ihe Beuolt of t85I
The Revolt of 1857 is an important landmark in the Loss of peasant's lands to the moneylenders due
history of lndia urhich occured during the governer- to the land and land-revenue policies of the British.
generalship of Lord Canning

CAUSES OF REVOLT 5. Military causes

1. a Jolts given to the British armed strength by certain
Grievances of Native Bulers
o Dalhousie's annexation of States through evenis Iike the First Afghan War ('1838-42), Anglo-
Doctrrne of Lapse. Sikh War (1845-49), Crimean War ('1854-56) and
. Abolition of titles and suspension of pensions. the Santhal Uprising (1855-57).
The disproportionate ratio of the sepoys to the
2. Grievances of Sepoys Europeans in the British lndian Army (6:1).
. Discrimination in payment and promotions.
o Ill-treatment of the sepoys by the British officials. 6. lmmediate cause
. Refusal of the British to pay foreign service a lntroduction of the Enfield rifle (January, 1857)
allowance (bhatta) while ighting in remote
f
with greased (supposedly with the fat of cows and
regions such as Punjab or Sindh. pigs) cartridge, whose end had to be bitten off
. Religious objections of the high caste Hindu before loading it into the rifle caused, disaffection
sepoys to Lord Canning's General Service among the sepoys and led to disobeyal of
Enlistment Act (1856) ordering all recruits to be orders by the sepoys of the 19th Native lnfantry
ready for service both within and outside lndia. stationed at Berhampur of February 26, 1857,
. All these led to disaffection among the sepoys and rts disbandment by the British Government
which manifested itself on a number of occasions (Colonel Mitchell-its commanding officer).
in the form of mutinies before 1857. They were: It also led to the mutiny of Mangal Pandey, a
(i) Mutiny of the sepoys in Bengal tn 1764. sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry stationed at
(ii) Vellore Mutiny in 1806. Barrackpore, on 29th March, 1857 (Pandey
(iii) Mutiny of the sepoys of the 47th Regiment at severely wounded Lt. Baugh, Adjutant to the
Barrackpore in 1824.
C.O. of Barrackpore, General Hearsey).
(iv) Mutinies of the 34th Native lnfantry (Nt), the
22nd Nl, the 66th l.ll and the 37th Nl in 1844, Course of the Revolt
.1850 .1852
1849, and respectively.
Sl' PAlg r,r , r
Event
3. Grievances of Orthodox & Conservative People
. Fear of the lndians (both Muslim and Hindu) due t. May'10, 1857 Meerut mutiny of sepoys, they
to the activities of the Christian rnissionaries and gave the slogan 'Delhi Chalo'
the protection and encouragement given to them
2. May'10-30, Revolt spread to Delhi, Bombay
by the British government.
o Humanitarian measures introduced by the gover-
1 857 and UP.
nment, e.g. abolition of sati (1829), legalization L). June, 1857 Mutinies at Gwalior, Bharatpur,
of widow remarriage (1856), protection of the Jhansi and Lucknow.
civil rights of converts from Hinduism (by the
Religious Disabilities Act of 1856), spread of 4,. September English recaptured Delhi, revolt
western education. 20,1857 further breaks out in Central lndia.

4. Grievances of the Craftsmen, Peasants and tr December Sir Colin Campbell won the
Zamindars 6,1857 battle of Kanpur.
r Destruction of village industries and handrcrafts
due to the one-way free trade policy of the British.
o. Maieh,,',1,858 Campbell captured Lucknow.
388
Itl[0t EASY o Modern lndia

cabinet, and a direct representative of the responsible to the Legrslative Council.

Parliament). . The Reserved subyects (Rail. Post, Telegraph,
. Governor-General was to be called the 'Viceroy' Finance, Law & order, etc.)were io be administered
and was the direct representative of the crown in by the Governor and his Executive Council
lndia. . lndian legislature became 'bicameral' for the first
. A unitary and highly centralized administrative time.
structure was created. . Communal representation extended to Sikhs
. Secretary of State for lndia now to be paid from
The lndian Councils Act,1861 British revenue.
o Foundation of lndian legislature was laid down in . An office of the High Commissioner of lndia was
186.1 and the Policy of association of lndians in created in London.
legislation started.
o Legislative power of the Presidency Government The Government Of lndia Act,1935
deprived in 1833 were restored. . This Act provided for setting up of the Federation
o Under this act, the Civil Services became lndian
of lndia comprising British lndian provinces and
Civil Services.
lndian States (Princely States). The joining of
o Portfolio (or Cabinet) system in the Government of
Princely States was voluntary and as a result, the
lndia was introduced.
federation did not come into existence.
. Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of . in the Provinces was replaced by
Dyarchy
emergency.
Provincial autonomy. They were granted separate
The lndian Councils Act,1892 legal identity.
e Beginning of representative system in lndia. r lt made three fold division of powers : Federal,
o Council to have the power to discuss Budget and Provincial and Concurrent. Residuary powers
of addressing questions to the Executive. were to be with the Governor-General.
. Dyarchy was introduced at the centre (e.g
The lndian Councils Act,1909 department of forergn affairs, defence were
(The Morley-Minto Reforms) reserved for the Governor-General).
c Morleywas the Secretary of State, while Mrnfowas o The lndian Council of Secretary of State for lndia
the lndian Viceroy. was abolished.
. lt introduced for the first ttme indirect electtons to . Principle of separate electorate was extended
the Legislative Councils. to inciude Anglo-lndians, lndian Christians and
. Separate electorates were introduced for the Europeans.
Muslims. . The Federal Bank (The Reserve Bank of lndia)
o Resolution could be moved before the Budget and the Federal Court (Supreme Court of lndia)
'1935
takes its final form. Supplementary questions were established in and 1937, respectively.
could be asked.
lndian lndependence Act, 1947
The Government of lndia Act, 1919 . This Act did not lay down any provision for the
(The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)
administration of lndia.
o Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration o Partition of lndia and the establishment of two
were divided into two categories - 'Central' and
Dominions (lndia and Pakistan)
'Provincial'. All important subjects (like Railways
. Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would
and Finance) were brought under the category of
have unlimited powers to frame and adopt any
Central, while matters relating to the administration
Constitution.
of the Provinces were classified as Provincial.
. . The off ice of the Secretary of State for lndia was to
Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces.
. be abolished and his work was to be taken over by
The Provincial subjects of administration were
the Secretary of State for commonwealth affairs.
divided into two categories 'Transferred' and
'Reserved'subjects.
o The Transferred subjects were to be administered
TI
by the Governor with the aid of ministers
M[0E EASY a Modern lndia 387

Ryotwari System (i) Government by Board of Control

. lt was introduced in Bombay Madras and Assam (ii)Government by Court of Directors.
region by Lord Hastings in 1822 whereas Munro . The Board of Control was to guide and control the
and Charles Reed recommended it. work of the Court of Directors.
o ln this system, a direct settlement was made . Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were
between the government and the ryot (cultivator). subordinated to the Governor-General and
. The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding Council of Bengal in all matters of diplomacy,
30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and revenue and war.
the nature of the crop.
. The position of the cultivator became more secure The Charter Act of 1813
but the rigrd system of revenue collection often . The Company was deprived of its monopoly of
forced him into the clutches of the moneylender. trade with lndia except in tea and trade with China.
. Besides, the government itself became a big . Under this act, a sum of one lakh ru pees earmarked
zamindar and retained the right to enhance annually for education and this amount paid by
revenue at will while the cultivator was left at the the company.
mercy of its officers

Mahalwari System The Charter Act of 1833

r lt was a modified version of Zamindari settlement o lt brought an end to Company's trade monopoly
introduced in the Gangavalley, North-West Frontier even in tea and trade with China.
Province, parts of Central India and Punlab. lt was . The Act centralised the aCmrnistration of lndia.
also implemented by Lord Hastings in 1822. . The Governor-General of Bengal became the
o Revenue settlernent was to be made by village Governor-General of lndia (1st Governor-General
or estates (Mahals) with landlords or heads of lndia was Lord William Bentinck)
of families who collectively claimed to be the " Government of Madras and Bombay deprived of
landlords of the village or estate. ln western Uttar legislative powers.
Pradesh, a settlemeni was made with the village o A fourth member, law member, added to Council
communities which maintained a {orm of common of Governor-General.
ownership known as Bhaichara, or with Mahals, r Civil Services was thrown open to the people of
which were groups of villages. lndia.
. FevenLre was periodically revised r Regularised Opium Trade.

IMPORTANT ACTS The Charter Act of 1853

The Regulating Act, 1773 o lt extended life of the Company for an unspecif ied
o lt was the first attempt by the British Parliament period
to reguiate the affairs of the Company in lndia. . Law member was made a full member of the
This act also brought an end to Dual system of Executirre Council of the Governor-General.
Government in India. o Recruitment to Civil Services was based on
o This was the first attempt towards Centralised open annual competitive examination (excluding
Administration. lndians).
e ln this act, Governor of Bengal became Governor
- General for all British territories in lndia. The Government of tndia Act,1858
. Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinated to . lndian Administration transferred from Company
Bengal Presidency in certain matters. to British crown i.e. end of rule of East lndia
o Supreme Cou( to be set up at Calcutta anci also Company and beginning of direct rule of Crown.
founded Calcutta Madarasa, c ln this act, the Court of Directors and Board of
Control abolished. Thus, the'Dou0le Government'
The Pitts lndia Act,1784 introduced by the Pltt's lndia Act of 1784 was
r This Act gave the British Government supreme finally ended The doctorine of lapse was also
control over the Company's affairs and its withdrawn under thrs act.
administration in lndia. . The post of 'Secretary of State' for lndia was
o lt established dual system of governance . created (who was the member of the British
 ilAllE t[SY. Modern lndia
386

sign the humiliating Convention of Wadgaon in precious metals into lndia and export of spices
1779 by whlch the Company was required to give and textiles.
up all the advantages acquired by the Treaty of The Company used revenue of Bengal to finance
Purandar exports of lndian goods.
First Anglo-Maratna war was began with the Treaty The Company used its political power to
of Surat and ended with Treaty of Salbai. monopolize trade & dictate terms to ihe weavers
British signed Treaty of Salbai, renouncing the of Bengal.
cause of Raghunath Bao and Madhav Rao ll was
accepted as the Peshwa, Drain of Wealth

Note:-
. Dadabhai Naoroji cited in his book "Poverty
And Un-British Rule in India" (1867) and R.
C. Dutta in his book "Economic History of
lndia" (1901) blamed British policies for lndian
economic ills.
. Drain of Wealth theory refers to a portion
of national product of lndia which was not
available for consumption to its people.

Constituents of drain were:

. Purchasing goods out of revenue of Bengal and
exporting them. This was called investment.
Duty free trade provided to the British gave
2. SecondWar (1803-1805) them a competitive edge over lndran traders'
a The Maratha's Peshwa signed the Subsidiary These subsidies were financed from lndian
Alliance Treaty of Bassein (1802). treasury.
The Maratha confederacy, which did not like a Remittances or salaries and incomes by
the idea challenged the British power but were company officials send to England
defeated by the British. Home charges or cost of salaries and pensions
of company off icials in lndia were pard from the
3. Third War (1816-1818) treasury of lndia.
. Lord Hastings was determined to proclaim British Hefty interests were paid to British investors.
paramountcy in lndia Hastings moved against
Pindaris and transgressed the sovereignty of the
Maratha Chief and the war began. Land Revenue System
. The Marathas were decisively defeated.
Permanent Settlement (or Zamindari System)
POLICIES OFTHE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA
. lt was introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and
. The admrnistrative policy of the Company districts of Benaras and northern districts of
Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
underwent frequent changes during the long
period between 1757 and '1857. To increase
o John Shore planned the Permanent Settlement,
who later succeeded Cornwallis as Governor
the Company's prof its, and to maintain and
General.
strengthen the British hold over lndia, they passed
rrany acts so that trade with lndia and exploitation
. lt declared Zamindars as the owners of the land.
Hence, they could keep 1i11th of the revenue
of its resources could be carried cn witnout
collected to themselves while the British got a
disturbance.
fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected'
The Zamindars were free to fix the rents.
Eccnomic Pollcy in lndia . Assured of their ownership, many zamindars
. The East lrrdia Compa.ny was a purely trading stayed in towns (absentee landlordism) and
company deallng with import of goods and exploited their tenants.
ilillt tlSY. Modern lndia
385
o In December 1782, after the death of Haider All lndia which unfolded in the form of three Carnatic
the war was carried on by his son Tipu Sultan Wars in South lndia.
o Treaty of Mangalore was signed by Tipu Sultan
in March 1784 which ended the second Anglo- 1. FirstWar (1746-1748)
Mysore war, r The French and the British companies clashed
at Carnatic. Dupleix was then the chief official of
3. Third War (1789-1792) the French Company at Pondiclrerry. The French
. This war was fought between Tipu Sultan and opened hostilities by sacking Fort St George
English began in 17Bg and ended in Tipu's defeat (Madras) and expelled all Englishmen.
in 1792. ln this war, Marathas and Nizam aided . The Nawab of Carnatic sent an army but was
the British and Cornwallis captured Bangalore. defeated on the banks of river Adyar by the French
o This war was ended by signing of Treaty of Company under control of Dupleix.
Seringapatnam, between Trpu Suitan and Lord . The terms of Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748)
Cornwallis, ln this treaty, Tipu ceded half of his brought the Austrian War of succession to a
territories and two of his son s as hostages of war, conclusion. Under the terms of this treaty, Madras
was handed back to the English

4. Fourth War (1799)

2.
. Second War (1749-1754)
ln 1799 the British Army led by Lord Wellestey o Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad)
attacked and defeated Tipu Sultan in a brief but
and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic).
f ierce war He met a heroic end on 4th May 1Z9g
o Robert Clive attacked Arcot, the Capital of
while defending his capital Seringapatnam.
Carnatic and besieged it.
. ln December, 1754 the war ended with the Treaty
ANGLO.SIKH WARS of Pondicherry.
. Anglo Sikh wars began after the death of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh in June, 1839. 3. Third War (1756-1763)
. ln -1756 the Anglo-French struggle again started
1. First War (1845-1846) in lndia as a reflection of the seven years lvar in
. Lord Gough, the Comamnder-in-Chief and Europe. The French government sent count de
Lord Hardinge, the Governor General marched Lally to lndia in April, 1758. Lally captured Fort St.
towards Ferozpur and declared a war on the Sikhs David in 1758 and attacked Tanjore.
on December 13, 1845 and thts war resulted in
. ln January, 1760 English General Sir Eyre
partial subjugation of Sikh empire. Coote defeated the French army in the Battte of
. Sikhs were defeated in all the four battles at Mudki, Wandiwash.
Ferozpur, AIiwal and Sobraon.
o ln January, 1761 the French army retreated to
. The Sikhs were forced to concede defeat and to Pondicherry, but the English followed there and
sign the humiliating Treaty of Lahore on March g, captured it. Mahe was also lost by the French to
846.
the British
1
o With the conclusron of the Treaty of paris in 1763
in Europe, the war also ended in lnclia and foiled
2. Second War (1848-1849)
the dreams of the French to have an empire in
o Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawrence
lndia.
became the first Chief Commissioner of punjab. . Pondichery was returned to French by the Treaty
of Paris.
ANGLO-FRENCH CARNAilC (ARCOT) WARS
o ln the mid l8th century, owing to the unstable ANGLO.MARATHAWARS
political situation in lndia, rivalry between the
1. FirstWar (1775-1782)
English and the French did not remain confined o Favouring the cause of Raghunath Rao for
only to trade concerns but also assumed political Peshwaship, English (Hastings) came in conflict
overtones. Thus, French and English were locked with the Marathas and the first Anglo-tr/aratha war
in a struggle for economic and political fortune in was fought. On being defeated, the British had to
384 f,AD[ t[SY r Modern lndia

on June 20,1756. After capturing Calcutta, it was the British for misusing the dastaks (free duty
renamed as Alinagar after the name of Alivardi passes). However, having been defeated by the
Khan. British, he fled to Awadh, where he formed a
The English officials took refuge at Fulta near the confederacy with SftuTh-ud-daula (Awadh Ruler)
sea protected by their naval superiority. Here, and Shah Alam-ll(Mughal Emperor)
they waited for aid from Madras, from where came . The three allies clashed with the companies
a strong naval and military force under Admiral army at Buxar on 22nd October, 1764 and were
Watson and colonel Robert Clive. ln the beginning thoroughly defeated by the Company due to
of 1757, Clive reconquered Calcutta by defeating better methods of warfare. This battle was one
Siraj. of the most decisive battles of lndian history and
On 2nd January 1757, Treafr of Alinagar was it came to be known as Battle of Buxar. Hector
signed, whereby Siraj conceded practically all the Munro was the incharge of company's army in the
demands. British then captured Chandernagore, battle.
the French settlement, in March 1757.
On June 23rd 1757, Battle of Plassey was fought N izam-ud-dau lah(17 6*177 2l
between Sirja-ud-Daulah and East lndia Company o On Mir Jafar's death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah
(Led by Clive). ln this battle, Siraj was defeated was placed on the throne and signed a treaty on
due to the conspiracy and intrigue on the part of 20th February, 1765 by which the Nawab was
Man of Siraj. to disband most of his army and to administer
Bengalthrough a Deputy Subahdar nominated by
the Company.
Mir Bakshi (Commander in Chief)
o Clive concluded two separate Treaties of
Allahabad in 1765 with Shuja-ud-daulah & Shah
Alam ll and acquired the diwani rights of Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa.
o With this, Dual System of government started
in Bengal. The Company acquired both Diwani
(Rights related to Revenue) and Nizamat
(Administrative) rights from Nizam-ud-Daulah
Mir Jafar (1757-1760)
o He was appointed by the company as eighth (1765-66), the new Nawab of Bengal. But the
nawab of Bengal after Siraj. Company did not take over direct administration
The Company was granted undisputed right to and revenue collection that means company
free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and also acquired power without responsibility.
received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
o Later on, in 1772, lhe first Governor General of
o ln the reign of Mir Jafar, Company explored BengalWarren Hastings ended the DualSystem
maximum benefit. So, Jafar realized it and met of government.
with Dutch and again a battle was fought.
. ln 1759-1760, battle of Bedara was fought ANGLO.MYSORE WARS
between English and Dutch. ln this battle, Dutch 1. FirstWar (1767-1769)
were defeated. o Mysore was a powerful state under Haider Ali. ln
o After this battle, Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears 1769, the first Anglo-Mysore war was fought in
and was forced to abdicate in favour of his son-in- which Haider Ali defeated the British and Treaty
law Mir Qasim. of Madras was signed between them. Haider Ali
o ln 1763, he was again placed on the throne. occupied almost the whole of Carnatic.

Mir Qasim (1760-1764) 2. Second War (178G1784)

. Mir Qasim ceded Diwani rights of three more a Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe,
parganas. These are:- Burdwan, Midnapore and which was in Haider Ali's territory.
Chittagong. HaiderAli led a jointfrontwith Nizam and Marathas
o He shifted his capital from Murshidabad to and captured Arcot (Capital of Carnatic State).
Munger. ln July '1781, Haider Ali was defeated at Porto
. Mir Qasim soon revolted as he was angry with Novo by Eyre Coote and saved Madras.
 AscendanGy
of tlre Britishels

Advent of European Companies r 1613 : A Farman was issued by Jahangir permitting

o ln 1453, land routes were blocked by Ottoman the English to build a factory at Surat.
Turks. So, new sea routes discovered by the
Europeans to promote their business.
1615 -
1618 : James I send ambassador, Thomas
Roe in Jahangi/s court to obtain the permission to
. Colombus of Spain discovered America where as trade and erect factories in different part of the Empire.
in '1498, Vasco-da-Gama of portugal discovered 1623 : Some more factories like Agra,
lndia. He came to lndia via Cape of Good Hope
1619 -
Baroda, Bharuch, Ahmadabad were started.
(Africa). 1639 : Got site for Madras factory and the name of
. First of all, Vasco-da-Gama reached to Calicut Madras factory was fort st. George.
(Kerala or Kozhicode) where Zamorin ruler 1668 : Estd. Bombay Factory.
welcomed his arrival. 1690 : Sutanuti (Bengal) factory was founded by
. The Portuguese soon established political power Job Charnock.
along the west coast of lndia. He was succeeded 1691 : Aurangzeb issued Farman for Duty free
by Captain General Alfonso de Albuquerque trade in Bengal.
who conquered Goa in 1S10. 1698 : Two more factories Govindpur and Kalikata
Sequence of Arrivals:- near Sutanuti were established.
1700 : ln Calcutta, Fort William established and
Calcutta became the British Capital.
Portuguese East
1707 : Rise of autonomous states led by his
Cochin (1510-30),
lndia Company governors, These governors were lndependent
Goa (1530-1961)
(Formed by rrue to the death of Aurangzeb.
Vasco-da-Gama) Some of the lmportant Governors are:-
Bengal- Murshid Quli Khan (1717)
Dutch East lndia East coast: Coromandal,
Awadh - Saadat Khan (1722)
Company Pulicut, Bengal
Hyderabad - Chin Qitich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mutk)
English East lndia West coast: Surat, (1724)
Company Bombay 1717 : Farrukhsiyar's Firman gave the rights of
East coast : Coromandal, Duty free trade in Bombay and Madras. Later
Masulipattanum, Madras on, this farman was proved as Magna Carta of
French East lndia Surat (1668-73), companies trade in lndia. (1717)
Company Pondicherry (1 673-i 9S4) He also gave Passes to merchants called ,Dastak,
(Formed by Colbert) for Duty free trade.
o 174O - 1756 : Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan
English East tndia Company found misuse of Dastaks and Fortification of
o 1600 : Elizabeth I signed- Charter for 15 years factories. He prevented the English and the French
(monopoly trading rights) from fortifying their factories at Calcutta and
1608 : Captain William Hawkins came at Jehangir,s Chandranagore respectively. He was succeeded
court to seek permission to open a factory at Surat. by his grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah.
1608/09 : After death of Etizabeth t, James I was
appointed as ruler of England and he renewed the THE EAST INDIA COMPANY &THE BENGAL
Charter for lndefinite period. NAWABS
. 1612: Battle of Swally : English vs portugal Siraj-ud-Daulah (1 756-1 757)
ln this battle, Portugal was defeated by the English . He seized the English factory at Kasimbazar,
and Surat was conquered. marched on to Calcutta, and occupied FortWilliam
ilAllt IASY. Medieval lndia 373
Shivaji's Hevenue System
Waqeanavis or Mantri: Holding responsibility
for intelligence, posts and household affairs.
o lt was mostly based on the Malik Amber's
He was like present day home minister. (Ahmadnagar) revenue system.
Assessment of land revenue was based on
Surunavis or Sachiv: Also called chitnis He measurement. The kathiwas adopted as the unit
looked after the royal correspondence. of measurement.
Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue
'Qi Dabir or Sumanta: Master of ceremonies. paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to
Nyayadhish: Chief Justice. Maratha rards.
',,,
Sardeshmukhiwas an additional levy of 10 per
a Pandit Rao: He was minister for charities and cent on those lands of Maharashtra over which
religious affairs, the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but
which formed part of the Mughal empire.

II
372 IllAl!E EASY r Medieval lndia

Bihar and Orissa to the British after the Battle of . Shivaji initially targetted his campaign against
Buxar. the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur. Then Adil
Shah deputed Afzal Khan to punish Shivaji, but
6. Akbar Shah-ll (1806-37) Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji in 1659.
o During the rule of Akbar Shah-ll, Lord Hastings r Later Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan and
ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals maternal uncle of Aurangzeb was apoointed
and claimed an equal status. by Aurangzeb to put down the rising power of
. He conferred the title of 'Raja' to Ram Mohan Shivaji in 1660. Shivali lost Poona and suffered
Roy. several defeats till he made a bold attack on
Shaista's military camp and plundered Surat
(1664) and later Ahmadnagar.
7. Bahadur Shah-ll (1837-1857) o Then Aurangzeb appointed Mirza Raja Jai Singh
. Bahadur Shah-ll was the last Mughal king He
of Amber to put down Shivaji in 1665 and Jai
was confined by the British to the Red Fort.
. Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the
He was known as Bahadur Shah Jafar.
fort of Purandhar. Consequently the Treaty of
. During the revolt of
.1857
he was proclaimed the
Purandharwas signed.
Emperor by the rebellions. He was depcrted to . In 1674, Shivaji was coronated at Raigarh and
Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion where he
he assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak'
died in 1862. With the death of Bahadur Shah (Protector of Hinduism) and Chhatrapati. He
Jafar Mughal rule formally came to an end.
was blessed by Samartha Ramdasa on this
occassion.
Foreign Travellers during the Mughal Period . Shivaji died in
.1680.

Father Anthony Monserate

. He came to the court of Akbar in 1578 and he has Shivaji's Administration
described the court of Akbar and his character. . Shivaji divided his empire into two parts:
Ralph Fitch (i) Swaraj(own kingdom) or Mulk-e-Qadim (old
o The first British traveller (1588-1591) who gave territory).
an account of the people of lndia, their culture (ii) Land which was legally part of Mughal
and customs. empire but paid Chauth to Shivaji.
Shivaji divided his territory under his rule (swaraj)
William Hawkins (1608-1 613) into three Provinces. Each of the Provinces were
o He came to the court of Jahangir. under a Viceroy. The Provinces were divided
inlo prants which were subdivided into parganas
William Finch (1608)
or tarafs. The lowest unit was village which was
o He has given an account of Agra, Fatehpur Sikri headed by Headman or Patel.
and flora and fauna of lndia.
Shivaji was helped by the ashtapradhan (eight
Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) ministers)which was unlike a councilof ministers,
. He came to the court of Jahangir in 1616 and for there was no collective responsibility; each
secured a farman from him. minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.

THE MARATHAS
1 . Shivaji (1627-1680)
. Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan: He was King's
Shivali was born at Shivner fort to Shahji Bhonsle
principal minister.
and Jija Bai.
. Probably in 1637 or 1638, Shivaji inherited the Majumdar or Amatya: He lryas minister for
paternal jagir of Poona from his father under the finance and revenue.
guardianship of Dadaji Kondadev.
After the death of his guardian Dadaji Kondadev o Sar-i-Naubat: He was Senapati or military
in 1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. commander.
At the age of 18, he conquered Torna fort and
built a fort at Raigarh.
 later mughalfige

LATER MUGHALS Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but

1. Bahadur Shah-l (1707-17121 he relinquished the post and marched to the
. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a war of Deccan to set up, the State of Hyderabad.
succession started amongst his three surviving Murshid Quli Khan, who was the governor of
sons namely Muazzam - the gcvernor of Kabul, Bengal established the independent State of
Azam-lhe governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh- Bengal.
the governor of Bijapur Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed
c Muazzam defeated Azam and Kam Baksh and governor of Awadh by Muhammad Shah laid
ascended the Mughal throne with the title of down the foundation of the autonomous State of
Bahadur Shah-1. Awadh.
o He pursued pacifist policy and was therefore During the reign of Muhammad Shah, Nadir Shah
also called Shah-i-Bekhabar. raided lndia in 1739. He destroyed the Mughal
o He also assumed the title of Shah Alam-|. empire and took away the peacock throne and
. He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and the Kohinoor diamond. He ruined Delhi and
Chhatrasal. killed the masses of the Delhi.
o He granted SardeshmukhiloMaralhas and also
released Shahu. 4. Ahmad Shah (1748 -17541
o He defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh and a During his reign, Ahmad Shah Abdali (one of
reoccupied Sirhind in 1711. the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched
towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded Punjab
2. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and Multan.
. Farrukh Siyar ascended the throne with the heip From 1748 to 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali
of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain attacked many times and looted Mathura and
Khan. Delhi. Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated Marathas in
o Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan were known the Srd Battle of Panipat in 1761 and defeated
as the King Makers. them badly
. The elder Sayyid Abdullah Khan became the
Wazir and the younger brother Hussain Khan 5. Shah AIam-ll (1759-1306)
became the Mir Bakshi. a After Muhammad Shah, he was the ruler who
I
o Farrukh Siyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers got so many years to rule. But he himself was so
in 1719 much feared of his own Wazir that he transferred
. Farrukh Siyar gave the English East lndia his capiialfrom one place to another.
Company a firman granting trade privileges in During his reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very
lndia. powerful in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam-ll
. Banda Bahadur was captureci and put to death could not enter Delhi.
in 1715 during the reign of Farrukh Siyar. He alongwith Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim and
Nawab of Awadh Shujauddaula fought the Battle
3. Muhammad Shah (1719-48) of Buxarin 1764, but they were defeated by the
o Muhammad Shah was never bothered about British.
what is happening in the State and what is After the Buxar defeat, he ruled only in the name,
I
required for the development of the State.He whereas actually he was a prisoner of the British.
was a pieasure loving king and was nick named According to Allahabad treaty of 1765, Shah
Rangeela. Alam ll granted the diwani rights of Bengal,
370 illA0t EASY. Medieval lndia

. Apart from land revenue (charged 113 lo 112) Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran was the chief officer of every
the state being a military state, also depended sarkar.
upon benefits of conquest. However, much of its Every pargana was divided into a number of
revenue was wasted in ostentation and wars. villages.The rmportant off icers of the villages were
. There were several methods of revenue collection muqaddam, chowdhary, and patwari.
in practice viz. Kankut (estimate), 'Zabt'(based on He continued the central machinery of adminis-
the yields of orops). tratron which had developed during the Sultanate
. Madad-i-maash or Suyur ghull/inam were land period.
grants to people of favour/religious assignment. a He organised high class esplonage system.
. Zamindars were hereditary claimants in every a fhe diwanicases were heard by the amins and
category of land revenue assignment. They lhe criminalcases were heard by the qazi or Mir-i-
collected revenue on behalf of the state and Adal. Munshif-i-Munshifan was the Diwani Court.
received assistance called nankar of Malikana. All internal customs and duties were abolished.
Only two duties were levied.
SUR DYNASTY Land was measured using the Sikandari-gaz (a
Sher Shah unit of measure introduced by Sikandar Lodi) and
. Sher Shah founded the Sur Dynasty after defeating one third of the average was fixed as tax.
Humayun in 1540 in the Battle of Bilgram. He had The peasant was given a patta (title deed) and a
already defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa qabuliyat (deed of agreement) and the taxes were
in.1539. directly collected.
o His original name was Farid and his father was a He planted trees on the both sides of the roads
small jagirdar at Jaunpur, and he built Sarais and Guest Houses for the stay
. The title of Sher Khan was given to him by his of the people.These sarais were also functioned
patron for killing a tiger (Sher). as the post offices.
o lbrahrm Lodi transferred his father's Jagir to him. a He introduced a good system of the post offices.
o ln 1527-28 he joined Babur's service, and then a He built the fort of Rohtasgarh and the old Delhi
returned to Bihar as deputy governor and guardian fort. He also constructed his tomb at Sasaram.
of the minor king Jalal Khan Lohani. ln 1530, he SherShah Surtookkeen interest in the development
usurped the throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. of roads. He restored the old impenal road called
o He ruled for 5 years only. the Grand Trunk Road from the river lndus in the
. He died in 1545, while he was conquering Kalinjar, west to Sonargaon rn Bengal.
due the a blast over there. He also built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and
Chittor evidently linking up with the road to the
lslam Shah Gujarat seaports.
. Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son a He built a third road from Lahore to Multan.
lslam Shah, who ruled till 1553. a For the convenience of travellers, he built a sarai
. lslam Shah was a capable ruler and general, at a distance of every two kos (about B km) on
but most of his energies were occupied with the these roads.
rebellions raised by his brothers, and with tribal Every sarai had several watchman under the
feuds among the Afghans. control of a shahna (custodian).
. lslam Shah's death at a young age led to a civil His roads and sarais have been called as arteries
war among the successors. of the empire.
. Thus, Humayun got the opportunity, he had been Sher Shah also built a new city on the bank of
seeking for recovering his empire in lndia. Yamuna near Delhi. The sole survivor of this is the
. ln hotly contested battles in 1555, he defeated the Old Fort (Purana Quila) and fine mosque within it.
Afghans and recovered Delhi and Agra. Some of the finest works in Hindi, such as the
Sur Administration Padmavat of Malik Muhammad Jayasi, were
o Sur Empire was divided into 47 unrts or sarkars. completed during Sher Shah's reign.
Sarkars were further subdivided inlo parganas. Sher Shah was not a bigot in the religious sphere,
. ln every pargana, there was one amin, one as is evident from his social and economic policy.
shiqdar, one cashier, one writer in Hindi and one Neither lslam Shah nor he depended on the
in the Persian. Ulema, though they respected them a great deal.
II
Illlllt IISY o Medieval lndia
369
Mughal Literature
Author Name of the Book Subjeet illatter
Abdul Hamid Lahori Badshahnama History of Shahjahan
Babur Tuzuk-i-Baburi Autobiography
Gulbadan Begum Humayunnama History of Humayun
Abul Fazl Ain-i-Akbari History of Akbar
Abul Fazal Akbarnama History of Akbar
Badayuni M untakhab-ul-Tawarikh History of Akbar
Jahangir Tu2ru,k:,i;Jahandiii Autobiography
Mutmad Khan lqbalnama History of Jahangir
Muhammad Waris Padshahnama History of Shahjahan
lnayat Khan Shahjahannama History of Shahjahan
Muhammed Salih Shahjahannama History of Shahjahan
Dara Shikoh Saf inat-ul-Auliya Life of sufi saints
Dara Shikoh Suqunat-ul-Auliya Translation of Upanishads
Dara Shikoh Majma-ul-Baharain His religious beliefs
Dara Shikoh Hasnat-ul-Arif im His philosophical ideas
Aurangazeb Raqqat-i-AIamgiri Collection of hrs letters
Muhammad Qazim Alamgirnama History of Aurangzeb
Bhim Sen Nuskha-i-Dilkusha History of Aurangzeb
lswar Das Futuhat.r-Alamgrri History of Aurangzeb

o There were '15 subas at the end of Akbar,s reign

which later increased to 20 under Aurangzeb. Pargana Shiqdar: Administrative head
comb-ined in himself the duties of
Officers under Mughals 'fauzdar and kotr,val'.
Amin Qanungo: Revenue officials.
Units
Village a Muqaddam: Headman.
Province Sirctda lai 1,,,,,r,:{h e',rr,' F{g ;wtrt, r6*eCiiiite a Patwari: Accountant.
(Suba) .(rii n dEi.... ',Akbral :,,,and.,,,,rlate-i.,,,,,,,,h e,..:w66 a Chowkidar: Watchman.
known .a$, Njram ..ot, S,ub' Ail'',.,,,.''
:Diwan::..f
$_c!!alig.e.. !6ve-*(6.Ae6art',
MUGHAL ECONOMY
1 iiche rg *d mil,i, i, ddprait.
r
o Mansabdari system was introduced by Akbar.
o Jagirdari system was the assignment of land in
proportion to a jagirdar's salary. Hence, every
Districtl a F*V|,fr.ei,t:::Kdm jinististi,ter.head:''i.ii.i,:,,l
Mansabdar was entitled to a jagir if he was not
Sarkar , a *ma#Amd0, ilReuenueleolMion,
paid in cash. A jagir could be transferred and the
a
I@!w* '. Mra'i .eila.he6,. ofi.::,i aW,, ra nd, jagirdar had no police powers over the land.
Ofdiei;|:11tt d,.ffi ,:,:::::p,;y,;i;7a1i:n3;1',CilS.dS ..ran'd
i
. The revenue was collected by state machinery in
0,rjee,:iBgUlati6ry,,,,,1 ), alliance with local Zamindars who got their due share.
368 il[0E EASY o Medieval lndia

. He ended the ceremony of weighing the emperor near Agra which is having resemblance to panch
on his birthdays and the practice of Jharokha Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri
darshan. o Nurjahan built a white marble mausoleum for her
o Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs, father ltmad-ud-daulah near Agra. lt used semi
was besieged and taken to Delhi where he was precious stones in marbles. This technique was
beheaded in 1679. known as Pietra Dura.
. According to the Treaty of Purandar between . During Shahajahan's reign, the Mughal
Shivaji and Jai Singh (the viceroy to Agra) in 1666, Architecture reached to its zenith. Shahjahan built
Shivaji ceded some forts to Mughals and agreed to Jami Mosque at Ajmer, his father's mausoleum at
pay a visit to the Mughal Court at Agra. But when Lahore and Jama Masjid in Delhi.
Shivaji went to Agra he was dissatisfied with the o Shahjahan also built Shalimar Garden in Kashmir.
reception and he secretly escaped from Agra, . Shahjahan also built Taj Mahal (in the memory of
. ln 1689, Sambhaji, the eldest son of Shivaji, was his wife Mumtaz Mahal) at Agra & Red Fort at Delhi.
captured and beheaded by Aurangzeb. . Aurangzeb was not that good in the construction
o Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgiri. of monuments, however he built lVoti Masjid at
o Aurangzeb destroyed several Hindu temples e.g. Delhi and Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad.
the Keshav Rai temple built by Raja Bir Singh in
Mathura, the Vishwanath temple built by Raja MUGHAL PAINTING
Man Singh in Benaras. . The Mughal school of painting began with
o Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmadnagar and Humayun who became familiar with Persian art
was burried near Daulatabad near the grave of during his exile at Persia.
Sheikh Jail-ul-Haq. . Humayun took renowned painters of Persia into
o During his reign, the Mughal empire reached to his service. Prominent of them were" Sayyid
its territorial climax. Ali, Abdus Samad, Dost Muhammad and Mir
Musavvir.
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
o The Mughals introduced new themes depicting
. Mausoleum of Akbar's father Humayun at Delhi
the court, battle scenes and the chase and
added new colours (peacock blue and lndian
was most prominent construction in Delhi. lt,
red).
Iike the Dinpanah was in vicinity of Nizamuddin
o Jaswant and Dasawanth were two famous
Chisti's Dargah.
o painters of Akbar's court.
Akbar built Agra fort in 1571. According to Abul . Apart from illustrating Persian books of fables
Fazl, the Agra Fort contained more than 500 stone
(Hamzanama) the painters illustrated Razamnama
buildings.
r (the Persian translation of Mahabharata) and
In 1573, Akbar built Buland Darwaza to comme-
Akbarnama.
morate Gujarat victory which formed the marn e Mughal painting reached to its zenith during
entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. lt is built in the lranian
Jahangir's rule. Jahangir was a great pattern of
style of half dome portal. painting.
. Salim Chisti's tomb (redone in marble by Jahangir
is the first Mughal building in pure marble), MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
palaces of Birbal, Anup Talao, Mariyam Mahal . Mughal emprre was drvided into Subas. Subas
are also inside Fatehpur Sikri.
were further subdivided into Sarkar, parganas
. Akbar also built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort
and Villages.
according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir. . However, it also had other territorial units such as
. Jahangir built a mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra, Khalisa (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajas)
and inams (gifted lands, mainly waste lands).