SECTION 17

Fluid Flow and Piping

Few flow problems can be solved with an acceptable degree their relationships. For engineering design purposes, several
of accuracy when using equations designed to fit idealized ap- empirical formulas have been developed to fit particular cir-
plications. Flow regimes and associated pressure drops are cumstances in predicting flow capacity and pressure drop.
complex phenomena and require complex equations to predict

FIG. 17-1
Nomenclature

A = pipe cross sectional area, ft2 (A = πD2/4) NE = abscissa of Eaton correlation, Fig. 17-20
c = sum of allowances for corrosion, erosion, etc., in., NLv = liquid velocity number, from Eq 17-53
Fig. 17-23 Ngv = gas velocity number, from Eq 17-54
C = design parameter used in Hazen and Williams Nd = pipe diameter number, from Eq 17-55
formula, Eq. 17-33 NL = liquid viscosity number, from Eq 17-56
C1 = discharge factor from Fig. 17-8 P = pressure, psia
C2 = size factor from Fig. 17-9 P1 = inlet pressure, psia
d = internal diameter of pipe, in. P2 = outlet pressure, psia
do = outside pipe diameter, in. Pavg = average pressure, psia, from Eq 17-16
D = internal diameter of pipe, feet Pb = base absolute pressure, psia (ANSI 2530 specifi-
E = pipeline efficiency factor (fraction) cation: Pb = 14.73 psia)
E′ = longitudinal weld joint factor from ANSI B31.3, Pi = internal design pressure, psig
Fig. 17-23 ∆P100 = pressure drop, psi/100 ft equivalent pipe length
E′′ = longitudinal joint factor from ANSI B31.8, ∆Pe = elevation component of pressure drop, psi
Fig. 17-24 ∆Pf = frictional component of pressure drop, psi
ff = Fanning friction factor ∆Pt = total pressure drop, psi
fm = Moody friction factor (fm = 4.0 ff) q = flow rate, gal./min
fn = single phase friction factor for Dukler calculation, Q = flow rate of gas, cubic feet per day at base condi-
from Eq 17-44 tions
ftpr = friction factor ratio for Dukler calculation, QL = liquid volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
Fig. 17-17 ft3/sec
F′′ = construction type design factor used in Qg = gas volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
ANSI B31.8, Fig. 17-24 ft3/sec
Fpv = volume correction for a non-ideal fluid due to Re = Reynolds number
compressibility from Eq 17-13 Rey = mixture Reynolds number for Dukler calculation,

√1/ff = transmission factor from Eq 17-45
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2 S = specific gravity of flowing gas (air = 1.0)
gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 (ft • lbm)/(lbf • sec2) S′ = allowable stress, psi, Fig. 17-23
hL = loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow, feet S′′ = specified minimum yield strength, psi, Fig. 17-24
of fluid t = thickness, in., Figs. 17-23, 17-24
H = total energy of a fluid at a point above a datum, tm = minimum required wall thickness, in., Fig. 17-23
from Eq 17-1 T = absolute temperature of flowing gas, °R
HLd = liquid holdup fraction (Dukler), Fig. 17-18 T′′ = temperature derating factor used in ANSI B31.8,
HLe = liquid holdup fraction (Eaton), Fig. 17-20 Fig. 17-24
HLf = liquid holdup fraction (Flanigan), Fig. 17-19 Tavg = average temperature, °R, [Tavg = 1/2 (Tin + Tout)]
IL = liquid inventory in pipe, ft3, from Eq 17-57 Tb = base absolute temperature, °R (ANSI 2530 speci-
L = length of line, feet fication: Tb = 520°R)
Lm = length of line, miles V = single phase fluid velocity, ft/sec
MW = molecular weight Vsg = superficial gas velocity, ft/sec, from Eq 17-36
Nx = Fig. 17-16 horizontal coordinate, ft/sec VsL = superficial liquid velocity, ft/sec, from Eq 17-35
Ny = Fig. 17-16 vertical coordinate, ft/sec Vm = mixture velocity, ft/sec, from Eq 17-46

17-1
 FIG. 17-1 (Cont’d)
Nomenclature

W = mass flow, lb/hr µL = liquid viscosity, cp

XA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (horizontal µn = mixture viscosity for Dukler calculation, cp
axis, Fig. 17-16) ρ = single phase fluid density, lb/ft3
YA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (vertical axis,
ρavg = average density, lb/ft3 [ρavg = 1/2 (ρin + ρout)]
Fig. 17-16)
ρa = air density at 60°F and 14.7 psia, 0.0764 lb/ft3
Y′ = coefficient found in Table 304.1.1, ANSI B31.3,
Fig. 17-23 ρw = water density at 60°F and 14.7 psia, 62.4 lb/ft3
Zavg = average compressibility factor ρg = gas density, lb/ft3
Ze = pipeline vertical elevation rise, ft ρL = liquid density, lb/ft3
ε = absolute roughness, ft ρk = two phase mixture density for Dukler calculation,
λ = flowing liquid volume fraction lb/ft3
µe = single phase fluid viscosity, lbm/(ft • sec) σ = interfacial tension at flowing conditions, dyne/cm
µ = single phase fluid viscosity, cp σwa = interfacial tension of air and water at 60°F and
µg = gas viscosity, cp 14.7 psia, 72.4 dyne/cm

Bernoulli’s Theorem Specific volume is the inverse of density. Specific gravity of

a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid at a specified
The Bernoulli Theorem1 is a mathematical derivation based temperature to the density of water at 60°F. The specific grav-
on the law of conservation of energy. This theorem states that ity of gas is defined as the ratio of the molecular weight of
the total energy of a fluid at any particular point above a da- the gas to the molecular mass of air.
tum plane is the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head,
MW (gas)
and the velocity head. Stated mathematically: S = Eq 17-3
MW (air)
144 P V2
H = Ze + + Eq 17-1
ρ 2g Flow in Pipes and Reynolds Number
If there are no friction losses and no energy is added to or At low velocities, fluid molecules or particles carried by
taken from the system, H is constant for any point in the fluid. the fluid move in a reasonably straight line. Velocity of the
In reality, whenever fluid is moving there is friction loss (hL). fluid is maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the
This loss describes the difference in total energy at two points pipe wall. This flow pattern is referred to as laminar. If the
in the system. Expressing the energy levels at Point 1 versus velocity is increased it will reach a critical point where fluid
Point 2 then becomes: particles begin to show a random motion transverse to the
direction of flow. This is the critical velocity. This random
144 P1 V21 144 P2 V22 motion is typical of what is referred to as turbulent flow.
Zel + + = Ze2 + + + hL Eq 17-2
ρ1 2g ρ2 2g Above the critical velocity the flow is considered to be com-
pletely turbulent even though there is always a boundary
All practical formulas for fluid flow are derived from the layer at the pipe wall where flow is laminar. In the turbulent
above. Modifications to Eq 17-2 have been proposed by many zone the velocity profile is more nearly straight across the
investigators to account for the friction losses. face of the pipe.
Fluid Physical Properties Reynolds developed a dimensionless number that may be
considered as the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to
The physical properties of a flowing fluid must be known to the shear stress due to viscosity. The Reynolds number is:
predict pressure drop in piping. The two properties entering
into the solution of most fluid flow problems are viscosity and DVρ
Re = Eq 17-4
density. µe
Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, flow may be consid-
when it is acted upon by an external force. Two types of viscos- ered laminar. If it is above 4000, the flow is turbulent. In the
ity measurements are used, absolute and kinematic. Absolute zone between 2000 and 4000 the flow could be either turbulent
viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to defor- or laminar, but cannot be predicted by the Reynolds number.
mation or shear. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute If a non-circular conduit is encountered, the Reynolds num-
viscosity to mass density. The absolute viscosity will be used ber can be approximated by using an equivalent diameter for
for all calculations in this section. D. The equivalent diameter would equal four (4) times the
Viscosity is temperature dependent. The viscosity of most hydraulic radius. The hydraulic radius is defined as:
liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas Area of Flowing Fluid
that of gases increases. Pressure has almost no effect on the Hydraulic Radius = Eq 17-5
Wetted Perimeter
viscosity of liquids or near perfect gases. On the other hand,
the viscosity of saturated or slightly superheated vapors is This conversion would not apply to extremely narrow
changed appreciably by pressure changes. The viscosity of shapes where the width is small relative to the length. In
steam is readily available, but the viscosity of other vapors such cases an approximation may be used wherein one-half
may not be known. the width of the passage is equal to the hydraulic radius.

17-2
Pressure Loss Due to Friction overall pressure drop is the sum of the ∆ Pf values calculated
for the individual segments. For gas applications the segmen-
Flow is always accompanied by friction. This friction results tal length may be relatively short, as compared to liquid ap-
in a loss of energy available for work. A general equation for plications, since many gas applications involve compressible
pressure drop due to friction is the Darcy-Weisbach2 (often gases where gas densities vary with pressure.
referred to as simply the Darcy) equation. This equation can
be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the excep- Friction Factor and Effect of Pipe Roughness
tion of the friction factor, fm, which must be determined ex-
perimentally. Expressed in feet of fluid this equation is: When the fluid flow is laminar (Re<2000), the friction factor
has a direct relationship to the Reynolds number, such that:
2
fm L V
hL = Eq 17-6 fm = 64 /Re or ff = 16 /Re Eq 17-8
2gD
Pipe roughness has no effect on the friction factor in laminar
Converting to pounds per square inch, the equation be- flow.
comes:
Substitution of the formula for Reynolds number, Eq 17-4,
ρ fm L V2
∆Pf = Eq 17-7 into Eq 17-8, yields the following:
(144 ) D (2gc)
64 µe  64   µ   12 
It should be noted that the Moody friction factor3, fm, is used fm = =     Eq 17-9
in the equations above. Some equations are shown in terms of
DVρ  Vρ   1488   d 
the Fanning friction factor, ff, which is one fourth of fm (fm = This expression can then be substituted for the friction fac-
4.0 ff). A graph of both Fanning and Moody friction factors as tor in Eq 17-7, resulting in the following formula for pressure
a function of Reynolds number appears in Fig. 17-2. loss in pounds per square inch:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is valid for both laminar and µLV
∆Pf = 0.000668 Eq 17-10
turbulent flow of any liquid, and may also be used for gases d2
with certain restrictions. When using this equation, changes Eq 17-10 is commonly known as Poiseuille’s law for laminar
in elevation, velocity, or density must be accounted for by ap- flow.
plying Bernoulli’s theorem. The Darcy-Weisbach equation
must be applied to line segments sufficiently short such that When the flow is turbulent, the friction factor depends on
fluid density is essentially constant over that segment. The the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe,

FIG. 17-2
Friction Factors5

17-3 Revised (5-99)

ε/D, which is the roughness of the pipe, ε, over the pipe diame- This equation is completely general for steady-state flow,
ter, D. Fig. 17-2 incorporates the relative roughness of the pipe and adequately accounts for variations in compressibility fac-
into the determination of the friction factor. Fig. 17-3 indicates tor, kinetic energy, pressure, and temperature for any typical
relative roughness and friction factors for various piping ma- line section. However, the equation as derived involves an un-
terials. These figures are based on the iterative solution of the specified value of the transmission factor, √ 
1/ff . The correct
following equation developed by Colebrook.4 representation of this friction factor is necessary to the valid-
1  ε 2.51  ity of the equation.
= −2 log 10  +  Eq 17-11
fm
√  3.7 D Re √ fm  The friction factor is fundamentally related to the energy
Various explicit equations have been presented which pro- lost due to friction. In the derivation of the general energy
vide a direct solution for the friction factor. The equation below equation, all irreversibilities and non-idealities, except for
was proposed by Chen30 and is accurate and is almost identical those covered by the real gas law, have been collected into the
to the Colebrook equation over Reynolds Numbers (4000 to friction loss term.
4(10)8) and roughness factors (e/D) from 0.05 to 5(10)–7. Empirical methods historically and currently used to calcu-
1.1098 late or predict the flow of gas in a pipeline are the result of
 ε  
   various correlations of the transmission factor substituted
 D  5.8506  into the general energy equation.
A = log    +  0.8981  Eq 17-11a
 2.8257  Re  Examination of the relationships presented by various
authors shows that their forms differ primarily in the inherent
or specified representation of the transmission factor which
defines the energy lost in resistance to flow for various pipe
sizes, roughnesses, flow conditions, and gases.
Eq 17-11b To obtain Eq 17-15, which is convenient for general calcula-
tions, a number of simplifying assumptions have been made.
For other than pipeline sections with a very high pressure gra-
dient, the change in the kinetic energy of the gas is not signifi-
Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings cant, and is assumed equal to zero. It is also assumed that the
gas temperature is constant at an average value for the section
The pressure drop effects of valves and fittings can be ac-
considered; the compressibility factor is constant at the value
counted for by addition of the “equivalent lengths” of the fit-
characterized by the average gas temperature and pressure;
tings to the actual piping lengths. This augmented pipe length
and in the term giving the effect of elevation change, the pres-
is then used in any of the following pressure drop calculation
sure is constant at the average value. In the range of condi-
techniques. A table of equivalent lengths for a number of rep-
tions to which pipeline flow equations are ordinarily applied,
resentative valves and fittings appears in Fig. 17-4.
averages are usually sufficiently accurate. Average tempera-
Compressibility of Gases tures are calculated as indicated in Fig. 17-1.

For more accurate values of Z, refer to Section 23. For more The average pressure in the line can be computed by:
approximate calculations, the value of the average compressi- 2 P1 P2 
Pavg = P1 + P2 −
3  P1 + P2 
bility factor, Zavg, may be calculated from the following equa- Eq 17-16
tions:
In the absence of field data indicating otherwise, an effi-
1
Zavg = Eq 17-12 ciency factor, E, of 1.0 is usually assumed.
(Fpv)2
The AGA Equations — The AGA Equations were devel-
and oped to approximate partially and fully turbulent flow using
0.5 two different transmission factors. The fully turbulent flow
  (Pavg ) (3.444 ) (105) (10(1.785) (S))   equation accounts for the relative pipe roughness, ε/D, based
Fpv = 1 +    Eq 17-13
  T3.825
avg  on the rough-pipe law.4 This equation uses the following trans-
mission factor:
Fig. 17-5 contains a plot of the deviation factor, Fpv2.
 3.7 D 
An estimate for Zavg at pressures below 100 psi is: 1/ff = 4 log10 
√  Eq 17-17
 ε 
1
Zavg = Eq 17-14 When the transmission factor for fully turbulent flow is sub-
1 + 0.0002 Pavg stituted in the general energy equation (Eq 17-15), the AGA
Equation for fully turbulent flow becomes:
0.5
SINGLE PHASE FLOW  Tb    3.7 D    P21 − P22  2.5
Q = 38.77   E  4 log10      d
 Pb    ε    S Lm Tavg Zavg 
Transmission Line Gas Flow
Eq 17-18
Isothermal Flow — The steady-state, isothermal flow be-
The partially turbulent flow equation is based on the
havior of gas in pipelines is defined by a general energy equa-
smooth-pipe law4 and is modified to account for drag-inducing
tion of the form:
elements. The transmission factor for this equation is:
0.5
 Tb  1  P21 − P22  2.5
Q = 38.77   E  
P f
√
S L T Z
 d Eq 17-15 √
1/ff = 4 log10
Re
1/ff
√
− 0.6 Eq 17-19
 b f  m avg avg

17-4
 FIG. 17-3
Relative Roughness of Pipe Materials and Friction Factors for Complete Turbulence5

17-5
 FIG. 17-4
Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings in Feet

Short Long
Nominal Pipe size in.

45° Hard Soft

Swing check valve

Gate or ball valve

rad. rad. 90° miter bends Enlargement Contraction
ball check valve

ell T T
Globe valve or

ell ell
Angle valve

Plug cock
Sudden Std. red. Sudden Std. red.

Threaded

Threaded

Threaded

Threaded

Threaded

2 miter

3 miter

4 miter
Welded

Welded

Welded

Welded

Welded
Equiv. L in terms of small d

d/D = 1/4

d/D = 1/2

d/D = 3/4

d/D = 1/2

d/D = 3/4

d/D = 1/4

d/D = 1/2

d/D = 3/4

d/D = 1/2

d/D = 3/4
11⁄2 55 26 13 7 1 1 2 3 5 2 3 8 9 2 3 5 3 1 4 1 3 2 1 1 –
2 70 33 17 14 2 2 3 4 5 3 4 10 11 3 4 7 4 1 5 1 3 3 1 1 –
21⁄2 80 40 20 11 2 2 – 5 – 3 – 12 – 3 – 8 5 2 6 2 4 3 2 2 –

3 100 50 25 17 2 2 6 4 14 4 10 6 2 8 2 5 4 2 2 –
4 130 65 32 30 3 3 7 5 19 5 12 8 3 10 3 6 5 3 3 –
6 200 100 48 70 4 4 11 8 28 8 18 12 4 14 4 9 7 4 4 1
8 260 125 64 120 6 6 15 9 37 9 25 16 5 19 5 12 9 5 5 2
10 330 160 80 170 7 7 18 12 47 12 31 20 7 24 7 15 12 6 6 2
12 400 190 95 170 9 9 22 14 55 14 28 21 20 37 24 8 28 8 18 14 7 7 2
14 450 210 105 80 10 10 26 16 62 16 32 24 22 42 26 9 – – 20 16 8 – –
16 500 240 120 145 11 11 29 18 72 18 38 27 24 47 30 10 – – 24 18 9 – –
18 550 280 140 160 12 12 33 20 82 20 42 30 28 53 35 11 – – 26 20 10 – –
20 650 300 155 210 14 14 36 23 90 23 46 33 32 60 38 13 – – 30 23 11 – –
22 688 335 170 225 15 15 40 25 100 25 52 36 34 65 42 14 – – 32 25 12 – –
24 750 370 185 254 16 16 44 27 110 27 56 39 36 70 46 15 – – 35 27 13 – –
30 – – – 312 21 21 55 40 140 40 70 51 44
36 – – – 25 25 66 47 170 47 84 60 52
42 – – – 30 30 77 55 200 55 98 69 64
48 – – – 35 35 88 65 220 65 112 81 72
54 – – – 40 40 99 70 250 70 126 90 80
60 – – – 45 45 110 80 260 80 190 99 92

Substituting √

1/ff from Eq 17-19 into Eq 17-15 does not pro- correction factors determined from the system to which it is to
vide an equation which can be solved directly. For partially be applied. Graphs showing gas flow calculations based on the
turbulent flow a frictional drag factor must also be applied to Weymouth equation are shown in Fig. 17-6a and 17-6b.
account for the effects of pipe bends and irregularities. These Panhandle A Equation — In the early 1940s Panhandle
calculations are beyond the scope of this book and the AGA Eastern Pipe Line Company developed a formula for calcula-
“Steady Flow in Gas Pipelines”6 should be consulted for a de- tion of gas flow in transmission lines which has become known
tailed treatment of partially turbulent flow. as the Panhandle A Equation. This equation uses the following
The Weymouth Equation — The Weymouth Equation, expressions of Reynolds number and transmission factor.
published in 19127, evaluated the coefficient of friction as a QS
function of the diameter. Re = 1.934 Eq 17-23
d
0.008
ff = Eq 17-20 0.07305
d1/3  QS 
√1/ff = 7.211 
  = 6.872 (Re)0.07305 Eq 17-24
 d 
1/ff = 11.18 d1/6
√ Eq 17-21
The transmission factor assumes a Reynolds number value
When the friction factor, ff, is substituted in the general en- from 5 to 11 million based on actual metered experience.
ergy equation, Weymouth’s Equation becomes:
0.5 Substituting Eq 17-24 for √

1/ff in the general energy equa-
 Tb   P21 − P22  2.667 tion (Eq 17-15), the Panhandle A Equation becomes:
Q = (433.5)   E   d Eq 17-22
 Pb   S Lm Tavg Zavg 1.0788
 
0.5392
 Tb  P21 − P22
The Weymouth formula for short pipelines and gathering Q = 435.87   E  0.853  d2.6182
systems agrees more closely with metered rates than those  Pb  S Lm Tavg Zavg
calculated by most other formulae. However, the degree of er-
ror increases with pressure. If the Q calculated from the Wey- Eq 17-25
mouth formula is multiplied by √ 
 , where Z is the
1/Z This equation was intended to reflect the flow of gas through
compressibility factor of the gas, the corrected Q will closely smooth pipes. When “adjusted” with an efficiency factor, E, of
approximate the metered flow. Fig. 17-5 shows a plot of the about 0.90, the equation is a reasonable approximation of the
deviation factor, √
 , of a common gas and can be used safely
1/Z partially turbulent flow equation. The equation becomes less
if exact data is not available. accurate as flow rate increases. Many users of the Panhandle
A Equation assume an efficiency factor of 0.92.
The equation cannot be generally applied to any variety of
diameters and roughness, and in the flow region of partially Panhandle B Equation — A new or revised Panhandle
developed turbulence, it is not valid. The Weymouth Equation Equation was published in 1956. This revised equation is
may be used to approximate fully turbulent flow by applying known as the Panhandle B Equation and is only slightly

17-6
 compensation for discrepancies through the use of adjustment
FIG. 17-5
factors, usually termed “efficiencies.” These efficiencies are
Deviation Factors8 frequently found in practice by determining the constant re-
quired to cause predicted gas equation behavior to agree with
flow data. As a result, the values of these factors are specific
to particular gas flow equations and field conditions and, un-
der many circumstances, vary with flow rate in a fashion that
obscures the real nature of flow behavior in the pipe.
The Reynolds number dependent equations, such as the
Panhandle equations, utilize a friction factor expression which
yields an approximation to partially turbulent flow behavior
in the case of the Panhandle A equation, and an approximation
to fully turbulent behavior in the case of the Panhandle B.
These equations suffer from the substitution of a fixed gas
viscosity value into the Reynolds number expression, which,
in turn, substituted into the flow equation, results in an ex-
pression with a preconditioned bias.
Regardless of the merits of various gas flow equations, past
practices may dictate the use of a particular equation to main-
tain continuity of comparative capacities through application
of consistent operating policy. A summary of comparisons be-
tween transmission factors used in the above gas equations
are shown in Fig. 17-7.
Reference should be made to “Steady Flow in Gas Pipe-
lines”6, published by American Gas Association, for a complete
analysis of steady flow in gas pipelines.
Low Pressure Gas Flow
Gas gathering often involves operating pressures below 100
psi. Some systems flow under vacuum conditions. For these
low pressure conditions, equations have been developed that
give a better fit than the Weymouth or Panhandle equations.
Two such formulas are:
The Oliphant Formula9 for gas flow between vacuum and
100 psi:
Note: Refer to Section 23 for more accurate compressibility factors.  d3   14.4  Tb 
Q = 42 (24) d2.5 +  
Reynolds number dependent. Therefore, it more nearly ap-  30  Pb   520 
proximates fully turbulent flow behavior. The transmission 1⁄ 2
factor used here is:  0.6   520   P21 − P22
     Eq 17-28
 S   T   Lm 
0.01961
 QS
1/ff = 16.70 
√  = 16.49 (Re)0.01961 Eq 17-26 The Spitzglass Formula for gas flow below 1 psig at 60°F:
 d  1⁄ 2
Substituting Eq 17-23 for √

1/ff in the general energy equa-  27.69 (P1 − P2) d5 
tion (Eq 17-15), the Panhandle B Equation becomes: Q = (24) (3550)   Eq 17-29
  3.6 
1.02 0.51  SL 1 + + 0.03 d
 Tb   P21 − P22    d 
Q = 737   E  0.961  d
2.53
Eq 17-27
P
 b  S L m Tavg Zavg  Plant Piping Gas Flow
The equation can be adjusted through the use of an effi- For estimating pressure drop in short runs of gas piping,
ciency term that makes it applicable across a relatively limited such as within plant or battery limits, a simplified formula for
range of Reynolds numbers. Other than this, however, there compressible fluids is accurate for fully turbulent flow, assum-
are no means for adjustment of the equation to correct it for ing the pressure drop through the line is not a significant frac-
variations in pipe surface. Adjusted to an average flowing tion of the total pressure (i.e. no more than 10%).
Reynolds number, the equation will predict low flow rates at
low Reynolds numbers, and high flow rates at high Reynolds The following method is a simplification of the Darcy for-
numbers, as compared to a fully turbulent flow equation. Ef- mula, which eliminates calculation of fm, the Moody friction
ficiencies based on the Panhandle B equation decrease with factor. This simplification was checked over a wide range of
increasing flow rate for fully turbulent flow. The efficiency fac- flows and densities for pressure drops of 0.25 to 1.5 psi/100 ft.
tor, E, used in the Panhandle B equation generally varies be- Density was varied over a range of 100 to 1; flows varied over
tween about 0.88 and 0.94. a range of 75 to 1. Pressure variation was from atmospheric to
1000 psia. The error from using the simplified approach as
Conclusions — The successful application of these trans- compared to the actual friction factor calculated in the Darcy
mission line flow equations in the past has largely involved formula was from zero to 5%, with the simplified approach

17-7
 FIG. 17-6a
Gas Flow Based On Weymouth Formula

17-8
 FIG. 17-6b
Gas Flow Based On Weymouth Formula

17-9
 FIG. 17-7
Comparison of Gas Equation Transmission Factors for Nominal 20 Inch Pipe

giving consistently lower calculated pressure drop for a given perature is 60°F and pressure is 750 psia. The compressibility
flow. factor is 0.905 (from Fig. 23-4).
The Darcy formula can be written in the simple form: Solution Steps

W2  0.000336 fm  16.042 (750)

∆P100 = ρ = = 2.38 lb /ft3
ρ   Eq 17-30 10.73 (460 + 60) (0.905)
d5 
C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 22.5
336,000 fm
Simplifying, C1 = W 2 (10−9), and C2 = , then C2 from Fig. 17-9 is 0.0447
d5
C1 C2 C1C2 22.5 (0.0447)
∆P100 = Eq 17-31 ∆P100 = =
ρ ρ 2.38

(∆P100) ρ = 0.423 psi/100 ft using Eq 17−31

C1 = = discharge factor from chart, Fig. 17-8
C2 Example 17-2 — Calculate the required line size (of Sched-
ule 40 pipe) to give ∆P100 = 1 psi or less when flowing 75,000
(∆P100) ρ lb/hr of methane at 400 psia and 100°F. The compressibility
C2 = = size factor Fig. 17-9
C1 factor is 0.96 (from Fig. 23-6).
Solution Steps
C2 incorporates the friction factor, assuming clean steel. Us-
ing this simplified approach, new lines can be sized by setting 16.062 (400)
the desired ∆P100 and solving for C2 with a given flow. For a ρ = = 1.11 lb/ft3
10.73 (460 + 100) (0.96)
given flow and pipe size, ∆P100 can be solved directly.
C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 5.6
Example 17-1 — Calculate the pressure drop in a 10-in., (∆P100) ρ 1 (1.11)
Schedule 40 pipe for a flow of 150,000 lb/hr of methane. Tem- C2 = = = 0.20
C1 5.6

17-10
 FIG. 17-8 Water — A graph showing pressure drop for water per 100
5 feet as a function of flow rate in gallons per minute and pipe
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids
Values of C1 size is shown in Fig. 17-10. These data are based on the Hazen
and Williams empirical formula10 using a “C” constant of 100
which is commonly used for design purposes in welded and
seamless steel pipe.
Hazen and Williams formula for flow of water:
0.54
 P1 − P2 
q = 0.442 d 2.63
C  Eq 17-33
 L 
Where:
C = 140 for new steel pipe
C = 130 for new cast iron pipe
C = 100 is often used for design purposes to account for
pipe fouling, etc.
Hydrocarbon — A graph showing pressure drop for hy-
drocarbons per 100 feet as a function of flow rate in gallons
per minute and pipe size is shown in Fig. 17-11. This graph
assumes a specific gravity of 1.0 (water). To correct for differ-
ent liquid densities, the value read from Fig. 17-11 must be
multiplied by the actual specific gravity to obtain the correct
pressure loss.
Steam Flow
Fig. 17-12 contains a graphical representation of Fritzsche’s
formula11 for calculating pressure drop in steam lines.
Fritzsche’s formula and instructions for the chart usage are
given in Fig. 17-12.
The Babcock formula5 for steam flow is:
 d + 3.6 W2 L
∆Pf = 3.63 (10−8)  6  Eq 17-34
 d  ρ
Fire Stream Flow
Fig. 17-13 is a table permitting rapid computation of the
behavior of various sized fire nozzles. The table also includes
the estimated pressure drop in 100 feet of 21⁄2 inch diameter
fire hose.

TWO PHASE FLOW

From Fig. 17-9 the smallest size of Schedule 40 pipe with C2 Two-phase flow presents several design and operational dif-
less than 0.20 is 8-in. pipe. For 8 in. Sch 40 pipe, C2 is 0.146. ficulties not present in single phase liquid or vapor flow. Fric-
The actual pressure drop can then be calculated as: tional pressure drops are much harder to calculate. For
cross-country pipelines, a terrain profile is needed to calculate
5.6 (0.146)
∆P100 = = 0.74 psi/100 ft elevation pressure drops. Commercial software is available to
1.11 simulate these complex two-phase flow situations.
using Eq 17-31 for the above flow conditions. At the downstream end of a pipeline, it is frequently neces-
sary to separate the liquid and vapor phases in a separator.
Liquid Flow The presence of liquid slugs complicates this process, and a
slug catcher may be required.
For the calculation of pressure drop in liquid lines, the
Darcy-Weisbach method, Eq 17-6, can be used. The calculation Flow Regime Determination
is simplified for liquid flows since the density can reasonably Several empirical flow regime maps have been presented
be assumed to be a constant. As a result, the Darcy-Weisbach that determine vapor-liquid flow patterns as a function of fluid
calculation can be applied to a long run of pipe, rather than properties and flow rates. Diagrams of these flow patterns are
segmentally as dictated by the variable density in gas flow. In shown in Fig. 17-14. One map commonly used was developed
addition, several graphical aids are available for pressure drop by Gregory, Aziz, and Mandhane12 for horizontal flow. This
calculation. Elevation pressure drops must be calculated sepa- map appears as Fig. 17-15. The coordinates of the map are:
rately using Eq 17-32. These elevation pressure gains or losses
are added algebraically to the frictional pressure drops. VsL = superficial liquid velocity
∆Pe = (0.00694) ρL Ze Eq 17-32 = QL/A Eq 17-35

17-11
 FIG. 17-9
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids5
Values of C2

Nominal Nominal Nominal

Schedule Value Schedule Value Schedule Value
pipe size pipe size pipe size
number of C2 number of C2 number of C2
in. in. in.
1⁄ 40 s 7 920 000. 8 20 0.133 18 10 0.002 47
8
80 x 26 200 000. 30 0.135 20 0.002 56
1⁄ 40 s 1 590 000. 40 s 0.146 ... s 0.002 66
4
80 x 4 290 000. 60 0.163 30 0.002 76
3⁄ 40 s 319 000. 80 x 0.185 ... x 0.002 87
8
80 x 718 000. 100 0.211 40 0.002 98
1⁄ 40 s 93 500. 120 0.252 60 0.003 35
2
80 x 186 100. 140 0.289 80 0.003 76
160 430 000. ... xx 0.317 100 0.004 35
... xx 11 180 000. 160 0.333 120 0.005 04
3⁄ 40 s 21 200. 10 20 0.039 7 140 0.005 73
4
80 x 36 900. 30 0.042 1 160 0.006 69
160 100 100. 40 s 0.044 7 20 10 0.001 41
... xx 627 000. 60 x 0.051 4 20 s 0.001 50
1 40 s 5 950. 80 0.056 9 30 x 0.001 61
80 x 9 640. 100 0.066 1 40 0.001 69
160 22 500. 120 0.075 3 60 0.001 91
... xx 114 100. 140 0.090 5 80 0.002 17
11⁄4 40 s 1 408. 160 0.105 2 100 0.002 51
80 x 2 110. 12 20 0.015 7 120 0.002 87
160 3 490 30 0.016 8 140 0.003 35
... xx 13 640. ... s 0.017 5 160 0.003 85
11⁄2 40 s 627. 40 0.018 0 24 10 0.000 534
80 x 904. ... x 0.019 5 20 s 0.000 565
160 1 656. 60 0.020 6 ... x 0.000 597
... xx 4 630. 30 0.000 614
80 0.023 1
2 40 s 169. 40 0.000 651
100 0.026 7
80 x 236. 60 0.000 741
120 0.031 0
160 488.
140 0.035 0 80 0.000 835
... xx 899.
160 0.042 3 100 0.000 972
21⁄2 40 s 66.7
14 10 0.009 49 120 0.001 119
80 x 91.8 20 0.009 96 140 0.001 274
160 146.3 30 s 0.010 46 160 0.001 478
... xx 380.0 40 0.010 99 30 10 0.0001681
3 40 s 21.4 ... x 0.011 55 ... s 0.0001719
80 x 28.7 60 0.012 44 20 xs 0.0001797
160 48.3 30 0.0001879
... xx 96.6 80 0.014 16
100 0.016 57 36 10 0.0000642
31⁄2 40 s 10.0 ... s 0.0000654
120 0.018 98
80 x 13.2 20 xs 0.0000678
140 0.021 8
4 40 s 5.17 30 0.0000704
160 0.025 2
80 x 6.75 40 0.0000731
16 10 0.004 63
120 8.94
20 0.004 83 Note: The letters s, x, and xx in the col-
160 11.80 umns of Schedule Numbers indicate
30 s 0.005 04
... xx 18.59 Standard, Extra Strong, and Double Extra
40 x 0.005 49
5 40 s 1.59 Strong pipe respectively.
60 0.006 12
80 x 2.04
120 2.69 80 0.007 00
160 3.59 100 0.008 04
... xx 4.93 120 0.009 26
6 40 s 0.610 140 0.010 99
80 x 0.798 160 0.012 44
120 1.015
160 1.376
... xx 1.861

17-12
 FIG. 17-10
Pressure Drop for Flowing Water

17-13
 FIG. 17-11
Pressure Drop for Hydrocarbon Liquids in Smooth Pipe

Vsg = superficial gas velocity cause dispersed flow. A flow regime map generated by Taitel
and Dukler13 contains explicit inclination effects and should
= Qg/A Eq 17-36 be used for inclined pipes. This latter method also contains
Mandhane proposed a fluid property correction to the super- explicit pipe diameter effects but lacks any way of accounting
ficial velocities, but concluded that the fluid property effects for surface tension.
are insignificant compared to the errors in the empirical map. For vertical flow, the stratified flow regime cannot exist as
The map reports the flow regimes: stratified, wavy, annular there is no preferred direction for the liquid to settle. An em-
mist, bubble, slug, and dispersed. Care should be taken in the pirical flow regime map developed by Aziz14 for vertical up-
interpretation of these flow maps as the regime boundaries ward flow is shown in Fig. 17-16. The coordinates for this flow
are strongly affected by pipe inclination. In particular, hori- map are the same as for the Mandhane map in Fig. 17-15 ex-
zontal flow regime maps must not be used for vertical flow, and cept that fluid property corrections are used. The coordinates
vertical flow regime maps must not be used for horizontal flow. used in the Aziz vertical map are:
The Mandhane map given in Fig. 17-15 was developed for hori-
zontal lines flowing air and water at near atmospheric pres- Nx = Vsg XA Eq 17-37
sure. Inclinations in the range of 0.1-1.0 degrees can cause
substantial regime boundary movement. In addition, flow re- Ny = VsL YA Eq 17-38
gime boundary adjustment has been observed due to fluid 0.333
pressure, pipe diameter, and surface tension.13,22 The gas den-  ρg 
XA =   YA Eq 17-39
sity increase caused by high pressure acts to move the slug-  ρa
mist boundary to lower superficial gas velocities, while
0.25
increased pipe diameter acts to increase the stratified wavy  ρLσwa
flow regime at the expense of the slug flow regime. In addition, YA =   Eq 17-40
foamy fluids having a high surface tension have been observed  ρwσ 
to flow in the dispersed flow regime even though Mandhane For pipe inclinations greater than 10-20 degrees, flow re-
would have predicted superficial liquid velocities too low to gime patterns resemble those of vertical flow more than those

17-14
 FIG. 17-12
Pressure Drop in Steam Pipes by Fritzsche’s Formula11

17-15
 FIG. 17-13
Table of Effective Fire Streams

Smooth nozzles, size 3⁄ " 7⁄ " 1"

4 8

Pressure at hydrants, psi. 32 43 54 65 75 85 34 46 57 69 80 91 37 50 62 75 87 100

Pressure at nozzle, psi 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pres. lost in 100 ft. 21⁄2 in. hose psi 2 3 4 5 5 6 4 6 7 9 10 11 7 10 12 15 17 20
Vertical height, ft. 48 60 67 72 76 79 49 62 71 77 81 85 51 64 73 79 85 89
Horizontal distance, ft 37 44 50 54 58 60 42 49 55 61 66 70 47 55 61 67 72 76
Gal discharge/ min. 90 104 116 127 137 147 123 142 159 174 188 201 161 186 208 228 246 263
Smooth nozzles, size 11⁄8" 11⁄4" 13⁄8"
Pressure at hydrants, psi 42 56 70 84 98 112 49 65 81 97 113 129 58 77 95 116 135 154
Pressure at nozzle, psi 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pres. lost in 100 ft 21⁄2 in hose psi 12 16 20 24 28 30 19 25 31 37 43 49 28 37 36 56 65 74
Vertical height, ft 52 65 75 83 88 92 53 67 77 85 91 95 55 69 79 87 92 97
Horizontal distance, ft 50 59 66 72 77 81 54 63 70 76 81 85 56 66 73 79 84 88
Gal discharge/min 206 238 266 291 314 336 256 296 331 363 392 419 315 363 406 445 480 514

Using 100 ft of 21⁄2 in. ordinary best quality rubber lined hose between nozzle and hydrant or pump.

The vertical and horizontal distance in above table are "effective" streams. The "effective stream" is one that has not broken up into a spray
and which will project three fourths of the water through a circle 10 in. in diameter, at the distance indicated.
The bulk of the stream and extreme drops will carry a greater distance, but the stream is spread out too much to penetrate a hot fire and
reach the burning materials before evaporation. The vertical height "h" in feet, which the bulk of the stream will carry, may be computed
V2
by formula h = 0.91
2g
0.321 × gpm
The gallons/minute discharge in the above table check approximately with the formula: V = C√

2 gH =
A
VA
then gpm = V = Velocity in feet per second g = Acceleration due to gravity, = 32.16 ft/sec2
0.321
A = Area of nozzle, in square inches C = Coefficient for smooth nozzles = 0.98 H = Head in feet = pressure x 2.31

Reference: Fire Protection Handbook, 14th Edition, 1976, National Fire Protection Association

FIG. 17-14 FIG. 17-15

Two Phase Flow Regimes Mandhane et al. Horizontal Flow Regime Map12

Slug
Bubble

Annular Mist

Stratified Wave

17-16
 FIG. 17-16 Nx = (1.43) (3.91) = 5.60 ft/sec using Eq 17-37
Aziz et al. Vertical Up-Flow Regime Map14 Ny = (0.49) (1.32) = 0.64 ft/sec using Eq 17-38
Fig. 17-16 shows that this flow is in the slug flow regime.
Pressure Drop Calculation
Calculation of pressure drop in two-phase flow lends itself
better to computer calculation than to hand calculation. Sev-
eral two-phase pressure drop correlations are available for
both horizontal and vertical flows.15,16,17 Due to the complexity
of two-phase flow, uncertainties associated with pressure drop
calculations are much greater than uncertainties in single-
phase pressure drop calculations. As a result, errors in calcu-
lated two-phase pressure drops in the order of plus or minus
twenty percent may normally be anticipated, especially in cir-
cumstances where fluid velocities are unusually high or low,
where terrain is rugged, or where fluid properties are inade-
quately known. In addition, different two-phase flow correla-
tions may give significantly different pressure drops. In order
to evaluate these differences, several correlations should be
used. A method suggested by the American Gas Association18
can serve as a basis for hand calculation generated by Dukler19
and an elevation pressure drop correlation by Flanigan.20
Frictional Component18 — Using the Dukler frictional
pressure drop calculation method, the frictional pressure drop
is given by the equation:
fn ftpr ρk V2m Lm
∆Pf = Eq 17-41
of horizontal flow, and the Aziz vertical map should be used. (0.14623)d
For vertical downward flow, the flow patterns can be more com- where
plicated. A generally accepted vertical down-flow map is not ρL λ2 ρg (1 − λ)2
available. ρk = + Eq 17-42
HLd (1 − HLd)
Although the designer frequently does not have the choice,
and
avoidance of the slug flow regime in horizontal flow and the
slug and froth flow regimes in vertical flow is desirable. Slug QL
λ = Eq 17-43
flow introduces a flow rate and pressure intermittency that QL + Qg
may be troublesome to process control. In some cases, slug flow
The single phase friction factor, fn, can be obtained from the
may be avoided by the choice of smaller pipe sizes. Of course,
correlation:19
frictional pressure drop may be increased by use of this
smaller pipe. In vertical upflow, oversizing the pipe may result fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (Rey)−0.32 Eq 17-44
in a bubble flow regime, and a large liquid inventory. This liq- The mixture Reynolds number, Rey, is calculated according
uid inventory may cause excessive hydrostatic presure drops. to the equation:
Example 17-3 — A vapor-liquid mixture is flowing verti- (124.0) ρk Vm d
cally upward in a pipe having an inside diameter of 8.0 inches. Rey = Eq 17-45
µn
The fluid is a hydrocarbon liquid-hydrocarbon vapor mixture.
The liquid density is 52 lb/ft3 and the vapor density is 2.0 lb/ Calculation of this Reynolds number requires determina-
ft3. The interfacial surface tension is 20 dynes/cm. The liquid tion of mixture velocity, Vm, and mixture viscosity, µn. These
volumetric flow rate is 0.17 ft3/sec and the vapor flow rate is quantities can be determined according to:
0.5 ft3/sec measured at acutal conditions. What flow regime is Vm = VsL + Vsg Eq 17-46
to be expected?
µn = µL λ + µg (1 − λ) Eq 17-47
Solution Steps
The two-phase friction factor ratio, ftpr, representing a two-
0.25 phase frictional “efficiency” can be determined by reference to
 (52.0) (72.4) 
YA =   = 1.32 using Eq 17-40 Fig. 17-17 or by the equation:
 (62.4 (20)   y 
ftpr = 1 +  4
 (2.0) 
0.333
 1.281 − 0.478y + 0.444y 2
− 0.094y3
+ 0.00843y 
XA =   (1.32) = 3.91 using Eq 17-39 Eq 17-48
 0.0764
where y = −ln(λ).
0.5
Vsg = = 1.43 ft/sec using Eq 17-36 The remaining quantity to be calculated in the Dukler
(π/4) (8/12)2
scheme is an estimate of the liquid holdup, HLd. This holdup
can be estimated using Fig. 17-18. This figure gives liquid hold-
0.17
VsL = = 0.49 ft/sec using Eq 17-35 up as a function of λ and Rey. Since Rey is itself a function of
(π/4) (8/12)2

17-17
liquid holdup, the calculation is, in general, iterative. For most ventory in the pipe, IL, the pipe internal volume is multiplied
calculations, however, the Rey line can be used for a first esti- by this holdup fraction.
mate.
IL = (28.80) HLed2Lm Eq 17-57
Elevation Component — The elevation component of Since holdup fractions may change along the length of the
pressure drop can be found using the Flanigan method. In this pipe, a segmental calculation is more accurate.
method, the elevation component is calculated using the equa-
tion: Example 17-4 — A pipeline segment with a 6-inch inside
ρL HLf diameter, 0.75 miles long, transports a mixture of gas and oil.
∆Pe = Σ Ze Eq 17-49 The pipeline has a gradual upward slope and rises 100 feet
144 over the 0.75 mile length. The inlet pressure of the pipeline is
where HLf is determined from Fig. 17-19 or calculated accord- 400 psia, liquid viscosity is 20 cp, the vapor viscosity is 0.015
ing to the formula: cp, and the interfacial surface tension is 15 dynes/cm. The liq-
uid flow rate is 10 ft3/min and the vapor flow rate is 250 actual
1 ft3/min. The density of the liquid phase is 55 lb/ft3, and the
HLf = Eq 17-50
1 + 0.3264 (Vsg)1.006 density of the gas phase is 1.3 lb/ft3 at operating conditions.
What is the pressure at the downstream end of the line seg-
The term Ze is the vertical elevation rise of a hill. The rises ment, and what is the liquid inventory of the line?
are summed. No elevation drops are considered. This is tanta-
mount to ignoring any possible hydrostatic pressure recover- Solution Steps
ies in downhill sections of pipeline and may lead to a Calculate the flowing liquid volume fraction using Eq 17-43.
considerable error in the pressure drop analysis. 10
λ = = 0.038
Once the frictional component or pressure drop is found us- 250 + 10
ing the Dukler method, and the elevation component is found
Calculate the mixture viscosity, µn using Eq 17-47.
using the Flanigan method, the overall two-phase pressure
drop is found by summing the friction and elevation compo- µn = (20) (0.038) + (0.015) (1.0 − 0.038) = 0.774 cp
nents. For a first guess, assume HLd = λ and estimate ρk using
∆Pt = ∆Pe + ∆Pf Eq 17-51 Eq 17-42.
Since fluid properties and liquid holdups can change rapidly (55) (0.038)2 (1.3) (1.0 − 0.038)2
in a two-phase line, accuracy is improved if this AGA calcula- ρk = + = 3.341 lb/ft3
0.038 (1.0 − 0.038)
tion procedure is performed segmentally. The need for segmen-
tal calculations is one of the reasons why two-phase Calculate the superficial velocities and the mixture velocity.
calculations are best suited for computer calculation. 10.0
VsL = = 0.849 ft/sec using Eq 17-35
Liquid Holdup — The liquid holdup correlation given in (π/4) (6/12)2 (60)
Fig. 17-18 is intended only for use in the Dukler friction pres-
sure drop calculation. A correlation by Eaton et al.21 is better 250
Vsg = = 21.22 ft/sec using Eq 17-36
suited for liquid holdup determination in liquid inventory cal- (π/4) (6/12)2 (60)
culations.
Vm = 0.849 + 21.22 = 22.07 ft/sec using Eq 17-46
The Eaton21 holdup correlation is shown in Fig. 17-20. In
this figure, the holdup fraction, HLe, is plotted directly as a Calculate an estimate of the mixture Reynolds number, Rey,
function of the dimensionless group, NE. This dimensionless using Eq 17-45
group is of the form: (124.0) (3.341) (22.07) (6.0)
Rey = = 70,878
 Pavg 
0.05
(0.774)
1.84 (NLv)0.575   (NL)
0.1

 Pb  From Fig. 17-18, determine a better estimate for the holdup

Ne = Eq 17-52
Ngv (Nd)0.0277 fraction HLd using λ = 0.038, Rey = 70,878
where HLd = 0.12

 ρL
0.25 Using this improved HLd, recalculate ρk using Eq 17-42
NLv = 1.938 VsL   Eq 17-53
(55) (0.038)2 (1.3) (1.0 − 0.038)2
σ ρk = + = 2.029 lb/ft3
0.25 (0.12) 1.0 − 0.12
 ρL 
Ngv = 1.938Vsg   Eq 17-54 Using this improved ρk recalculate Rey using Eq 17-45
σ (124.0 ) (2.029 ) (22.07) (6.0)
0.50 Rey = = 43,044
 ρL  (0.774)
Nd = 10.073 d   Eq 17-55
σ From Fig. 17-18 with λ = 0.038 and Rey = 43,044, HLd = 0.16.
0.25
Another iteration using HLd = 0.16 indicates Rey = 40,923 and
 1  HLd = 0.16.
NL = 0.15726 µL  3 Eq 17-56
 ρLσ  Calculate the single phase friction factor with Rey = 40,923,
The Eaton correlation has been found reasonably accurate using Eq 17-44
by several investigators, particularly for low holdup flows. fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (40,923)-0.32 = 0.0223
The liquid holdup fraction, HLe, is the fraction of the flow Determine the two-phase friction factor, ftpr, from Fig. 17-17
area of the pipe occupied by liquid. To calculate the liquid in- using λ= 0.038

17-18
 FIG. 17-17
Two-Phase Friction Factor Ratio19

FIG. 17-18
Liquid Holdup Correlation19

17-19
 FIG. 17-19
Flanigan Liquid Holdup Correlation20

ftpr = 2.59 (0.0223) (2.59) (1.929) (22.07)2 (0.75)

∆Pf = = 46.39 psi
(0.14623) (6.0)
Now for λ = 0.038, HLd = 0.16 then ρk= 1.929 using Eq 17-42.
Find HLf from Fig. 17-19 using Vsg = 21.22 ft/sec
Calculate the frictional component of pressure drop ∆Pf us- HLf = 0.13
ing Eq 17-41 Determine the elevation component of pressure drop, ∆Pe,
using Eq 17-49
FIG. 17-20
(55) (0.13) (100)
Eaton Liquid Holdup Correlation21 ∆Pe = = 4.97 psi
(144)
Find the total pressure drop, ∆Pt, using Eq 17-51
∆Pt = 46.39 + 4.97 = 51.36 psi
Find the segment discharge pressure
P2 = 400 – 51.36 = 348.64 psia
The pipeline segment has a discharge pressure of 348.64
psia.
To calculate the liquid inventory, the liquid holdup fraction
from Eaton’s correlation must be found. First determine the
nondimensional parameters:
NLv = (1.938) (0.849) (55/15)0.25 = 2.277 using Eq 17-53

Ngv = (1.938) (21.22) (55/15)0.25 = 56.91 using Eq 17-54

Nd = (10.073) (6.0) (55/15)0.5 = 115.73 using Eq 17-55

0.25
 1 
NL = (0.15726) (20.0) 3
= 0.152
 (55) (15) 
using Eq 17-56
Determine Eaton’s nondimensional abscissa, NE, using
Eq 17-52
(1.84) (2.277)0.575 (400/14.73)0.05 (0.152)0.1
NE = = 0.0444
(56.91) (115.73)0.0277
From Fig. 17-20, read the holdup fraction, HLe

17-20
 FIG. 17-21 FIG. 17-22
Multiple Pipe Slug Catcher Example Line Drip

GRADE

GAS FLOW

DRIP
BELOW
LINE
DRIP LIQUID
DRIP
VESSEL
DRIP
VALVE NO

HLe = 0.14 inventory in the pipeline decreases, and the excess liquid
Note that this estimate is close to the HLf predicted in forms a slug or series of slugs. Finally, pigging can cause very
Fig. 17-19 for elevation pressure drop determination. It also large liquid slugs as the entire liquid inventory of the line is
coincides closely with the value of 0.16 from Fig. 17-18. swept ahead of the pig. Of the four mechanisms described,
wave growth normally produces the shortest slugs, followed in
Calculate the pipeline segment liquid inventory from Eq 17- 57 length by terrain generated slugs. Methods for calculating
IL = (28.80) (0.14) (6.0)2 (0.75) = 108.86 ft3 wave induced slugs were described by Greskovich and
Shrier22, and by Brill et al.23 A preliminary scheme for calcu-
The pipeline segment contains 108.86 cubic feet of liquid at lating terrain generated slugs was reported by Schmidt.24
any instant. Analytical methods for determining inlet flow rate generated
Liquid Slugging slugs were given by Cunliffe,25 and a method of analyzing pig-
ging dynamics was given by McDonald and Baker.26
Purpose of Separators — The slug flow regime is fre-
quently encountered for pipe sizes and flow rates used in proc- Slug Catchers — Slug catchers are devices at the down-
ess and transmission piping. Liquid slugging introduces an stream end or other intermediate points of a pipeline to absorb
additional design and operational difficulty as liquid and va- the fluctuating liquid inlet flow rates through liquid level fluc-
por must generally be separated at the downstream end of the tuation. Slug catchers may be either a vessel or constructed of
two-phase flow line. The downstream separator serves both as pipe. All size specifications discussed in Section 7 to provide
a liquid-vapor disengaging device and as a surge vessel to ab- residence time for vapor-liquid disengagement also apply to
sorb the fluctuating liquid flow rates caused by slugging. In vessels used as slug catchers. In addition, sufficient volume
order to size the separator or slug catcher, the length of the must be provided for liquid level fluctuation. Particularly for
incoming slugs must be determined. Slug length calculation high pressure service, vessel separators may require very
methods are not well developed, and there is large uncertainty thick walls.
in slug length determination.
In order to avoid thick wall vessels, slug catchers are fre-
Mechanisms of Slug Generation — Liquid slug lengths quently made of pipe. Lengths of line pipe tens or hundreds of
are difficult to determine in part because there are at least feet long are used as long, slender horizontal separators. The
four identifiable mechanisms for liquid slug generation. Slugs pipe is generally inclined from one to ten degrees and banks
can form as the result of wave formation at the liquid-gas in- of these slightly inclined pipes are frequently manifolded to-
terface in a stratified flow. When the liquid waves grow large gether. Pipe type slug catchers are frequently less expensive
enough to bridge the entire pipe diameter, the stratified flow than vessel type slug catchers of the same capacity due to thin-
pattern breaks down and a slug flow is formed. ner wall requirements of smaller diameter pipe. The manifold
Slugs can also form due to terrain effects. Liquid collects at nature of multiple pipe slug catchers also makes possible the
a sag in the pipeline and blocks the gas flow. The pressure in later addition of additional capacity by laying more parallel
this blocked gas rises until it blows the accumulated liquid in pipes. A schematic of a multiple pipe (harp) slug catcher ap-
the sag out as a slug. Changes in pipeline inlet flow rate can pears in Fig. 17-21. Different pipe inclinations and different
also cause slugs. When the inlet flow rate increases, the liquid manifolding arrangements are favored by different designers.

17-21
 An example of a line drip catcher is shown in Fig. 17-22. A pig may become stuck in the line and require an expensive
drip vessel is connected to the incoming pipeline and often laid shutdown for location and removal.
beneath it. A flow line from the drip vessel is used to blow the
liquids out to a storage or surge vessel as they accumulate.
Pigging — Pipelines are pigged for several reasons. If PIPE AND FLANGE DATA
water is present in the line, it must be removed periodically in
order to minimize corrosion. This water accumulates in sags
in the pipeline, and these low spots are particularly suscepti- The Petroleum Refinery Piping Code (ANSI B31.3) is used
ble to corrosion. Pipelines are also pigged to improve pressure to determine the allowable pressure limits for piping inside
drop-flow rate performance. Water or hydrocarbon liquids that refineries and other processing facilities. Refer to Fig. 17-23
settle in sags in the pipeline constitute partial blockages that for the calculation method.
increase pressure drop. Pigging can remove these liquids and
improve pipeline efficiency. Pigging can also be used as a FIG. 17-24
means of limiting the required slug catcher size. By pigging at
frequent intervals, liquid inventory buildup in a pipeline can Working Pressures Transmission Lines
be reduced, and the maximum slug size can be limited. The
required downstream slug catcher size must take into account
To determine allowable internal working pressures for pip-
pigging frequency.
ing outside of refineries and other processing facilities in
Operational hazards are associated with pigging. The very accordance with ANSI B31.8-1999, “Code of Pressure Pip-
large slugs swept ahead of the pig may overwhelm inade- ing, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping,” use the
quately sized downstream facilities. Pigs may also occasion- following:
ally be destroyed in the pipeline and the resulting debris may 2 S′′ t
damage downstream fittings or equipment. Even worse, the Pi = (F′′) (E′′) (T′′)
do
FIG. 17-23 Where
Working Pressures Refinery Piping Pi = Design pressure, psig
S′′ = Specified minimum yield strength, psi
To determine allowable internal working pressure for do = Nominal outside diameter, in.
straight sections of pipe in accordance with ANSI B31.3, t = Nominal wall thickness, in.
“Code for Pressure Piping, Petroleum Refinery Piping”, use F′′ = Construction type design factor,
the following: Table 841.114A and Par. 840.2 (see note)
tm = t + c Location Class F′′
Pido 2 tS′E′ 1 Div 1 .80
t = or Pi =
2(S′E′ + PiY′) do − 2 tY′ Div 2 .72
2 .60
do Pi
For t > or > 0.385 calculation of pressure design 3 .50
6 S′ E′
4 .40
thickness requires special consideration.
where: Complete details are covered in Par. 841.
tm = minimum required thickness, satisfying E′′ = Longitudinal joint factor, Table 841.115A
requirements for pressure, and mechanical, Normally a factor of 1.0 is used for seamless
corrosion, and erosion allowances, inches. and welded pipe except for the following:
Selected thickness shall be no less than tm Fusion Welded A 134 and A 139 0.80
plus the manufacturer’s negative tolerance. Spiral Welded A 211 0.80
The typical negative tolerance is 12.5%.
Furnace Butt Welded ASTM-A53, API-5L 0.60
t = pressure design thickness, in.
c = the sum of the mechanical allowances T′′ = Temperature derating factor, Table 841.116A
(thread depth and groove depth), corrosion, Temp, °F Factor T′′
and erosion allowances, in.
250 or less 1.000
Pi = internal design pressure, psig.
300 0.967
do = outside diameter of pipe, in.
350 0.933
S′ = allowable stresses, psi.
E′ = longitudinal weld joint factor: 400 0.900
Seamless = 1.000, ERW = 0.85 450 0.867
Y′ = coefficient having values for ferritic steels
For intermediate temperatures, interpolate for
as follows: 0.4 up to and including 900°F
derating factor.
0.5 for 950°F
Note: Factor reflecting location of line, proximity to roads,
0.7 for 1,000°F and above
public or private land, etc.

17-22
 FIG. 17-25
Representative Allowable Stresses in Tension for Materials
(Developed from ASME B31.3, 2002, Tables A-1, A-1B)

17-23
 FIG. 17-26
Design Properties and Allowable Working Pressures for Piping
ASTM A106, grade B seamless pipe—Petroleum Refinery Piping Code
for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.3-2002—Corrosion allowance = 0.05 inch

Nom Allowable working pressures for temperatures (in °F) not to exceed.
Weight of Wall ID Flow
pipe Sch. O.D.
pipe thk. (d) area –20 to
size No. in. 200 300 400 500 600 700
lb./ft. in. in. sq ft 100
in.

1/2 S40 .851 .840 .109 .622 .00211 2258 2258 2258 2258 2134 1953 1863
3/4 S40 1.131 1.050 .113 .824 .00371 1933 1933 1933 1933 1827 1672 1595
X80 1.474 .154 .742 .00300 3451 3451 3451 3451 3261 2985 2847
1 S40 1.679 1.315 .133 1.049 .00600 2103 2103 2103 2103 1988 1819 1735
X80 2.172 .179 .957 .00499 3468 3468 3468 3468 3277 3000 2861
160 2.844 .250 .815 .00362 5720 5720 5720 5720 5405 4948 4719
XX 3.659 .358 .599 .00196 9534 9534 9534 9534 9010 8247 7866
1-1/2 S40 2.718 1.900 .145 1.610 .01414 1672 1672 1672 1672 1580 1446 1379
X80 3.632 .200 1.500 .01225 2777 2777 2777 2777 2625 2402 2291
160 4.866 .281 1.338 .00976 4494 4494 4494 4494 4247 3887 3707
XX 6.409 .400 1.100 .00660 7228 7228 7228 7228 6831 6253 5963
2 S40 3.653 2.375 .154 2.067 .02330 1469 1469 1469 1469 1388 1270 1212
X80 5.022 .218 1.939 .02050 2488 2488 2488 2488 2351 2152 2053
160 7.445 .343 1.687 .01556 4600 4600 4600 4600 4347 3979 3795
XX 9.030 .436 1.503 .01232 6284 6284 6284 6284 5939 5436 5185
3 S40 7.58 3.500 .216 3.068 .05130 1640 1640 1640 1640 1550 1419 1353
X80 10.25 .300 2.900 .04587 2552 2552 2552 2552 2412 2207 2105
160 14.33 .438 2.624 .03755 4122 4122 4122 4122 3895 3566 3401
XX 18.58 .600 2.300 .02885 6089 6089 6089 6089 5754 5267 5024
4 S40 10.79 4.500 .237 4.026 .08840 1439 1439 1439 1439 1360 1244 1187
X80 14.99 .337 3.826 .07986 2275 2275 2275 2275 2150 1968 1877
160 22.51 .531 3.438 .06447 3978 3978 3978 3978 3760 3441 3282
XX 27.54 .674 3.152 .05419 5307 5307 5307 5307 5015 4590 4378
6 S40 18.98 6.625 .280 6.065 .2006 1205 1205 1205 1205 1139 1042 994
X80 28.58 .432 5.761 .1810 2062 2062 2062 2062 1948 1783 1701
160 45.30 .718 5.187 .1469 3753 3753 3753 3753 3546 3246 3097
XX 53.17 .864 4.897 .1308 4659 4659 4659 4659 4403 4030 3844
8 S40 28.56 8.625 .322 7.981 .3474 1098 1098 1098 1098 1037 950 906
X80 43.4 .500 7.625 .3171 1864 1864 1864 1864 1761 1612 1537
XX 72.4 .875 6.875 .2578 3554 3554 3554 3554 3359 3074 2932
160 74.7 .906 6.813 .2532 3699 3699 3699 3699 3496 3200 3052
10 S40 40.5 10.750 .365 10.020 .5475 1022 1022 1022 1022 966 884 843
X60 54.7 .500 9.750 .5185 1484 1484 1484 1484 1403 1284 1224
160 115.7 1.125 8.500 .3941 3736 3736 3736 3736 3531 3232 3082
12 S 49.6 12.750 .375 12.000 .7854 888 888 888 888 839 768 732
X 65.4 .500 11.750 .7528 1245 1245 1245 1245 1177 1077 1027
160 160.3 1.312 10.126 .5592 3699 3699 3699 3699 3496 3200 3052
14 10 36.7 14.000 .250 13.500 .9940 486 486 486 486 460 421 401
S30 54.6 .375 13.250 .9575 807 807 807 807 763 698 666
X 72.1 .500 13.000 .9211 1132 1132 1132 1132 1069 979 934
16 10 42.1 16.000 .250 15.500 1.310 425 425 425 425 402 368 351
S30 62.6 .375 15.250 1.268 705 705 705 705 666 609 581
S40 82.8 .500 15.000 1.227 987 987 987 987 933 854 815
18 10 47.4 18.000 .250 17.500 1.670 377 377 377 377 357 326 311
S 70.6 .375 17.250 1.622 625 625 625 625 591 541 516
X 93.5 .500 17.000 1.575 876 876 876 876 828 757 722
20 10 52.7 20.000 .250 19.500 2.074 339 339 339 339 321 293 280
S20 78.6 .375 19.250 2.021 562 562 562 562 531 486 464
X30 104.1 .500 19.000 1.969 787 787 787 787 743 680 649
24 10 63.4 24.000 .250 23.500 3.012 282 282 282 282 267 244 233
S20 94.6 .375 23.250 2.948 468 467 467 467 442 404 386
X 125.5 .500 23.000 2.883 660 654 654 654 618 565 539

Note: The above allowable working pressures are calculated from Fig. 17-23 using a reduction in tm to 87.5% of the wall thickness shown above to recognize mill
wall tolerance of 12.5%.

17-24
 FIG. 17-27
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.8-1999
Carbon Steel and High Yield Strength Pipe
(Values apply to A106, API 5L and API 5LX pipe having the same specified minimum yield strength as shown)

Allowable Working Pressures up to 250°F, in psig

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Wall
Pipe O.D. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
Thk.
Size
GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000
(STD) .154 3268 2723 2270 1816
2
2.375 .218 4626 3855 3213 2570
.125 1800 1500 1250 1000
.156 2246 1872 1560 1248
3.500 .188 2707 2256 1880 1504
3 (STD) .216 3110 2592 2160 1728
.250 3600 3000 2500 2000
.281 4046 3372 2810 2248
.300 4320 3600 3000 2400
.125 1400 1680 1840 1167 1400 1533 973 1167 1278 778 933 1022
.156 1747 2097 2296 1456 1747 1913 1214 1456 1595 971 1165 1276
.188 2105 2526 2767 1754 2105 2306 1462 1755 1922 1170 1404 1537
4.500 .219 2453 2943 3223 2044 2453 2686 1704 2044 2239 1363 1635 1791
4 (STD) .237 2654 3185 3488 2212 2654 2907 1844 2212 2423 1475 1770 1938
.250 2800 3360 3680 2333 2800 3067 1945 2333 2556 1556 1869 2044
.281 3147 3776 4136 2623 3147 3447 2186 2622 2873 1748 2098 2298
.312 3494 4193 4593 2912 3494 3827 2427 2912 3190 1941 2330 2552
.337 3774 4530 4961 3145 3775 4134 2621 3146 3445 2097 2516 2756
.156 1187 1424 1560 1763 989 1187 1300 1469 824 989 1083 1224 659 791 866 980
.188 1429 1716 1880 2124 1192 1430 1567 1770 993 1192 1306 1475 794 954 1044 1180
.219 1666 2000 2190 2475 1388 1666 1825 2063 1157 1389 1521 1719 926 1111 1216 1375
6 6.625 .250 1902 2282 2500 2826 1585 1902 2083 2355 1321 1585 1736 1963 1057 1268 1389 1570
(STD) .280 2130 2556 2799 3164 1775 2130 2333 2637 1479 1775 1944 2198 1183 1420 1555 1758
.312 2373 2848 3120 3527 1978 2374 2600 2933 1649 1978 2167 2449 1319 1582 1733 1959
.375 2853 3424 3750 4237 2377 2853 3125 3531 1981 2378 2604 2943 1585 1902 2083 2354
.432 3287 3943 4319 4883 2739 3286 3599 4069 2283 2738 3000 3391 1826 2191 2400 2713
.156 912 1094 1198 1354 760 912 998 1128 633 760 832 940 506 608 666 752
.188 1098 1318 1444 1632 915 1098 1203 1360 763 915 1003 1133 610 732 802 907
.203 1186 1424 1559 1762 989 1186 1299 1469 824 989 1083 1224 659 791 866 979
.219 1280 1535 1681 1901 1067 1280 1401 1584 889 1067 1168 1320 711 853 934 1056
.250 1461 1753 1920 2170 1217 1461 1600 1809 1014 1217 1333 1507 812 974 1067 1206
8 8.625 .277 1618 1942 2128 2405 1349 1618 1773 2004 1124 1349 1478 1670 899 1079 1182 1336
.312 1823 2189 2396 2709 1520 1823 1997 2258 1266 1520 1664 1881 1013 1216 1331 1505
(STD) .322 1882 2258 2473 2796 1568 1882 2061 2329 1307 1568 1717 1941 1045 1254 1374 1553
.344 2011 2412 2642 2988 1676 2011 2202 2490 1396 1676 1835 2075 1117 1340 1468 1660
.375 2191 2628 2880 3256 1826 2191 2399 2713 1521 1826 1999 2261 1217 1460 1599 1808
.438 2560 3071 3364 3803 2133 2560 2804 3170 1778 2133 2336 2641 1422 1706 1869 2113
.500 2922 3506 3840 4341 2435 2922 3200 3617 2029 2435 2667 3014 1623 1948 2133 2412
.188 881 1058 1158 1310 733 881 965 1091 612 735 804 909 490 588 644 728
.203 959 1143 1251 1415 794 952 1043 1179 661 794 869 983 529 635 695 786
.219 1026 1231 1348 1525 855 1026 1124 1271 713 855 936 1059 570 684 749 847
.250 1172 1407 1540 1741 977 1172 1284 1451 814 977 1070 1209 651 781 856 967
10 10.750 .279 1309 1570 1719 1944 1091 1309 1433 1620 909 1091 1194 1350 727 872 955 1080
.307 1440 1728 1892 2138 1200 1440 1577 1782 1000 1200 1314 1486 800 960 1051 1189
.344 1613 1935 2120 2396 1344 1613 1767 1997 1120 1344 1473 1664 896 1075 1178 1331
(STD) .365 1711 2054 2249 2542 1426 1711 1874 2119 1188 1426 1562 1766 951 1141 1249 1412
.438 2054 2464 2700 3051 1712 2054 2250 2543 1426 1712 1875 2119 1141 1369 1500 1695
.500 2344 2813 3081 3483 1953 2344 2567 2902 1628 1953 2140 2419 1302 1563 1712 1935
.188 743 892 977 1104 619 743 814 920 516 619 678 767 413 495 543 613
.203 803 963 1055 1193 669 803 879 995 558 669 733 829 446 535 586 663
.219 866 1039 1138 1287 722 866 948 1073 601 722 790 894 481 577 632 715
.250 988 1186 1299 1468 824 988 1082 1224 686 824 902 1020 549 659 722 816
.281 1111 1332 1460 1651 926 1111 1217 1376 771 926 1014 1146 617 740 811 917
12 12.750 .312 1233 1480 1620 1832 1028 1233 1350 1527 856 1028 1125 1273 685 822 900 1018
.330 1305 1566 1715 1939 1088 1305 1430 1616 906 1088 1191 1346 725 870 953 1077
.344 1359 1631 1786 2020 1133 1359 1488 1683 944 1133 1240 1403 755 906 992 1122
(STD) .375 1482 1779 1948 2202 1235 1482 1624 1835 1029 1235 1353 1529 824 988 1082 1224
.406 1606 1926 2110 2385 1338 1606 1758 1988 1115 1338 1465 1656 892 1070 1172 1325
.438 1732 2077 2275 2572 1443 1732 1896 2144 1203 1443 1580 1786 962 1154 1264 1429
.500 1976 2372 2598 2936 1647 1976 2165 2447 1373 1647 1804 2039 1098 1318 1443 1631
* Type A construction also applicable to "Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code," ANSI B31.4-2002

17-25
 FIG. 17-27 (Cont’d.)
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping

Allowable Working Pressures up to 250°F, in psig

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Wall
Pipe O.D. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
Thk.
Size
GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000 35,000 42,000 46,000 52,000 60,000
.219 689 828 905 1024 1183 575 689 755 854 986 479 575 629 711 822 383 460 503 569 657
.250 786 945 1035 1170 1350 656 788 863 975 1125 547 656 719 813 938 438 525 575 650 750
.281 886 1063 1164 1316 1518 738 886 970 1097 1265 615 738 809 914 1054 492 591 647 731 843
.312 982 1179 1291 1460 1685 818 982 1076 1217 1404 682 819 896 1014 1170 546 655 717 811 936
16 16.000 .344 1084 1300 1424 1609 1858 903 1084 1187 1341 1548 753 903 989 1118 1290 602 722 791 894 1032
(STD) .375 1181 1418 1553 1755 2025 984 1181 1294 1463 1688 820 984 1078 1219 1407 656 788 863 975 1125
.438 1379 1655 1813 2049 2365 1149 1379 1511 1707 1971 958 1149 1259 1423 1643 766 919 1007 1138 1314
.500 1575 1890 2070 2340 2700 1313 1575 1725 1950 2250 1094 1313 1438 1625 1875 875 1050 1150 1300 1500
.625 1969 2363 2588 2925 3375 1641 1969 2157 2438 2812 1368 1641 1796 2031 2344 1094 1313 1438 1625 1875
.250 630 756 828 936 1080 525 630 690 780 900 438 525 575 650 750 350 420 460 520 600
.281 709 851 931 1053 1214 591 709 776 878 1012 492 591 647 731 843 394 473 518 585 674
.312 786 943 1033 1168 1348 656 786 861 973 1123 547 656 719 813 936 438 525 575 650 749
.344 867 1040 1139 1289 1486 723 868 950 1074 1238 603 723 791 895 1032 482 578 633 716 826
20 (STD) .375 945 1134 1242 1404 1620 788 945 1035 1170 1350 656 788 863 975 1125 525 630 690 780 900
20.000 .406 1023 1228 1345 1520 1754 853 1023 1121 1267 1462 710 853 934 1056 1218 568 682 747 844 974
.438 1103 1324 1450 1639 1892 919 1103 1208 1366 1577 766 919 1007 1138 1314 613 735 805 910 1051
.500 1260 1512 1656 1872 2160 1050 1260 1380 1560 1800 875 1050 1150 1300 1500 700 840 920 1040 1200
.625 1575 1890 2070 2340 2700 1313 1575 1725 1950 2250 1094 1313 1438 1625 1875 875 1050 1150 1300 1500
.750 1890 2268 2484 2808 3240 1575 1890 2070 2340 2700 1313 1575 1725 1950 2250 1050 1260 1380 1560 1800
.281 590 709 776 877 1012 492 591 647 731 843 410 492 539 609 703 328 394 431 487 562
.312 655 786 861 973 1123 547 656 719 812 936 456 547 599 677 780 365 438 479 542 624
.344 722 866 949 1073 1238 602 722 791 894 1032 502 602 659 745 860 401 481 527 596 688
(STD) .375 788 945 1035 1170 1350 656 788 862 975 1125 547 656 719 813 938 438 525 575 650 750
24 24.000 .406 853 1024 1121 1267 1462 711 853 935 1056 1218 592 711 779 880 1015 474 569 623 704 812
.438 919 1103 1208 1366 1577 766 919 1006 1138 1314 638 766 839 948 1095 510 613 671 758 876
.500 1050 1260 1380 1560 1800 875 1050 1150 1300 1500 729 875 958 1083 1250 583 700 767 867 1000
.625 1312 1575 1725 1950 2250 1094 1313 1437 1625 1875 911 1094 1198 1354 1563 729 875 958 1083 1250
.750 1575 1890 2070 2340 2700 1313 1575 1725 1950 2250 1094 1313 1438 1625 1875 875 1050 1150 1300 1500
.281 545 654 717 810 934 454 545 597 675 778 379 454 498 563 649 303 363 398 450 519
.312 604 727 796 900 1037 503 604 663 750 864 421 505 553 625 720 337 404 442 500 576
26.000 .344 667 800 876 990 1143 556 666 730 825 953 463 555 606 688 794 370 444 487 550 635
(STD) .375 726 872 955 1080 1246 606 727 796 900 1039 505 606 663 750 866 404 485 531 600 692
26 .406 787 945 1035 1170 1349 656 787 863 975 1124 547 656 719 813 937 437 525 575 650 750
.438 848 1018 1115 1260 1456 707 848 929 1050 1213 589 707 774 875 1011 471 565 619 700 809
.500 969 1163 1274 1440 1662 808 969 1062 1200 1385 673 808 885 1000 1154 538 646 708 800 923
.625 1211 1454 1592 1800 2077 1010 1212 1327 1500 1731 841 1010 1106 1250 1442 673 808 885 1000 1154
.750 1454 1745 1911 2160 2492 1212 1454 1592 1800 2077 1010 1212 1327 1500 1731 808 969 1062 1200 1385
.312 525 630 690 780 899 438 525 575 650 749 365 438 479 542 624 292 350 383 433 499
.344 578 693 759 858 991 482 577 632 715 826 401 481 527 596 688 321 385 422 477 550
(STD) .375 630 756 828 936 1080 525 630 690 780 900 437 525 575 650 750 350 420 460 520 600
30 30.000 .406 682 819 897 1014 1169 568 682 747 845 974 474 569 623 704 812 379 455 498 563 650
.438 735 882 966 1092 1261 612 735 805 910 1051 510 612 671 758 876 408 490 537 607 701
.500 840 1008 1104 1248 1440 700 840 920 1040 1200 583 700 767 867 1000 467 560 613 693 800
.625 1050 1260 1380 1560 1800 875 1050 1150 1300 1500 729 875 958 1083 1250 583 700 767 867 1000
.750 1260 1512 1656 1872 2160 1050 1260 1380 1560 1800 875 1050 1150 1300 1500 700 840 920 1040 1200
* Type A construction also applicable to "Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code," ANSI B31.4-2002

Notes: 1. All dimensions are in inches

2. See Fig 17-24

17-26
 FIG. 17-28
Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings from ANSI B16.5-1996

CLASS 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500

 A105 (1), A216−WCB (1), A515−70 (1)

Material Group 1.1 (Carbon Steel)  A516−70 (1) (2)
 A350−LF2 (1), A537−C1.1 (3)

°F Pressures are in pounds per square inch, gauge (psig)
–20 to 100 285 740 990 1480 2220 3705 6170
200 260 675 900 1350 2025 3375 5625
300 230 655 875 1315 1970 3280 5470
400 200 635 845 1270 1900 3170 5280
500 170 600 800 1200 1795 2995 4990
600 140 550 730 1095 1640 2735 4560
650 125 535 715 1075 1610 2685 4475
700 110 535 710 1065 1600 2665 4440
750 95 505 670 1010 1510 2520 4200
800 80 410 550 825 1235 2060 3430
850 65 270 355 535 805 1340 2230
900 50 170 230 345 515 860 1430
950 35 105 140 205 310 515 860
1000 20 50 70 105 155 260 430
 A182−F304 (5), A182−F304H

Material Group 2.1 (Type 304)  A240−304 (5), A351−CF8 (5)
 A351−CF3 (4)

–20 to 100 275 720 960 1440 2160 3600 6000
200 230 600 800 1200 1800 3000 5000
300 205 540 720 1080 1620 2700 4500
400 190 495 660 995 1490 2485 4140
500 170 465 620 930 1395 2330 3880
600 140 435 580 875 1310 2185 3640
650 125 430 575 860 1290 2150 3580
700 110 425 565 850 1275 2125 3540
750 95 415 555 830 1245 2075 3460
800 80 405 540 805 1210 2015 3360
850 65 395 530 790 1190 1980 3300
900 50 390 520 780 1165 1945 3240
950 35 380 510 765 1145 1910 3180
1000 20 320 430 640 965 1605 2675
1050 310 410 615 925 1545 2570
1100 255 345 515 770 1285 2145
1150 200 265 400 595 995 1655
1200 155 205 310 465 770 1285
1250 115 150 225 340 565 945
1300 85 115 170 255 430 715
1350 60 80 125 185 310 515
1400 50 65 90 145 240 400
1450 35 45 70 105 170 285
1500 25 35 55 80 135 230

Notes: (1) Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 800°F (425°C), the carbide phase of carbon steel may
be converted to graphite: permissible but not recommended for prolonged use above 800°F
(2) Not to be used over 850°F
(3) Not to be used over 700°F
(4) Not to be used over 800°F
(5) At temperatures over 1000°F (540°C), use only when the carbon content is 0.04 percent or higher
(6) For temperatures above 1000°F (540°C), use only if the material is heat treated by heating it to a temp-
erature of at least 1900°F (1040°C) and quenching in water or rapidly cooling by other means

17-27
 The table of allowable stresses, Fig. 17-25, is extracted from 16. Beggs, H. Dale, and James P. Brill. “A Study of Two-Phase Flow
ANSI B31.3. The designer is strongly urged to consult the lat- in Inclined Pipes” Trans. AIME, May 1973, pp. 606-617.
est ANSI B31.3 publication for full description of the code. A 17. Orkiszewski, J. “Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Verti-
tabular compilation of maximum allowable working pressures cal Pipe” J. Pet. Tech, AIME, June 1967, pp. 829-838.
calculated according to ANSI B31.3 appears in Fig. 17-26.
18. Baker, O., et al. “Gas-Liquid Flow in Pipelines, II. Design Manual”
For piping outside of refineries and other processing facili- AGA-API Project NX-28, October 1970.
ties, a separate code applies for determining allowable pres- 19. Dukler, A.E., Moye Wicks, III, and R.G. Cleveland. “Frictional
sure limits, ANSI B31.8. Refer to Fig. 17-24 for the calculation Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Flow: B. An Approach through Simi-
method. larity Analysis” AIChE Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, January 1964, pp.
The designer is encouraged to refer to the latest ANSI B31.8 44-51.
standard for comprehensive code description. A tabular com- 20. Flanigan, Orin. “Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in Design
pilation of maximum allowable working pressures computed of Two-Phase Gathering Systems” Oil and Gas Journal, March
according to ANSI B31.8 appears in Fig. 17-27. 10, 1958, pp. 132-141.
Fig. 17-28 provides pressure ratings for steel flanges and 21. Eaton, Ben A., et al. “The Prediction of Flow Patterns, Liquid
flanged fittings. Holdup and Pressure Losses Occurring During Continuous Two-
Phase Flow in Horizontal Pipelines” J. Pet. Tech. AIME, June
1967, pp. 815-828.
22. Greskovich, Eugene J., and Adam L. Shrier. “Slug Frequency in
REFERENCES Horizontal Gas-Liquid Slug Flow” Ind. Eng. Chem. Process De-
1. “Fluid Mechanics” by N. DeNevers, Addison-Wesley, Reading, velop., Vol. 11, No. 2, 1972, pp. 3;17-318.
Mass., 1970, p. 127. 23. Brill, James P., et al. “Analysis of Two-Phase Tests in Large Di-
2. “Experimental Research on the Flow of Water in Pipes” by H. ameter Prudhoe Bay Flowlines” SPE 8305, AIME, 1979.
Darcy, Mem. Acad. Sci. Inst. Imp. Fr., Vol. 15, 1858, p. 141 (in 24. Schmidt, Zelmir, and James P. Brill. “Experimental Study of Se-
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1944. dicted” Oil and Gas Journal, October 30, 1978, pp. 100-108.
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Technical Report 10, Chicago, 1965. (ANSI/API 2530).

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