See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/253092213

A multizone building model for matlab/simulink environment

Article  in  Building Simulation · January 2005

CITATIONS READS

15 1,126

5 authors, including:

Peter Riederer
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment
49 PUBLICATIONS   477 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Contribution for district energy system design: simulation, optimization and decision support View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Peter Riederer on 03 May 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Ninth International IBPSA Conference
Montréal, Canada
August 15-18, 2005

A MULTIZONE BUILDING MODEL FOR MATLAB/SIMULINK ENVIRONMENT

Zaki El Khoury*, Peter Riederer*, Nicolas Couillaud*, Julie Simon**, Marina Raguin**

*Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, 84, Avenue Jean Jaurès, 77421 Marne la
Vallée Cedex 2, France
** Gaz de France - GDF, 361 Avenue Président Wilson, 93211 Saint Denis la Plaine, France

seconds) that is crucial for control purposes, has

ABSTRACT modular structure (so it’s easy to replace a block or
Matlab/Simulink is known in a large number of fields add a new one) and is transparent to the user (an
as a powerful and modern simulation tool. In the field expert Simulink user can access internal variables of
of building and HVAC simulation its use is also the model). This transparency is due to the exclusive
increasing. However, it is still believed to be a tool use of Simulink blocks and Matlab language (no S-
for small applications due to its graphical structure functions written with C…).
and not to fit well for the simulation of multizone
buildings. This paper presents the development of a MATLAB AND SIMULINK
new multizone building model for Matlab/Simulink
Matlab
environment, implemented into the SIMBAD
Building and HVAC Toolbox. It’s general enough to Matlab is a high level language dedicated to technical
model a variety of useful cases. Conforming to the computing (Matlab, 2004). It is based on matrix
Simulink philosophy, the model is modular and operations: the matrix is the basic datatype for
structured into blocks to represent the modelled Matlab. Beside its built-in and main functionalities,
phenomena. To simplify the description of the Matlab has a wide variety of toolboxes developed for
simulated building, a graphical user interface specialized technologies such as control systems,
SIMBDI is developed in parallel, generating an xml neural network and several other domains.
building description file. This file can be read directly Simulink
by the SIMBAD multizone building model. Finally, a
Simulink is a software package for dynamic systems
simulation case is presented in order to compare the
(Simulink, 2004), used in parallel with Matlab. It can
new model with the Trnsys multizone building model.
model linear and nonlinear systems using continuous
INTRODUCTION time, sampled time or a combination of both.
Simulink is very suitable for problems that have a
The present work is intended to complete the model
known configuration. On the other hand, it is more
library Simbad Building and HVAC toolbox
difficult to deal with general purpose models, such as
(SIMBAD, 2003). This toolbox provides ready to use
a complete building model. For example, it is simple
HVAC models and related utilities to perform
to model with Simulink a time independent state
dynamic simulation for buildings and HVAC plants.
space problem. It is given by:
The development of this toolbox was motivated by
the IEA annex 17 concerning virtual laboratories X& = AX + BU (1)
(Annex 17, 1993), where several research groups
developed principles for the realisation virtual When A and B are time independent matrices, this
laboratories (Laitila, 91) and (Vaézi, 91). system can be easily modeled with Simulink (cf.
To date, Simbad has several building models that are figure 1). The matrices A and B can either be defined
mono-zone models. When the user needs to simulate directly (if known) or calculated in separate Matlab
a multizone building, he had to break it down to functions or scripts. Simulink will initialise those
several monozone blocks and to couple them matrices before the simulation start.
manually, that can be a source of mistakes. Therefore,
CSTB, in cooperation with GDF, started to develop a
multizone building model that facilitates the
modelling of multizone buildings. This new model is
developed with a graphical interface ‘SIMBDI’ to
draw the building and to enter data interactively.
Among other features, the Simbad multizone model
allows the use of small timesteps (in the order of Figure 1 A state space problem with Simulink;

- 525 -
 The bar above a variable indicates a vector (not a
The problem is more complicated when these scalar). Aa, Ba,s and Ba,p are matrices that are
matrices are time dependent. In this case, the defined by the building zones. This way of
modeller has two possibilities: description is also used in the following sections.
1. Split down the problem to a set of time
Walls model
independent blocks;
2. Use the “S-function” block that allows to Multilayer walls are modelled using constant thermo-
use other programming languages such as C physical properties for each layer. The heat transfer is
and Fortran. assumed to be one-dimensional. The wall surfaces
For this building model, we have chosen the first can be of two kinds: those in contact with air and
approach. Its implementation is described hereafter. those with imposed surface temperature (called
“boundary” surfaces).

MODEL COMPONENTS The governing equations for a wall are thus:

A complete description of the mathematical and The heat conduction equation within each layer (j) of
numerical treatments is not possible in this paper. So the wall:
only a brief description of the assumptions and the ∂Tw ∂ 2 Tw
mathematical formulation is given for the model =αj (8)
∂t ∂x 2
components as well as a general description of the
where
different modules of the model.
kj
αj = (9)
Air zones model ρ j × Cp j
Each air zone is assumed to be homogeneous in The boundaries conditions are:
temperature. Every zone has two set points: one for
cooling and one for heating. The zone air temperature
• If the first surface of the wall is on contact
can vary between these two set points.
with air:
When the air temperature is allowed to fluctuate
∂T
(inbetween the two setpoints), the zone heat balance − k1 w = hc,1 (Ta ,1 − Tw x =0 ) + ϕ 1 (10)
is used to predict the air temperature variation: ∂x x =0

ρ a ⋅ V ⋅ Cp a ⋅ T&a , z = Pw,c + Peq,c + Pg ,c + Pv + Pcpl (2) • If it has an imposed temperature:

where Tw x =0
= Tb,1 (t ) (11)

Pw,c = ∑ hc,i ⋅ Ai ⋅ (Ts ,i − Ta , z ) (3) • If the second surface of the wall is on

i contact with air:
Pv = ∑ m& v ,i ⋅ Cp a ⋅ (Tv ,i − Ta , z ) (4) ∂T
− kn w = hc,2 (Ta ,2 − Tw x = L ) + ϕ 2 (12)
i ∂x x = L
Pcpl = ∑ m& cpl ,i ⋅ Cp a ⋅ (Ta ,az ,i − Ta , z ) (5)
i • If it has an imposed temperature:

In the case where the air temperature tends to be Tw = Tb,2 (t ) (13)

outside both set points, the heat balance is used to x =L

calculate the heating or the cooling loads related to

the corresponding set point: For each interface between two layers ( j and j+1):
∂T ∂T
kj w = k j +1 w (14)
P = Pw,c + Pg ,c + Pv + Pcpl (6) ∂x x = x −j ∂x x = x +j

To be used into the multizone model, the above This set of partial differential equations has been
equations must be defined in a matricial format (for discretisized using a combined finite difference and
all zones of the building). For example, the final finite volume schemes. The discretization step for
format of the equation (2), used in the model is (now each layer is calculated by:
equivalent to equation (1)):
∆x 2j = ζ ⋅ α j ⋅ ∆t (15)
&
Ta = Aa Ta + Ba,s Ts + Ba, p ( Peq,c + Pg ,c + Pcpl + Pv ) (7)
The resulting final differential equation for all walls
in matrix form is given by:

- 526 -
 Infrared heat exchange
&
Tw = Aw Tw + Bw,a Ta + B w,ϕ ϕ (16) The infrared heat exchange model is based on the
assumption that all surfaces behave as black bodies.
The black body equation has been linearised. This is
where ϕ is a vector that contains absorbed incident
justified by relatively small differences between
fluxes (IR and solar radiation) on the walls surfaces: surface temperatures in buildings.

ϕ = ϕ IR + ϕ solar (17) The resulting linearised radiative heat transfer

coefficient is:
Windows model
hrad = 4 × σ × (Ts,m + 273) 3 (21)
The window model is a relatively simplified model
for external windows with sun blinds. The model
assumes that the window solar transmittance and This coefficient was modified to include a first
absorbtivity are independent from the incidence angle correction for the black surface assumption using a
of the solar radiation. Hence the same solar mean surface emissivity. The used coefficient is:
transmittance and absorbtivity are used for both beam
and diffuse component of the solar radiation. hrad = 4 × ε × σ × (Ts ,m + 273) 3 (22)
The window is divided into a clear part and a shaded
part. Each part is modelled by two temperature The model distinguishes between internal infrared
nodes: interior node and exterior node. The window heat exchange (internal surfaces) and the external one
thermal inertia was neglected. occurring between the external surfaces and the
surrounding (composed of the sky and the
The used window parameters are: surrounding objects):
1. Its total area; The internal IR flux calculation is based on the zone
2. Sunblind position (0 = completely open, 1 = mean radiant temperature concept. This is equivalent
completely closed) to use the following view factors:
3. U-values for both shaded and clear parts; Aj
4. Solar transmittance and absorptivity for f ij = (23)
both parts. At
If the indexes i and j represent surfaces within the
The surface temperatures of the clear part of the same air zone;
window can be explicitly calculated from the air f ij = 0 otherwise. (24)
temperatures and the total radiative absorbed fluxes Radiant powers from equipments and internal heat
(IR + solar) on the two window surfaces. This can be gains are treated within the internal IR exchange and
formulated in the following matricial equation: are distributed to the zone surfaces according to their
areas.
Twn ,cl = Bwn ,cl ,a Ta + Bwn ,cl ,ϕ ϕ (18)
The external IR fluxes are calculated using the fictive
A similar equation is used for the window shaded sky temperature that can be estimated using
part: correlations available in the literature (Matrin &
Berdahl, 1984). The net IR flux between an external
Twn ,sh = Bwn ,sh ,a Ta + B wn ,sh,ϕ ϕ (19) surface and the sky is:

ϕ = hrad × f sky × (Tsky − Ts ) (25)

The window mean surface temperatures are
calculated using the sunblind position as weighting
factor. So An inclined planar surface with slope θ beyond the
horizontal plane has a sky view factor given by:
Twn ,s = f .Twn ,cl + (1 − f ).Twn ,sh (20)
1 + cos(θ )
f sky = (26)
As before, elementary equations for individual 2
windows are assembled into one unique matricial
equation (for the following only elementary equations The external IR fluxes due to surrounding objects are
will be given). calculated assuming the surrounding temperature to
be equal to the ambiant temperature.

ϕ = hrad × (1 − f sky ) × (Text − Ts ) (27)

- 527 -
 α i Ai
Solar radiation f d ,i = (31)
The solar radiation is composed of two parts: beam ∑ − ρ j ) Aj
(1
j
and diffuse. Solar radiation measurements can have
several formats. This model uses normal solar beam MODEL STRUCTURE
radiation and solar diffuse radiation.
In this section, the link between the thermal
phenomena is described. The graphical and modular
The position of the sun in the sky is defined by the
methodology of Simulink is used to structure the
zenith β and the azimuth. γ. Both are necessary to
model using layers (subsystems).A full presentation
model the beam solar radiation. It can be calculated
of this structure will be cumbersome so we’ve
using trigonometric formulas available in the
restricted it to the most important features.
literature for example from ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals (ASHRAE, 1972). From sun position, Structure of the building model
slope and azimuth of each of the building facets, the Figure 2 shows a simplified representation to the
solar radiation fluxes on the building facets can be model first layer in a top to down approach. This
calculated. layer has two main blocks: Building envelope and air
zones.
The beam solar radiation is divided into two parts: The block “building envelope” calculates surface
temperatures for all the building surfaces (walls and
1. Beam solar radiation absorbed on the windows) depending on weather data, blind positions
external surfaces of the building; of windows, radiant fluxes due to equipment and
2. Beam solar radiation transmitted through internal gains as well as the air temperatures for the
windows into the building zones. building zones.
The block “air zones” calculates the air temperature
The transmitted beam radiation is distributed on the in the zones depending on the building surface
internal surfaces of the building. The building temperatures and all convective powers in each of the
description for the model is not based on geometrical zones.
data. The user has thus to specify coefficients that
determine the distribution of solar radiation to the
particular internal surfaces. For example the whole
beam solar radiation can be injected on the floor. The
reflected part of the beam radiation is assumed to be
diffuse so it is treated by the diffuse solar radiation
model.

The diffuse solar radiation on an external surface of

slope θ is composed of two parts: Figure 2 Simplified representation of the model
structure’s first layer;
The first part coming from the sky:
Ventilations and interzone airflows are integrated in a
1 + cos(θ )
ϕ d ,sky = ×ϕd (28) separate block (“Zones ventilations & Zones
2 airflows”. This allows variable values for all flow
rates: a direct integration into the air zones matricial
The second part is the reflected solar radiation from equation would make the matrices A in equation (1)
surrounding objects: time dependent which would need the calculation of
1 − cos(θ ) A at each time step. The approach to calculate the
ϕ d , gr = × ρ ×ϕ g (29)
2 heat fluxes due to ventilation separately allows to
The global radiation on the horizontal plane is then consider these fluxes in the matrix B for the input
calculated by: vector U (equation (1)).
Structure of the block “building envelope”
ϕ g = ϕ d + ϕ n sin( β ) (30)
The building envelope is shown in figure 3. The solar
processor block calculates the absorbed solar fluxes
The total diffuse solar radiation (transmitted through for all surfaces (windows and walls). These fluxes are
windows to a zone + the reflect part from the beam input to the windows and walls blocks. The other
solar radiation) is distributed to the internal surfaces inputs, external and internal air temperatures and IR
using the following distribution factors (Trnsys, fluxes for all surfaces are fed back from a separate
2000): block “IR exchange” and the air zones block

- 528 -
 The interface automatically generates adjacency
between zones of successive floors. The user can
define its own wall types or uses those from the
interface library. The interface finally generates
an xml file.
This xml building description file could also be
written manually but becomes cumbersome when
the building has several air zones.
Figure 3 Simplified representation of the building This file is read in the Simulink model mask,
envelop layer; translated to a text file by an automatic translator
and finally used to define the matrix parameters
Link between the different blocks necessary for the Simulink model.
When modelling with Simulink it is convenient to - Project and system related data
avoid algebraic loops because they slow down the Project and system related parameters are to be
model and can sometimes provoke non-convergence. specified by the user in a second interface, the
An algebraic loop occurs in a model when the inputs block mask of the Simulink building model
of a block depend on its own outputs through a direct block. The parameters to be specified are eg. The
feedback. The problem can thus not be solved in a geographical location of the building, ground
straightforward way and an iteration process is reflectance, choices of model calculation modes
needed. In the case of the windows model which is (eg. Walls models) as well as interzonal air flow
based on a steady state heat balance, an algebraic parameters.
loop is created (the window surface temperatures are
function of the IR fluxes on the windows surfaces This double approach for the interface has been
which at the same depend on the windows surface chosen in order to separate general building
temperatures). A transient model would break this characteristics that do not depend on geographical
loop but would lead to a model of higher order. The location or other project related parameters. The
problem has been solved by decoupling both models building, once described, can then be transferred to
by a so called “memory block” at the surface other locations without the need for modification.
temperatures outputs for the windows model. This
feeds back the value of the window surface MODEL VALIDATION
temperature to the IR from the previous time step. In a first step, the model has been confronted to a
Since the model is used mainly for control series of simple (but important) validation cases: for
applications with a small time step this decoupling example, the simulated building was set in an
has a negligible impact on simulation results. ambiance that has a given constant external
temperature without solar radiation (the sky
Another interesting point concerning the windows temperature was set equal to the external one). The
model is the way to deal with the variable geometry steady state air temperature of the building zones was
of the window due to the variable positions of sun found equal to the outside one.
blinds. As mentioned previously, variable matrices In further steps the new model is planned to be
are not convenient for Simulink blocks (except for validated on other cases such as BESTEST.
the S-function block). To avoid this difficulty the In this paper, first comparisons with TRNSYS “Type
window is split into two representative parts: a clear 56” multizone model (Trnsys, 2000) have been
part and a shaded part of 1m2 each. The resultant carried out. This series of tests is not completely
surface temperature of the whole window is then finished yet, but there was good agreement for all
determined by equation (20). In this way the variable tested cases. An exemplary test is shown in the
configuration problem has been split down into two following section. Validation work is still ongoing.
invariable configuration problems.
BUILDING DESCRIPTION INTERFACES Some differences between Trnsys type 56 and
The Simulink model as described in the previous Simbad
sections demands two kinds of parameters: It’s interesting to mention some main differences
between Trnsys “Type 56” and the Simbad multi-
- General building description data: zone model:
An independent graphical user interface
“Simbdi” (Simbad Building Description 1. Trnsys uses transfer function to simulate
Interface) has been developed in Visual Basic walls heat conduction, while Simbad uses a
environment. This interface allows the user to combined finite difference/finite volume
draw the building floor by floor in 2 dimensions. scheme.

- 529 -
 2. Trnsys uses the so called “star temperature” 4- Absolute humidity;
(Seem et al., 1987) to simulate IR exchange 5- Wind velocity (not used);
for internal surfaces, while Simbad uses the 6- Wind direction (not used).
common mean radiant temperature.
3. Trnsys uses a detailed model for windows Table 1 pane properties of the window;
that reads output data from the WINDOW
4.1 program (WINDOW4.1, 1994). Trnsys PANE PROPERTY VALUE
takes thus into account the variation of solar Thickness 4.0 mm
transmittance and absorptance with the
incidence angle and uses hemispherical Thermal conductance 225 W/m²K
transmittance and absorptance for the diffuse
Normal solar transmittace 0.83
radiation. Simbad windows model is rather
simple and uses the same constant solar Normal solar absorptance 0.095
transmittance and absorptance for both beam
and diffuse radiation. Hemispherical solar transmittance 0.749
Hemispherical solar absorbtance 0.106
The simulated case
One comparison case is presented here. This case A slight modification was needed on the Simbad
consists of a building (cf. figure 4) composed of two model to accept the solar radiation of the Trnsys
zones. Ventilations, airflows between zones, format. The simulation was run for one summer
equipments power, and internal gains are set to zero. week. Figures 5 & 6 show air temperature and solar
radiation for this week.

Madison: Air temperature

35

30
Temperature [°C]

25

20

15

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temps [h]

Figure 5 Air temperature during the simulated week;

Figure 4 Simulated building - plan and section view;
Madison: Solar radiation
1200
The building walls are identical to those used in the Global horizontal radiation
Normal beam radiation
BESTEST cases (Judkoff & Neymark, 1995). A 1000
heavyweight construction is used for exterior wall,
floor and roof. The internal wall is taken from the 800
Solar flux [W/m²]

case 960.
600

The 3 windows are similar and are composed of a 400

single glass panel without frame and spacers. The
glass pane has the properties given in table 1 below. 200

The hemispherical values were used for the Simbad

0
model. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temps [h]

A weather data file for Madison from Trnsys package

was used. This file contains the following weather Figure 6 Solar radiation for the simulated week;
data:
Simulation results
1- Normal direct solar radiation;
2- Total solar radiation on horizontal plane; The air temperature is used to compare the outputs of
3- Outside air temperature; the two simulation tools. As the window model in

- 530 -
Trnsys is more detailed than the Simbad one
ragerding radiation phenomena, two cases are 30
Zone A: air temperature

presented here: Simbad

Trnsys
28

1- Case with solar radiation (cf. figures 7 & 8);

Air temperature [°C]

26

2- Case without solar radiation (cf. figures 9 & 24

10).
22

Table 2 shows the maximum and the mean value of

20
the absolute difference between Trnsys and Simbad
results. As we can expect the difference between the 18
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
two simulation tools is higher when there’re solar Temps [h]
radiation since the window model is more detailed
into Trnsys but they steel close to each other.
Figure 9 Simbad versus Trnsys – air temperature for
Zone A: air temperature Zone A (case with solar radiation);
30
Simbad
Trnsys Zone B: air temperature
28 30
Simbad
Trnsys
Air temperature [°C]

26 28

Air temperature [°C]

24 26

22 24

20 22

18 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temps [h]
18
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temps [h]
Figure 7 Simbad versus Trnsys – air temperature for
Zone A (case without solar radiation);
Figure 10 Simbad versus Trnsys – air temperature
Zone B: air temperature for Zone B (case with solar radiation);
30
Simbad
Trnsys
28
CONCLUSION
Air temperature [°C]

26 This paper has shown a new multizone building

model for Simulink. The originality of this model, the
24
integration of a multizone building case in the
22
graphical Simulink environment has been explained
in a first step. The main equations as well as the
20 structure of the new model in Simulink environment
have been described.
18
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 A brief presentation of the related ghraphical
Temps [h]
interface for the building description has been given.
In a last step, the paper presents first validation
Figure 8 Simbad versus Trnsys – air temperature for results, a comparaison with Trnsys simulations. The
Zone B (case without solar radiation); results are very promising, but further validations are
in progress in order to ensure the validity of the
Table 2 Mean and maximum values of the absolute model.
difference between Trnsys and Simbad results; Due to the graphical Simulink environment, the
ZONE SOLAR MEAN MAX. model can be linked to other blocks. A large number
RADIATION VALUE VALUE of HVAC systems can thus be simulated (eg.
A off 0.1°C 0.2 °C Addition of air flow pressure networks for VAV or
B off 0.11 0.22 ventilation systems).
A on 0.23 0.47 Due to the small time steps that can be used in
Simulink and the developed model, the new model is
B on 0.26 0.58
very suitable for the study and development of
control algorithms.

- 531 -
 NOMENCLATURE p power
s surface
Romaine letters rad radiative
A area (m²). sh shaded part (for the window)
A matrix coefficient of the state vector. sky relative to the sky
B matrix coefficient of the inputs vector. solar solar radiation
Cp heat capacity (J/kg.K). t total
f matrix of blind positions. v ventilation
f view factor between surfaces. w wall
f beam solar radiation distribution factor (-). wn window
h linearized heat transfer coefficient (W/m²K). z zone
k thermal conductivity (W/mK). ϕ flux
L total thickness of the wall (m). 1 first face of the wall
m& mass flow rate (kg/s). 2 second face of the wall
P cooling or heating load (W).
P gain, power (W). REFERENCES
t time (s). ASHRAE, 1972. ASHRAE Hundbook of
T temperature (°C). Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
U inputs vector. Refrigerating, and Air Conditionning Engineers.
V zone volume (m3). Judkoff, R., J. Neymark. 1995. International Energy
x abscise belong the wall thickness (m). Agency Building Energy Simulation Test
X state vector. (BESTEST) and Diagnostic Method. NREL/TP-
Greek letters 472-6231. Golden, CO: National Renewable
α thermal diffusivity (m²s-1). Energy Laboratory, USA.
α solar absorbtivity (-). Laitila PK., Kohonen RO., Katajisto KI. Et al. 1991
An emulator for testing HVAC systems and their
β zenith angle of the sun (rad).
control and energy management systems,
γ azimuth angle of the sun (rad).
ASHRAE trans.1991, vol.97, paper number NY-
∆t Timestep (s).
91-9-2, 679-683, 8 figs., 1 tab., 3refs.
∆x space step (m).
Martin, M., Berdahl P. 1984. Characteristics of
ε mean IR emissivity for the building surfaces.
Infrared Sky Radiation in the United States,
θ slope with respect to the horizontal plane
LBL, University of California – Berkeley, Solar
(rad).
Energy Vol.33, No.3/4, pp. 321-336.
ξ stability safety factor for wall discretization. Matlab, 2004. Matlab. Version 7.0 Mathworks Inc.,
ρ density (kg/m3). Ma., USA.
ρ reflectivity (-). Seem, J.E. 1987. Modeling of Heat in Buildings, Ph.
σ Stefan-Boltzman constant for black body = D. thesis, SEL, University of Wisconsin,
5.67×10-8 Wm-2K-4. Madison USA.
ϕ heat flux (W/m²). SIMBAD, 2003. SIMBAD Building and HVAC
Indices Toolbox, Version 3.1, CSTB, France
a air Simulink, 2004. Simulink dynamic System
az adjacent zone Simulation for Matlab. Version 6.0, Mathworks
b boundary Inc., Ma., USA.
c convective, convection Trnsys, 2000. Trnsys: a transient system simulation
cl clear part (for the window) program. SEL, University of Wisconsin,
cpl coupling between zones Madison USA.
d diffuse horizontal solar radiation Vaézi-Nejad et al, 1991. The use of building
eq equipments emulators to evaluate the performance of
ext exterior (air) building energy managment systems , BS1991 ,
g gains 91 pp. 209-213.
g global horizontal solar radiation WINDOW4.1, 1994. WINDOW4.1, PC Program for
gr ground Analysing Window Thermal Performance in
i zone, surface, ventilation, coupling number Accordance with Standard NFRC Procedures.
IR infrared radiation Energy and Environnement Division, Lawrence
j layer, surface number Berkeley Laboratory, CA 94729 USA.
m mean
n total number of layers in the wall
n normal beam solar radiation

- 532 -
View publication stats