The Attic Stelai

THE ATTIC STELAI
PART II
PAGE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....................... ............................... . 178
I. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ................................................... 180
II. CLOTHING AND SHOES .203
III. FURNITURE .210
IV. AND BEEHIVES.
LIVESTOCK 255
V. REAL PROPERTY .......................................................... 261
VI. SLAVES .276
VII. TILES AND BRICKS .281
VIII. TOOLS AND MISCELLANEOUS OUTDOOR ITEMS .287
IX. WEAPONS . 306
X. MISCELLANEOUS .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Addenda et Corrigenda TOPART I .................................................. 316
THE Demioprata OF POLLUX X, BY ANNE PIPPIN ............... .. .................... 318
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Tp HE Attic Stelai comprise a group of inscriptions recording the sale of items of

.W personal property confiscated from Alkibiades and other condemned men, who
were accused of mutilating the Herms and profaning the Eleusinian mysteries in
415/4 B.C. In Part I of this study, published in Hesperia, XXII, 1953, pp. 22,5-299,
were presented the texts of the Attic Stelai, together with a commentary, largely
epigraphical in nature. In Parts II and III the authors offer an interpretation of the
individual items, with a discussion of the prices where these are preserved. Because
of the broad scope of the material, it has been deemed best to divide it. Part II,
presented herewith,' concerns all of the items except the containers, vases and other,
which will be treated separately as Part III by Professor D. A. Amyx in a subse-
quent fascicle of this Journal. Part II is followed by an addenda et corrigenda to the
'The completionof this study was made possibleby a generousgrant in aid of travel by the
AmericanPhilosophicalSociety (Penrose Fund). The Committeeon Researchof the University
of Californiaassistedme with a grant to pay the expensesof a researchassistant,Dr. Anne Pippin,
to whom I am particularlyindebtedin the section on furniture. The study itself was instigated
largelyby ProfessorHomerA. Thompson,and would not have been undertakenor completedwith-
out his encouragementand that of Miss Lucy Talcott. Both have read the manuscript,and I am
American School of Classical Studies at Athens

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to
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THE ATTIC STELAI 179
Greek texts, incorporating the changes made in Parts II and III. This is in turn
followed by an appendix by Dr. Anne Pippin dealing with Pollux, Book X, wherein
some thirty-four items of the Attic Stelai are collected. At the end of Part III, the
two authors will present an index to the Greek words from the Stelai discussed in
Parts II and III.
An examination of each word has been made, taking into consideration its
meaning and often its etymology, and its significant occurrences in ancient literature
and on other inscriptions; and an effort has been made to identify it with objects repre-
grateful to both for many fruitful suggestions and criticisms. Professor D. A. Amyx, in preparing
Part III, has been able to shed light on many of my problems. I owe heartfelt thanks to Miss A.
Kokoni for her devotion to the difficult task of typewriting the manuscript. Finally, my deepest
obligation is to my wife, who has helped me to form my thoughts at every stage.
For references cited frequently the following abbreviations are used:
Andreades, Hist. of Gr. Pub. Finance = A. M. Andreades, A History of Greek Public Finance (tr.
by Carroll N. Brown), Cambridge, Mass., 1933.
Bekker, Anecd. = J. Bekker, Anecdota Graecae, Berlin, 1814.
Bliimner, Technologie = H. Bliimner, Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Kiinste,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., Leipzig and Berlin, 1912; Vol. II, Leipzig 1879; Vol. III, Leipzig, 1884;
Vol. IV, Leipzig, 1887.
Bockh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener3 = A. B6ckh, Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener, 3rd ed.
by M. Frainkel,Berlin, 1886.
Boisacq, Dictionary4 = E. Boisacq, Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque, 4th ed., Heidel-
berg, 1950.
Buck, Dictionary = C. D. Buck, A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European
Languages, Chicago, 1949.
Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index== C. D. Buck and W. Petersen, A Reverse Index of Greek
Nouns and Adjectives, Chicago, 1945.
Cloche, Classes, etc. = P. Cloche, Les classes, les me'tiers,le trafic, Paris, 1931.
Day, Ec. Hist. of Athens = J. Day, An Economic History of Athens under Roman Domination,
New York, 1942.
Ebert, Fachausdriicke = F. Ebert, Fachausdriicke des griechischen Bauhandwerks, Wiirzburg diss.,
1910.
Economic Survey = T. Frank. Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, Vols. I-V, Baltimore, 1933-1940.
Ehrenberg, People of Aristophanes2 = V. Ehrenberg, The People of Aristophanes, 2nd ed., Oxford.
1951.
Jarde, Cereales = Jarde, Les cereales dans l'antiquite grecque, Paris, 1925.
Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece = H. Michell, The Economics of Ancient Greece, New York and
Cambridge, 1940.
Olynthus =- D. M. Robinson, Excavations at Olynthus, Baltimore, Vol. VIII (with J. W. Graham),
1938; Vol. X, 1941; Vol. XII, 1946.
Ransom, Couches and Beds = C. L. Ransom, Studies in Ancient Furniture, Couches and Beds of
the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, Chicago, 1905.
Rostovtzeff, Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History
=
of the Hellenistic World, Oxford, 1941.

Schwyzer, Gr. Gram. = E. Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik, Munich, Vol. I, 1939; Vol. II, 1950.
Tod, Gr. Hist. Inscr. M. N. Tod, Greek Historical Inscriptions, Oxford, Vol. I, 2nd ed., 1946;
Vol. II, 1948.
180 W. KENDRICK PRITCHETT
sented on vases or found in excavations. Where objects had previously been so

identified, a reference to the pertinent literature has sufficed. Unfortunately, most
studies of objects have been limited mainly to archaeological evidence, with little
thought for the philological aspects. A standard work on Greek furniture, for
example, makes no effort to canvass the literary material or to bring the objects
together with their Greek names. And indeed, the gap between archaeology and
philology has proved a very difficultone to bridge.
Where prices have been preserved on our Stelai, they have been comparedwith any
other ancient prices which the writer could collect. Because of the lack of indexes to
much of the vast epigraphicalmaterial, no claim can be made to completeness,although
it can truly be affirmed that the present work includes many prices which have not
appeared in previous economic studies. There is obviously need for a general evalu-
ation of Greek prices.
Any general economic conclusions which it has been possible to arrive at have
been offered at the beginnings of the relevant sections.
A word as to form. Italics have been used for the first occurrence of the trans-
literated Greek names of the items in any given section, but not thereafter except to
distinguish the use of such names as terms from their use to denote actual objects.
The present study is necessarily restricted to the items listed in the Attic Stelai.
Ideally, each word should be interpreted in a context which includes all related words
and objects, so that a complete picture would emerge. But the painting of such a
broad picture must be the work of much future investigation. The Attic Stelai have
not yet yielded up all their secrets.
I. AGRICULT-URAL PRODUCTS
Sir A. Hort in his index to his edition of Theophrastos' Enquiry into Plants,
Vol. II, Loeb Classical Library, London and New York, 1916, has given correct
Latin and English botanical names of plants, which are repeated here for the sake of
convenience. These terms have been compared with those of E. Halacsy in " Con-
spectus florae graecae," Magyar Botanikai Lapok, XI, 1912, pp. 115 ff. Halacsy cites
the sections of Greece in which the various plants were grown in 1912. One improve-
ment has been made in Hort's list: kenchros is 'common millet,' not 'millet.'" The
chief work on the subject of plants is still V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in
ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland und It alien sowie in dais uebrige
Europa, 7th edition, Berlin, 1902.2 For bibliographical references, including a list of
1 See N. Jasny, " The Wheats of Classical Antiquity," Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. in Hist. and
Pol. Sc., LXII, 1944, no. 3, p. 12.
2The 8th edition of 1911 was not available to me. Also unavailable was a study in modern
Greek by P. Gennadeios, AEewLKOV 4VTOxo7tKOv, Athens, 1914.
articles in Pauly-Wissowa, R.E., see F. M. Heichelheim, Wirtschaftsgeschichte des

Altertums, II, Leiden, 1938, p. 1102, note 46.
With regard to prices of various agricultural products, figures have been given
not only for Athens, Delos, and other parts of Greece when available, but for the
Roman republic and empire. These latter figures have been culled in great part from
T. Frank's Economic Survey, I-V. The author is well aware of Hasebroek's warnings
about faulty conclusions in the field of ancient economic history which result from
failure to exercise caution in the correlation of evidence from different periods.5
Nevertheless, so few figures are available for most products that we have presented
all of them for examination. In fairly steady industries there was little variation in
peacetime prices. T. Frank has noted, for example, that prices of wheat and wine
were about the same in Diocletian's day as in Varro's,4 and he has found the same
ratio of prices at Delos and in Rome.5
The document which most closely resembles ours is the Edict of Diocletian of
A.D. 301, although the latter is in a much better state of preservation. For convenience,
references have been made to the text and translation of Miss E. Graser in the
appendix to Economic Survey, V.6 The Edict attempted to set maximum retail prices
for the empire; these were not necessarily market prices. Eight years earlier in Egypt
an artaba of wheat had been valued at a considerably lower figure than that given in
the Edict.' Indeed, Diocletian stated in the Preamble: " We have decreed that there
be established,not the prices for articles of sale-for such an act would be unjust when
many provinces occasionally rejoice in the good fortune of wished-for low prices and,
so to speak, the privilege of prosperity-, but a maximum, so that when the violence
of high prices appears anywhere ... avarice . . . might be checked."
For convenience the following tables of Greek measures are given. These are
reproduced from the table of F. Hultsch, Griechische und roemische Metrologie,
Berlin, 1882.8
3 J. Hasebroek, Trade and Politics in Ancient Greece, English translation, London, 1933, p. vi.
4Economic Survey, I, p. 404.
5 Ibid., p. 193.
6 To the text of Miss Graser may now be added the following fragments: A. D. Keramopoulos,
ApX.'Ec., 1931, pp. 163-164; M. Guarducci, Rendiconti della pontificia Accademiia di Archeologia,
XVII, 1940, pp. 11-24; I. W. MacPherson, J.R.S., XLII, 1952, pp. 72-75; Bingen, B.C.H.,
LXXVIII, 1954, p. 349; and G. Caputo and R. Goodchild, J.R.S., XLV, 1955, pp. 106-115. Two
additional fragments have recently been discovered in Greece by Mr. E. J. Doyle.
7Pap. Oxy. 2142.
8 The discovery of standard measures of capacity in the American excavations in the Agora
and on the north slope of the Acropolis has demonstrated that the figures of Hultsch are approxi-
mately correct; see below, p. 193, note 139.
Greek Liquid Measures

Name Liter
kotyle 0.2736
chous (12 kotylai) 3.283
metretes (12 choes) 39.390
Greek Dry Measures

Name Liter
kotyle 0.2736
choinix (4 kotylai) 1.094
medimnos (48 choinikes) 52.53
DESCRIPTION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
1. auvyoacX-(Stele II, line 140). Almond, Prunus Amygdalus. The word is of

Syrian origin,9 and the Syrian almond was famous in antiquity.10The word does not
occur in the Epic, and the view is held that the tree was not introduced into Greece
until relatively late times." The word appears first in Phrynichos Comicus.'2 Theo-
phrastos describes the plant in detail, and by the first century B.C.the fruit had become
known in Rome as the nux graeca."3 Excellent almonds were grown on the islands of
Naxos and Cyprus, and they were often eaten while still unripe and having a soft
skin.'4
Prices: In the Edict of Diocletian, the maximum price placed on almonds was 6
denarii an Italian pint (xestes: 0.547 liter)."
2. a'xvpa (II, 85). Chaff. The word is joined, as in our list, with 'ta in
Pherekrates, frag. 161.'" Theophrastos refers to the difference between the husk
(achyron) of wheat and that of barley.'7 Herodotos states that the Scythians stuffed
the skins of horses at royal burials with achyra.'8 For the use of achyra in building
walls, see I.G., JJ2, 468, line 68, Aristotle, H.A., 612b, 22 and Vitruvius, II, 1; in
Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, p. 56.

10 Heichelheim, " Roman Syria," Economic Survey, IV, p. 138 (with references).
"See Wagler, R.E., s.v. 'Afvy8aXiA. We should note, however, the frequency with which the
almond is represented in miniature plastic lekythoi in the late fifth and fourth centuries; see for
example, C.V.A., Oxford, I, pl. XL, nos. 14-16, and cf. Beazley, B.S.A., XLI, 1945, p. 14.
12
Frag. 68 (Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 387).
13
Pliny, H.N., XV, 90. Cf. Cato, De agric., VIII, 2; and Macrobius, Sat., III, 18, 8.
14 Athenaeus, II, 52 b-c.
15
Col. VI, 52.
16
Cf. Eustathius, 1445, 42.
17 H.P., VIII, 4, 1.
18 IV, 72.
planting with seeds in mud, Theophrastos, H.P., IV, 8, 8. Two of the Old Comedy
poets refer to a cheap barley cake mixed with chaff.19 Although commonly meaning
'chaff,' achyra sometimes seems to be used for grain and chaff together.20Inscriptions
preserve references to storehouses for chaff at Delos.2"
Prices: Achyron was not without value. In the Eleusinian accounts of the year
329/8 B.C. (I.G., II2, 1672, lines 196-197), the price of achyra and chnous together is
given as 30 drachmas.22The quantity is not given. For Egyptian prices, see A. C.
Johnson in Economic Survey, II, pp. 470-471. The price of achyron in the Edict of
Diocletian is given as 2 denarii per 4 pounds.23There is the general heading ' fodder'
and two other entries under it in the Edict.24 In connection with this regulation per-
taining to hay and forage in small units of two, four and six pounds, it may be
recalled that in the Preamble the purpose of the Edict, Diocletian's concern to check
the profiteering by those who supplied the army (and presumably the civil service),
is set forth in part with these words (translation of E. Graser): ... sometimes in a
single purchase a soldier is deprived of his bonus and salary, and the contribution of
the whole world to support the armies falls to the abominable profits of thieves, so
that our soldiers seem to offer . . . their completedlabors to the profiteers . . ."
3. EXaaand eXaia (II, 84, 89, and 118). Olive, Olea Europea. Elaa is the old
Attic form. Both forms, however, occur on Stele II. The words are used for the
fruit, although the same word was used for the olive tree.25 For the cultivating,
harvesting, and use of the olive, reference may be made to the lengthy article of A. S.
Pease, R.E., s.v. Oelbaum.26The olive was known in Early Helladic times, as is shown
by the discovery of pits in excavations. Its cultivation was mentioned by Homer, and
oil was exported from Athens in the time of Solon. During the classical age it was
widely produced. Olives, along with olive oil, bread, cheese, salt, and wine, were
regarded as the necessary provisions of life,27although there is considerable evidence
that the ancients held that they had little nutritive value.28Olives thrive in a calcareous
soil, such as that of Attica, and the Athenian olive was famous everywhere. Using
figures given in [Demosthenes], XLII, Against Phainippos, Jarde (Ce're'ales,p. 187)
19 Poliochos, frag. 2 (Kock, C.A.F., III, p. 390); Antiphanes, frag. 226 (Kock, C.A.F., II,
p. 111).
20
Gow ad Theokritos 10, 49. Cf. Ure, Class. Quar., XLIX, 1955, p. 227.
21
I.G., XI, 2, 287 A line 149, etc.
22
Chnous is likewise coupled with achyra in Aristophanes, frag. 76. It is defined in Syll.2, II,
p. 309, note 138.
23 XVII, 7.
24 XVII, 6-8.
25
See Buck, Dictionary, p. 380.
26 See also Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece, pp. 76-77.
27
Aristophanes, Ach., 550, Eccl., 308; Plato, Lg., VI, 782 b, etc.
28
Athenaeus, II, 56 a; Galen, VI, 579 K; Celsus, II, 18.
184 W. KENDRICKPRITCHETT
has estimated that an olive grove would yield approximately three times the value of
a similar area planted in wheat.
Information concerning olive prices was not collected by Pease. In a passage of
Plutarch which relates that Sokrates led a complaining friend to places where the
common necessities of life were sold and pointed out the cheapness of the latter, it is
stated that a choinix of olives cost two chalkoi,29which is at the rate of two drachmas
a medimnos. Some seven hundred years later, the Edict of Diocletian established the
price of ripe olives as 4 denarii an Italian pint (xestes), of olives in brine at 4 denarii
for forty pounds, and of olives from Tarsus at 4 denarii for twenty pounds.30
4. 4'Eatov(I, 123, 124). Oil. The most detailed treatment of elaion is the 1937
article of A. S. Pease in R.E., s.v. Oleum. Oil was used in ancient times for affording
light, in food, and in the exercises of the gymnasia.
Prices are given in cols. 2472-2473 of Pease's article. In Book II of the Oeco-
nomics ascribed to Aristotle,3"the price of a chous of oil at Lampsakos is given as
three drachmas (or one and one-half obols a kotyle; 36 drachmas a metretes). In an
Athenian inscription of the fourth century, which lists the tariff of fees for sacrifice,32
three kotylai of oil cost one and one-half obols (or one-half obol a kotyle; 12 drachmas
a metretes). Prices of oil at Delos are discussed by Larsen,83and in Spaventa de
Novellis' I prezzi in Grecia e a Romranell' antichita, pp. 51-54, there are listed in
tabular form 105 epigraphical references giving prices at Delos from 310 to 169 B.C.
At the close of the fourth century, oil brought the astonishingly high price of 55
drachmas a metretes.34By 250 B.C. the price ranged between 16 and 18 drachmas, and
thereafter remained stable. The lowest price, of 11 drachmas, was reached in 190-180
B.C.35 For the Roman period, T. Frank has summarized the evidence concerning olive
oil as follows: " In the Catonian period oil sold wholesale at about one and a half
sesterces the liter.... In Diocletian's day the price of oil had about doubled in the
East. Ordinary oil was then about eighteen cents the liter, while the best grade sold
at about 30 cents. For Cicero's day it probablywould be fair to assume a price of 2-3
sesterces the liter." 3 The prices of oil are given in par. III of the Edict. The figures
for one Italian pint of oil from unripe olives, second quality oil, and common oil are
40, 24, and 12 denarii respectively.
29
De tranquillitate animi, 470 F.
30
Col. VI, 89, 90, 91.
31 1347a, 33.
32
I.G., II2, 1356. For the fixed prices in this and other sacred laws, see below, p. 198, note 170.
33 t Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, pp. 388-390.
34 The notorious uncertainty of the olive crop might account for violent fluctuations in price in
antiquity as in modern times when a good harvest may be followed by a complete and utter failure,-
a few days of rainy weather at the critical time of blossom may bring disaster.
35 Insc. De'los, 440, line 22.
36 Economic Survey, I, p. 404. Cf. also pp. 192-193 and 284.
5. i1ta (II, 85). Husks, chaff. Eratosthenes, according to Eustathius, defined

the word as the stalks or straw of pulse (oc-r'pkOvKaXacqLac)
." This definition is made
with reference to Od., V, 368, where the rousing of the waves by Poseidon is compared
to a great wind tossing a heap of parched eia. For several conjectural etymologies, see
Boisacq, Dictionnaire4,p. 316.
Prices. No figures are preserved for eia. For the price of hay and vetch fodder,
see above, under a'Xvpa.
6. Kop'avvov (II, 141). Coriander, Coriacdrum sativum. References to kori-
annon are chiefly in connection with cooking. Alkaios Comicus refers to powdered
coriander-seedused as seasoning with game,38and Anaxandrides includeskoriannon in
a recipe for smoked fish.39 The word occurs twice in the Equites of Aristophanes in
connection with a garnish for fish,40and B. B. Rogers notes that coriander leaves, not
seeds, are meant; he compares its use as a culinary herb for salads in England.4"The
coriander of Egypt was considered the best, and leases are preserved from Oxyrhyn-
chus which mention its planting.42
7. KpdJt5(II, 94-95, 237; V, 17, 18, 21).4 Barley, Hordeum sativum. In classical
antiquity, when maize was unknown and millet did not survive the Mediterranean
winter, barley was the only strong competitor with wheat for consumption. Barley
could commandan advantage over spring wheat because of its shorter growing season
in a climate with a summer drought.44 Jasny believes that in Greece and in most
islands of the eastern Mediterranean, wheat was definitely second to barley. For
Attica this seems proved by an inscription which gives the amounts of the first-fruits
sent to Eleusis in 329 B.C. by each of the phylai and outlying districts as well as
colonies.43 The Attic crop reached a total of 363,400 medimnoi of barley and only
39,112 of wheat.46 In addition, the island of Salamis produced 24,525 medimnoi of
barley. There was then about ten times more barley being raised than wheat, as was
to be expected in a country of poor soil, although the public taste greatly preferred
wheat.47
37 Eust., ad Od., V, 368 (1445, 42). Cf. Photius, 64.4; and above, s.v. axvpa.
38
Frag. 17 (Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 759).
39 Frag. 50 (Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 157).
40 Eq., 676, 682. Aristophanes refers to an obol's worth, but the quantity of the spice is not given.
41 Ad Eq., 676.
42
See A. C. Johnson, " Roman Egypt," Economic Survey, II, p. 3.
43 The root meaning of the word is uncertain; see Buck, Dictionary, p. 516.
44 N. Jasny,op. cit., p. 71.
45 I.G., II2, 1672. Somewhat lower figures are given by Jarde, Cereales, pp. 36 ff., 94 ff.
46 The figures are taken from the calculations of Heichelheim, R.E., Suppl. VI, 1935, s.v. Sitos,
846. 329 B.C. is regarded by most historians as a year of severe shortage; A. W. Gomme (Popula-
tion of Athens in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B. C., Oxford, 1933, p. 30) dissents.
47 For the Athenian dislike of barley, see the references collected by Amyx in A.J.A., XLIX,
For a general discussion of krithe, see Orth, R.E., s.v. Gerste.48 Athenaeus
devotes a lengthy section in Book III (109 b ff.) of the Deipnosophistai to a descrip-
tion of many kinds of bread, including that made with barley. Lesbian barley was the
best for this purpose (112 a), but Athenian bread was varied and choice (112 c).
Barley bread or cake was called maza, and alphita usually denoted barley groats.49
Evidence for the prices of barley is collected by Jarde, Ceredales,pp. 180-183;
Heichelheim, Wirtschaftliche Schwankungen, Jena, 1930, pp. 51-52; Spaventa de
Novellis, I prezzi in Grecia e a Roma nell' antichita, p. 50; and Larsen, Economic
Survey, IV, pp. 384-385.5? Barley frequently sold for half the price of wheat,
although Larsen has warned that this observation must not be made into a hard and
fast rule.5" Ca. 330 B.C. the price of barley was five drachmas a medimnos.52Accord-
ing to the [Demosthenes] speech Against Phainippos of the same period, the price of
barley must have been six drachmas, for eighteen drachmas are said to have been
three times the former price; b3but in 329/28 B.C., in the accounts of the epistatai of
Eleusis, barley is priced at three drachmas a medimnos.54For Delos, the statistics are
presented by Heichelheim 5 and by Larsen.56 The lowest price known was two
drachmas; the most common price was four. In the Edict of Diocletian, the price for
the sale of barley which no one mnightexceed was 60 denarii for one castrensis
modius,57which was at the rate of 180 denarii a medimnos. For prices at Rome, see
Frank, EcolnomicSurvey, I, pp. 48-49, 98, 192.
8. uEXtEMV(II, 139). Italian millet, Setaria italica. We know from Demosthenes
that Italian millet was one of the principal crops of Thrace,58and from Xenophon
that it was grown in Cilicia 5 and in that part of the Black Sea which is termed
'Thrace-in-Asia' (Bithynia)."6 Generally yielding only a small return, millet could
1945, p. 516. The relative positions of the two grains is perhaps most succinctly illustrated by the
practice in the Prytaneion: barley loaf on normal days supplemented by a wheaten loaf on festivals;
see Solon's ordinance quoted by Athenaeus (IV, 137 e).
48 For a classification of krithe as husked and naked grain, see Moritz, Class. Quar., XLIX,
1955, pp. 130-134.
49 See Orth, R.E., s.v. Gerste, 1281.
50 See also below, p. 199.

51 Op. cit., p. 385. In the time of Cicero (Verr., III, 188), barley was reckoned at one-half the
price of wheat.
52 I.G., II2, 408, lines 13-14. xptOat is a restoration, but it appears certain.
53 XLII, 20 and 31.

54 I.G., II2, 1672,line 283.
5 Wirtschaftliche Schwankungen, Table XIV, pp. 128 ff.
56
Op. cit., pp. 384-386.
57Col. I, 2.
58 VIII, On the Chersonesos, 45; and X, Against Philip, IV, 16. Xenophon (Anab., VI, 5, 12)
refers to a tribe in Thrace as the ' Millet-eaters.'
59 Anab., I, 2, 22.
60
Anab., VI, 4, 6.
not compete with grains which were hardy enough to withstand the winter, and it
never attained more than the position of a secondary crop.6' For ancient references,
see Orth, R.E., s.v. Hirse.
Prices. The maximum price of ieline in the Edict of Diocletian was fixed at 50
denarii for one castrensis modius (150 denarii a medimnos).62
9. ohvog (I, 114, 117-121; VI, 60-61, 64-65). Wine. Viticulture in antiquity is
discussed in an excellent article by Jarde in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
Vinun.63 In addition to the casual remarks of Theophrastos in his two treatises, we
know the names of many authors who published special works on viticulture.64 Most
instructive are the preserved leases of vineyards which enumeratevarious terms which
the lessor had to carry out.65 In Book I of the Deipnosophistcai,Athenaeus has given
a lengthy catalogue of different vintages of wine: 66 the pleasantest of the Greek wines
was the Chian; " among the poorest the Corinthian, which Alexis had termed 'tor-
ture.' 68 Athenaeus speaks of some wine as sixteen years old,69and gives the usual
dilution as half and half.70 Although wine was one of the most important products
of Attica, many better sorts were imported from various places abroad.7
For the prices of oinos, see below, pp. 199-203.
10. 6'eoa(I, 113, 115, 116, 122; II, 117).72 Vinegar. The word oros was used
by the ancients for vinegar and for a sour wine of inferior quality.73Various types of
61See N. Jasny, op. cit., p. 16.
62 Col. I, 6.
63
Cf. also his article Vinitor.
64
See E. Oder in F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratutr in Alexandrinazeit, I,
Leipzig, 1891, pp. 839 if. For Roman treatises on viticulture, see R. Billiard, La vigne dans
l'antiquite, Lyon, 1913, pp. 156 ff.
65 Syll.3, 963 and I.G., I12, 2492. M. Rostovtzeff (Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World, II, p. 1188)
observes that these leases have not been studied in connection with ancient agronomists for the
information they contain concerning viticulture. Mention might also be made of the interesting
Thasian laws, directed against speculation in wine, published by G. Daux in B.C.H., L, 1926, pp.
214 ff.
66 25 f fif.
67 I, 32 f.
88 I, 30 f.
69
XII, 584 b.
70 X,
426 b.
71 Chios, Thasos, Pramnos, etc. See the references in Ehrenberg, People of Aristophanes2,
p. 136, note 5. Imported wine jars of the second half of the fifth century, found in Athens, include
(e. g.) amphoras from Chios (Hesperia, III, 1934, fig. 1, no. 1; XXII, 1953, p. 104, nos. 150-152
and pl. 39); from Mende (Hesperia, IV, 1935, p. 496, fig. 17, no. 88; XXII, 1953, p. 106, no. 161
and p. 103, fig. 5); and from Thasos (A.J.A., L, 1946, p. 34, fig. 3, no. 3).
72 For the etymology of the word, see Buck, Dictionary, p. 383.
73 See Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Acetumt; and Stadler, R.E., s.v. Essig.
The comic poet Alexis (frag. 285: Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 400) humorously referred to the notoriously
sour Decelean wine as oxos.
vinegar, which was regarded by Attic writers as a condiment par excellence,74are

described by Athenaeus, II, 67 c ff. The best varieties were reported to be Knidian
and Egyptian. The oldest preserved recipe is found in Cato, De agricultura, 104.
Vinegar was usually extracted from the cheaper sorts of wine, but there are refer-
ences which show that the ancients also made it from dates, figs, etc.75
This writer has found prices for oxos only in papyrological sources and in the
Edict of Diocletian. Pap. Gen., 71 (Fayum, second century after Christ) comprises a
list of the sales of oxos.76 The price varies between 4 drachmas and 5X2 drachmas a
dichoron.77A few other prices are given by A. C. Johnson, " Roman Egypt," Eco-
nomic Survey, II, pp. 314-315. In A.D. 301 the maximum price for vinegar was estab-
lished in the Edict of Diocletian at 6 denarii an Italian pint (xestes) 78
11. opo,/o (II, 91). Bitter vetch. Ervum Ervilia.79 The orobos was one of the
vetches of which, according to Athenaeus," several varieties were eaten both green and
dry.8' When dry, they were served either boiled or roasted like chestnuts.82In a frag-
ment of Alexis the orobos seems to be regarded as belonging to a pauper's diet.83 This
is the purport, too, of a passage in Philostratos, which tells of finding oroboi on sale
in the market only when the rich men had shut up all the grain.84 The point of the
answer to Plutarch's 46th Greek Question, " Why is it that the people of Tralles call
orobos 'purifier ' and make particular use of it for ritual cleansings and purifica-
tions? ", is that orobos was lacking in value as a food.8" Finally, the same may be
inferred from a passage in Demosthenes.86 He says about a time of great scarcity
in the last war with Sparta, " You know that oroboi were sold for food."
Pliny refers to a flour of bitter vetch used as leavening in barley bread.87Athe
naeus cites Phainias of Eresos in his work On Plants as referring to the use of orobos
as fodder for plough-cattle.88
74 Athenaeus,II, 67 c.
75Xenophon, Anab., II, 3, 14; Pliny, H.N., XIV, 103; Columella, XII, 5 and 17; Geoponika,
VIII, 33.
76J. Nicole, Les papyrusde Geneve,Geneva,1896.
77 A dichoron equals eight choes.
78 Col. III, 5.
79 See Fournier
in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s. v. Cibaria, 1144 b; V. Hehn, Kultur-
pflanzen und Hausthiere, 7th edition, Berlin, 1902, pp. 213 ff.; and Olck, R.E., s.v. Erbse.
80
II, 54 f.
81
Theophrastos (H.P., II, 4, 2) states that only vetches sown in spring are digestible.
82 Cf. Aristophanes, Pax, 1136.
83 Kock, C.A.F., II, 447.
84 Vit. Apoll., I, 15.
85 See W. R. Halliday, Greek Questions of Plutarch, Oxford, 1928, pp. 189-190.

86 XXIII, Against Aristokrates, 115.
87 H.N., XVIII, 104.
88 IX,
406 c. Cf. Aristotle, H.A., III, 522 b, 28; VIII, 595 b, 5.
For the prices of orobos, see below, p. 199.
12. irvp6s (I, 126-139; II, 93). Pyros is a generic term,89which included both
hulled and naked types of wheat.90 N. Jasny, in his 1944 monograph on " The Wheats
of Classical Antiquity," 91 has made a strong case for the theory that the wheat
grown in Greece was of the emmer group, including both hulled and naked types,
almost to the exclusion of other groups. By far the most common subspecies has been
identified as durum.92From his study of the Mediterranean climate and soil, Jasny
concluded that production of wheat was not likely to have been large in the south-
eastern part of Greece, including Attica. Wheat production became increasingly
greater northward and westward from Attica.93
For prices of pyros, see below, pp. 196-198.
13. a-,qo-aiov (II, 136). Sesame, Sesamumnindicum. Evidence for the extent
of the cultivation of sesame, from India to the Mediterranean,is collected by Steier in
R.E., S.v. Sesamon. In Syria sesame-seed was more expensive than wheat-seed,94for
sesame oil was there regarded as a substitute for olive oil. Babylonia, which in places
could not produce the olive, used sesame oil, and prices of it in the third century B.C.
are given by B. Meissner.95
In Greece, where Steier states that sesame is today grown in Thera and Attica,
its cultivation in antiquity must have been common; for Theophrastos frequently uses
the sesame for comparison with unfamiliar plants.9"Sesame was a summer crop and
did well with irrigation.97 It was used for medical purposes and as an ingredient of
perfumes and drugs.98 References to sesame bread and sesame cake are numerous.
The latter was frequently referred to by Aristophanes as a favorite dainty, and was
the recognized wedding cake at Athens.99 Athenaeus lists sesame-seeds among des-
89 Galen, De alimentorum facultatibus, l, 6, 1. For derivation of the term, see Buck, Dictionary,
p. 515.
90 Naked grain is that in which the kernels fall out of their hulls in threshing. In hulled grain
the kernels remain enclosed in threshing.
91 See above, note 1.
92J. and Ch. Cotte, Atude sur les bles de l'antiquite clacssique,Paris, 1913, p. 93; and N. Jasny,
Amer. Hist. Rev., XLVII, 1942, p. 762.
93 "Wheats," p. 117. For the major sources of Athenian grain in the fifth century, see L.
Casson, T.A.P.A., LXXXV, 1954, p. 168.
94Bab. Baba Megia, 21a, 104b. Cf. Heichelheim, " Roman Syria," Economic Survey, IV, p. 132.
95 "'Warenpreise in Babylonien," Abh. der pr. Akad. der Wissenschaften, No. 1, Berlin, 1936,
p. 9.
96 H.P., III, 16, 6; III, 18, 13; IV, 8, 14; VI, 5, 3; etc.
97 Ibid., VII, 7~3.
9) Theophrastos, De odoribus, 20; H.P., IX, 11, 9; and Pliny, H.N., XIII, 11; XXIII, 95; etc.
99Pax, 689; Thesm., 570; Ach., 1092.
serts."'0 Among the professions of freedmen, we have the record of a man and a
woman who were sesame-sellers at Athens in the fourth century B.C."0'
The maximum price of sesame in the Edict of Diocletian was 200 denarii for one
castrensis modius, which was double the price fixed for wheat.'02
14. orawv?v4 (II, 83, 88). Grapes, a bunch of grapes.'03 Quotations with refer-
ence to several types of grape are given by Athenaeus, XIV, 653 b-654 a. The form
staphkvleAthenaeus regarded as Asiatic. It designates the ripe, fresh grape in contrast
with 6',t4taf, the unripe grape, and crrawis, the raisin. Cf. Anth. Pal., V, 304 (Paton's
translation): "When you were a green blade (omphax) you refused me; when you
were ripe (staphyle) you bade me be off, at least grudge me not a little of your raisin
(staphis)."
The grapes referred to in Stele II were sold on the vine. Pliny the Younger once
casually mentions having sold his hanging crop,'04and his uncle in giving the price
that was paid for a crop notes that the grapes were sold on the vine.'05
Prices. In the Diocletian Edict, the price of table grapes is given as 4 denarii for
4 pounds,'06which T. Frank states was equivalent to two pounds for one cent in terms
of the 1932 gold dollar.'07
15. OV'KOV (II, 83, 88, 134).108 Fig (fruit), Ficus Carica.'O? We know from
Theophrastos that the ancients discovered a very scientific remedy in the process called
'caprification ' (cross-fertilization of the cultivated fig with the wild by means of the
wasp) to prevent the dropping of the immature fruit."0 Athenaeus devotes a lengthy
section of Book III of the Deipnosophistai to the fig."' It seems to have grown every-
where, and Attic figs, which were among the best,"2were exported as far as Babylon."3
Because of the sugar content, figs made a highly sustaining army ration."4 Dried figs
100
XIV, 640 d: Greek trcgemata, 'things to chew,' i. e., nuts and dried fruits.
101I.G., 112, 1554, line 40; and 1561, line 23.
102 Col. I, 26.
103
For the collective meaning and the etymology of staphyle, see Buck, Dictionary, p. 378.
104 Ep., VIII, 2, 1.
105
H.N., XIV, 50. Cf. Frank, Economic Survey, V, p. 150, note 17.
106 Col. VI, 80.
107 Economic Survey, I, p. 404.
108 For the derivation of the word, see

Buck, Dictionary, pp. 377-378.
109 See Olck, R.E., s.v.
Feige; V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen7, pp. 94-102; and Michell, Ec. of Anc.
Greece, pp. 77-78, 284.
110 H.P., IJ, 8, 1. For the history of caprification, which is today practised extensively, see Olck,
op. cit., 2100-2103.
74 c-80 e. Pliny, H.N., XV, 68-83, enumerates twenty-nine kinds.
112
Athenaeus, III, 74 d-e.
113 Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum
apophthegmata, 173 C.
114
Polybios, XVI, 24, 5 and 9.
(t'uXaSe) were a cheap food for the poor,115and choice ones appeared on the tables
of the well-to-do.116
Prices.'17 Teles in Stobaeus I, 98 (Hense) tells the anecdote, similar to the one
told of Sokrates in Plutarch,118that Diogenes pointed out to a complaining friend the
cheapness of common necessities in Athens, including dried figs which were priced
at two chalkoi a choinix, or two drachmas a medimnos. The period of Diogenes is
toward the end of the third century B.C. On the authority of Varro, Pliny gives the
price of 30 pounds of dried figs in Rome in 150 B.C. as one as."19About the same time,
Polybios gives the price of figs for lower Lusitania in Spain as a talent's weight for
three obols,120but T. Frank has explained that this and other quoted prices seem so
preposterouslylow because the area was excluded from the markets for heavy goods.12'
All of these prices, it should be emphasized, are for dried figs. In the Edict of Dio-
cletian of A.D. 300, however, prices for figs of different types are given.122The maxi-
mum price for the best quality was 4 denarii for 25 pounds, and common figs were 4
denarii for 40 pounds. T. Frank has estimated this last figure as equal to 1.7 cents
in terms of the gold dollar of 1932.123
16. 4aKog (I, 125; II, 92). Lentil, Ervum Lens."24Lentils, as other legumes,
were grown for food, fodder, and for the purpose of fertilizing the fields.125Athe-
naeus devotes several chapters to the humble lentil soup and gives many recipes.126
For the price of lentils, see below, p. 199.
17. xE'pXvo0(KE'yXpog) (II, 138). Common millet,127 Panicum miliaceum. In
comparing kenchros with melinos, Theophrastos states that the former is the more
robust plant, the latter is sweeter.'28 We know from Xenophon that kenchros was
grown in Cilicia.'29Pliny states that there is no food which the Pontic people prefer to
115 Columella,XII, 14.
116
For the Attic dried figs, which were very much esteemed, see Athenaeus, XIV, 652b-653b.
Cf. also Suetonius, Aug., 76, 1.
117
See Olck, op. cit., 2134-2135.
118
De tranquillitate animi, 470 F.
119 H.N., XVIII, 17.
120 Polybios,XXXIV, 8, 9.
121 Economic Survey, I, p. 196. Cf. Van Nostrand, " Roman Spain," ibid., III, pp. 140-141.
122 Col. VI, 78, 79, 84, 85, 88.
124
See Hehn, Kulturpflanzen7, pp. 212, 218-219; Fournier, Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Cibaria, 1144 b.
125 Columella, II,
10, 15-16; Pliny, H.N., XVIII, 123.
126 IV, 156 d-159 f.
127
See N. Jasny, " Wheats," p. 12.
128 H.P., VIII, 7, 3.
129 Anab., I, 2, 22.

Italian millet,130but Galen comments on the superiority of kenchros.'3' Athenaeus

quotes a fragment from Anaxandrides (41, line 23: Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 151) in
which a pot of millet is listed as part of a dower which was contributed for a brilliant
banquet.132For a beer made from kenchros, see Athenaeus, X, 447 d.
The maximum price of uncrushed kenchros in the Edict of Diocletian was 50
denarii for one castrensis modius; 100 denarii for crushed millet.'33
MEASURES
Plutarch (Mor. 416 B) observed that "often the measures and the things
measuredare called by the same name, as, for example, the kotyle, choinix, amphoreus
and medimnos." That there were standards for dry and liquid measures of capacity in
the time of our inscriptions appears clearly from Andokides, De Mys., 83, Plato, Lg.,
746 D-E, and, more particularly, Aristotle, Ath. Pol., 10. Aristotle compared the
measures of his own day, which he believed to be the same as those of Solon, with
the pre-Solonian measures, which he believed to be Pheidonian. In this part of the
study of the Attic Stelai, we shall be concerned with the words only as they are used
in the sense of measures. The same words, where they are used of containers, will
be discussed by Mr. Amyx in Part III of this study.
The entire study of metrology is now very much in a state of flux. This results
from the probability, first, that individual city-states may have changed their official
measures throughout the course of antiquity; and, secondly, that capacities were not
necessarily uniform from one city-state to another. The situation may be much like
that with regard to the Greek festival calendars. It is quite obvious that there is
pressing need for study in this area, study which should be based on the archaeological
evidence; and the present writer can only regard his conclusions as very tentative.
In our lists, the dry measures, according to which grains, figs, and almonds were
sold, are as follows:
Measure Product'34
fIKlYaKtOV" Italianmillet,sesame,commonmillet
Barley
ft8aKiVtl Barley
0p,uos Almonds, coriander, barley bitter
vetch, wheat, figs, lentils
130H.N., XVIII, 101.
131 De aiim. fac., I 15, 3.
132 IV, 131c.
133
Col. I, 4 and 5.
134
Listed in the order of the discussionabove.
13-5Also noted by Pollux (X, 169) as found in the Demtioprata.
In addition, we know from Pollux that three pu46pputatof salt were sold in the
Demioprata.136
The liquid measures are:
Measure Product
xovg Wine
dLp4OpEV' Wine, vinegar
a-Taptvog Oil, olives, wine, vinegar
DRY MEASURES
n?7/OaKTLoV.There is insufficientevidence to determine the size of this measure, if

indeed it represented a fixed capacity. The word has hitherto been known only from
the reference in Pollux to the Demioprata. Pollux quotes an entry which may have
been copied from our Stele II, lines 136-137. Liddell-Scott-Jones gives no example
of uaKLO1 as a measureand but one of O-aKKO3, in a papyrus dated in A.D. 185.1"7
uE'8t/tvo3. F. Hultsch has estimated the capacity of this dry measure in Athenian
standards as 52.53 liters,"38 which would make it approximately 1'2 bushels by United
States standards.'39The U. S. Government, for customs purposes, assumes that 60
pounds of wheat or 48 pounds of barley comprise the equivalent of a bushel measure.
An Attic medimnos of wheat, then, would weigh 90 pounds; a medimnos of barley,
72 pounds.140
The Attic form is for =rnaKvts of other dialects. The word has hitherto
Sb8LaKV&ws.
appearedonly in Pollux, who knew it from the Demioprata,"4'although the diminutive
form pithcaknionis more common. Phidaknis occurs only once in our Stelai and then
in connection with barley.142The alternative form phidakne (pithakne) is best known
from the picturesque language of the Equites of Aristophanes where the poet refers
to the influx of the country-folk into Athens, which was too small to contain them,
136 X, 169.
137
U. Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka aus Aegypten und Nubien, Leipzig and Berlin, 1899, no.
1096.
138 Op. cit., p. 703.
139
American excavations on the north slope of the Acropolis and in the Agora have brought to
light Athenian containers which had been used as official measures. Preliminary reports concerning
their capacities have clearly indicated that the older conclusions of Hultsch on Athenian metrology
are approximately correct. See, in particular, 0. Broneer, Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 223; S. Young,
Hesperia, VIII, 1939, p. 280; M. Crosby, Hesperia, XVIII, 1949, p. 111; and H. A. Thompson,
Hesperia, XXIV, 1955, pp. 69-70. The estimates of Viedebantt, which had come to be regarded as
standard, are too low.
140 The ancients used measures, not weights, and this fact has misled some writers, including
Glotz, in their calculations; see N. Jasny, Amer. Hist. Rev., XLVII, 1941-42, p. 752, note 11; and
Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. in Hist. and Pol. Sc., LXII, 1944, p. 80, note 34.
141 X, 74; cf. Pollux, X, 131.
142
V, 21.
and to their dwelling in phidaknai.'43Hesychius and Suidas define them as small pithoi.
Athenaeus states that at symposia and the public mess the wine is mingled in
pithaknai.'44 Ion of Chios spoke of ladling wine with jugs (olpaei) from sacred
pithaknai.45 Liddell-Scott-Jones cites several examples in which the jar was used for
storing figs, etc. These references give a general idea of the size of the cask; its exact
capacity cannot be determined. 9
bopji6s. The phormos was much the most commondry measure used in our Stelai.
Unfortunately, it is a measure about which very little is known. C. D. Adams in his
commentary on Lysias has written, " The word means a basket; but as to how much
the standard grain basket held we have no knowledge whatever." 146 The word is not
discussed in Viedebantt's standard work on the subject of measures,147nor in Tan-
nery's article Mensura in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnacire;nor does it appear in the
index to Hultsch's Metrologicorum scriptorum reliquiae (2 vols., Leipzig, 1864 and
1866). But that it was an officialmeasure referred to in a nomos is clear from Lysias,
XXII, 5.148 In the speechAgainst the GrainDealers,it is statedthat the provisionof
the law was that no retailer, under penalty of death, should buy more than fifty
phormoi at a time. The oration was probably delivered in 386 B.C., at a time when the
Spartans had dislodged the Athenians from Aegina and were able to menace the
grain ships approaching the Peiraeus. B6ckh suggested that the phormos was a
' back-load,' similar to the cumera of the Italians, and that it could not have differed
much from the medimnos 149 which, being more than 52 liters, would probably have
held about 90 pounds in weight.150There is a passage further on in the same oration
(XXII, 12) which states that the dealers sometimes sold grain " at a profit of a
drachma just as though they were buying a medimnos at a time." Shuckburgh states
that the profit of a drachma was per phormos,751and if so, it is a not unreasonable
inference that the phormos and medimnos were identical. To judge from the prices
of wheat in our Stelai, we can say that there is no other Attic dry measure with which
143Line 792.
144XI, 483 d.
145 A. Nauck, T.G.F.2, 734.
146 Lysias, Selected Speeches, New York, 1905, p. 222. Cf. Gernet and Bizos, Lysias, II,
Paris, 1926, p. 82.
147 " Forschungen zur Metrologie des Altertums " in Abh. der konigl. sdchs. Gesellschaft der
Wissensch., Phil.-hist. Ki., XXXIV, no. 3, Leipzig, 1917.

148 In Aristophanes, Thesm., 813, there is reference to the wife who has stolen a phormos of
wheat from her husband. For an interpretation of the passage, see B. B. Rogers, ad loc.
149 A. Bockh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 104. Cf. F. Hultsch, Metrologie2, pp. 106-
107.
150The standard U. S. bushel (35.2383 liters) holds 77.6274 pounds of distilled water at 39?
Fahr. The U. S. Government for customs purposes has established the equivalent of a bushel of
wheat as 60 pounds.
151 Lysiae Orationes, XVI, London, 1882, p. 318.
the phormos can reasonably be connected. We have, therefore, followed B6ckh in

regarding the phormos as equivalent to the medimnos.'52We should not fail to add,
however, that whereas vetch, lentils, and wheat were sold by the phormos in II, 91-93,
barley was sold by the medimnos in the following entry.
LIQUID MEASURES
xovi3. For the secure identification of the chous, when used as a measure, as
equivalent to 3.283 liters in the metric system, see 0. Broneer, Hesperia, VII, 1938,
pp. 222-224; S. Young, Hesperia, VIII, 1939, pp. 274-284; and M. Lang, B.C.H.,
LXXVI, 1952, pp. 24-25.
acp4opEv3. A discussion of the word in the sense of a container is made by
Professor Amyx. In this study, the acmphoreushas been given the equivalent of a
metretes, or twelve choes. This is in accordance with the conclusion, for example,
of Hultsch (op. cit., p. 101) on the basis of literary evidence. Moreover, Miss Lang
has conveniently summarizedthe measurementsof 36 amphoraslisted in Brauchitsch's
Die panathenaischenPreisamphoren as follows: . the Panathenaic amphoras of
the earliest fifth century <held>. . . twelve times the early fifth century chous and have
dimensions which are simple multiples of the chous." 163 Unfortunately the literary
evidence cited by Hultsch condenses down to one decisive passage from the fifth-
century comic poet Philyllios (Frag. 7: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 783), which was quoted
by Pollux: 154
OLt /1EV OV ThV"8
, ac/lbopEv,
8tOCt)UtvI, cE`v fov'TEaTvT avr
TpV,pcora EXELV
ovoc,u aLETp?p7WV /IETpLOT71-O1 ELIVEKa.
But Wernicke has protested that this is only a joke,'55and was misinterpreted by
Pollux (X, 70). The speaker is making a pun about the moderate size of the wine
jar placed before him. The point is well taken, and when Hultsch in 1894 returned to
a treatment of the amphoraas a measure, he did not repeat hlis earlier determination.156
More recently Miss Lang has written, on the basis of unpublishedmeasurements, that
" the ordinary amphora of Greek as well as Roman times is more likely to hold eight
choes " (Hesperia, XXV, 1956, p. 3). Although the archaeological evidence is not
152 Similarly, it may be noted that the kados, ' jar,' was equivalent to the amphoreus, 'a liquid
measure,' according to Pollux, X, 71.

153B.C.H., LXXVI, 1952, p. 26, note 1.
154The value of Moeris' note (p. 45: Pierson), which is not mentioned by Hultsch, seems to me
problematical: a-,uopE5s 'ATTLKOL', LETpETVq'EAAXves.
155 RE. s.v. Amphora1, col. 1970.
156R.E., s.v. Amphora 2. As an Attic measure in the Roman period, Hultsch now identified the
amphora as two-thirds of a metretes and referred for this identification to an article s.v. Quadrantal.
With the passage of some sixty-four years, the R.E. unfortunately has not yet embraced the letter Q.
decisive, the present writer has with some hesitation accepted the figure of 12 choes
because the first of Miss Lang's two groups, the Panathenaic amphoras of the early
fifth century (see note 153), is presumably closer in date to our inscription.
O(r-awoS. Stamnos has not been grouped with dry measures although our Stelai
refer to stamnoi of olives (II, line 118), as well as those of oil, wine, and vinegar. It
seems preferable to assume in the absence of any evidence of stamnos as a dry measure
that the olives were in brine or in oil; hence not 'dry.'
Stamnos is used as a measure of oil in a Greek inscription from Stratoniceia in
the time of Iovian.57 The price of the oil is given as 10,000 denarii per stamnos
" because of the continuous unfruitfulness of the olive crop." 158 Moeris, the second-
century grammarian,has equatedthe stamnos with the amphora,159 which would give it
a capacity of 10.3 U. S. gallons (8.5 British, or imperial, gallons). In Pollux X, 72,
the stamnos is mentioned in connectionwith wine containers.
Recently the French have found in Thasos a sekomnaof which the two cavities are
labelledETAMNO and HMIAM4OPIN.160 On the side of the sekoma is a dedication
by an agoranomos and the word 01 NHPA (i. e. tETp), ' wine-measures.' There can
be no doubt, then, that in Thasos about the first century B.C., which seems to be the
date requiredby the letter-forms, the stamnos is a liquid measure. Professor Georges
Daux has kindly informed me that the capacity of this Thasian stamnos is 7.68 liters,
or one-half the capacity of the Thasian 'half-amphora.' It was exactly equivalent,
then, to a quarter of an amphora. This evidence, it is possibly needless to add, does not
prove that the stamnos was a uniform unit of measure in Athens of the fifth century;
it does prove that the word was so used at times in the Greek world.
PRICES
WHEAT
Prices paid for wheat were as follows:
Sales Price Item Reference
[P]HIl rvp8v?bop1rs I, 137
[F']I- 1VPOV00pt9] T,138
Phil ivpov 0op,u[I] 1, 139
157
Syll.3, 900, line 27. For other evidence of its use as a measure, see Hultsch, Metrologicorum
scriptorum reliquiae, II, p. 216.
158
Dittenberger (loc. cit., note 12) regarded the price as an obvious exaggeration. However, L.
Robert, Atudes anatolieames, Paris, 1937, p. 346, has collected other examples of high prices during
periods of scarcity.
lP9 p. 44 (ed. J. Pierson, Lexicon Atticum, 1831). Cf. schol. Aristophanes, Rancae,22. Hultscb
(Metrologie2, p. 108) computes 39.395 liters for the amphora.
160 I owe the knowledge of this sekoma to the kindness of Dr. Virginia Grace and Professor G.
Daux. Two photographs of it have now appeared in B.C.H., LXXIX, 1955, p. 365.
Furthermore, wheat, along with barley, lentils and bitter vetch, was sold in
Eretria in one lump sum as follows:
opo68ov op1itotPll
HPA 4aKOv bopPo'9 I II, 91-95
'rTVpOv bopptoi AP
Kpt [ 0] OV'
E' [8&l] VOq
From the three references in Stele I, we see that the price of wheat varied between
6 and 6'2 drachmas per phormos. This variation is probably to be explained by the
difference in quality of the wheat, as seems to be the case in an inscription containing
prices paid for wheat in 329/8 B.C., where the record shows that most of the wheat
brought six drachmas per medimnos, but ten measures were sold for only five
drachmas."6'
For purposes of comparison,the following table gives the known prices of wheat
at Athens throughout the fourth century and in the first part of the third.
Prices of Wheat at Athens 162
Date Price per medimnos Reference
Beginning of 6 I.G., JJ2, 1356
fourth century
393 3 Arist., Eccl., 547-8
340-330 9 I.G., 112, 408, line 13
ca. 330 16 [Demosthenes], XXXIV, 39
5
330/29 5 I.G., 112, 360, line 9
329/8 6 I.G., JJ2, 1672, line 287
329/8 5 163 I.G., 112, 1672, line 288
324 5 I.G., JJ2 360
295 300 or 1800164 Plutarch, Demetr. 33
161 I.G., II2, 1672, lines 287-288.
162
This table is based on F. Heichelheim, R.E., Supplement VI, s.v. Sitos, 887-888.
163 The lower price in the same document is probably to be explained by inferior quality of the
wheat.
164 The preserved text of Plutarch states that 300 drachmas was the price for a modios (% of a
medimnos) during the seige of Athens by Demetrios Poliorketes. The lower figure rests on an
emendation of the text by Wilamowitz and is the one frequently adopted; see W. S. Ferguson,
Hellenistic Athens, London, 1911, p. 133 and A. Jarde, Cere'ales,p. 176, note 3. During the siege of
Athens by Sulla, a medimnos of wheat brought 1000 drachmas; see Plutarch, Sulla, 13. The author
of the second book of Aristotle's Oeconomiccagives several examples of extortion rates in times of
scarcity.
The average price of wheat at Athens in the fourth century B.C. according to
this table was more than 6 drachmas per medimnos. In [Demosthenes], XXXIV,
Against Phormnio,39, it is expressly stated that the normal Athenian price was five
drachmas.165For prices elsewhere, the most convenient summary is given by Larsen
from Delian figures.166" In 282 the average price of wheat for seven months was
6 dr. 5 ob. For 281 and 279 Jarde (173-175) estimates an average price of 9 dr. 5 2
ob. and 8 dr. 3X2 ob. respectively but considers these prices abnormally high. For the
first part of the second century Heichelheim repeatedly lists but questions a price of
10 dr." 167
For Roman prices of wheat there is considerable evidence, which has been sum-
marized by T. Frank in Economic Survey, I, for various periods.168Three sesterces
a modius ('A medimnos) was an average price for wheat in peacetime.
If we accept the identification of the phormos with the medimnos, the price of
wheat in 414 B.C. was over twenty per cent higher than what is given in [Demosthenes]
as the normal price. Our figures, moreover, give a slight clue to the cost of living at
Athens. We know that the ration of the Spartan soldier in the field was one forty-
eighth of a medimnos.'69At our figures this ration would have cost 45 drachmas per
year in a period when a workman earned a drachmaper diem and worked 300 days per
annum. This may be regarded as a maximum figure, for the Spartan soldier was given
a very liberal allowance and his servant was given only half as much.170
--5I.G., I12, 400, speaks of ' the established price.'
166 R
Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, p. 384. Cf. Day, Ec. Hist. of Athens, p. 7.
167
Cf. the table in L. Spaventa de Novellis, op. cit., p. 49.
168 Pp. 49, 77, 97-98, 158-159, 191-192, 283-284, and particularly 402-404.
169 Herodotos, VII, 187; Thucydides, IV, 16; VII, 87. For detailed estimates of the cost of
living in the third century, see the careful tabulations of Larsen, op. cit., pp. 412-414.
170 It may be noted here that two frequently quoted fifth-century prices have not been taken
to
refer to wheat. In Plutarch (Solon, 23) the price of grain is given as one drachma in the Solonian
sacrificial valuations. The type of grain is not specified. Several scholars (Jarde, Ce're'ales,pp. 123
and 178; M. N. Tod in Cambridge Ancient History,- V, p. 25) regard it as barley. Secondly,
Plutarch (De tranquillitate animi, 470 F) puts into the mouth of Sokrates the words 3o,8o0v To
upWETov.This would make the medimnos equal two drachmas. But the grain here specified is clearly
alphita.
The evidence of the fifth-century sacred calendar in the Elgin Collection, which has been most
recently published as I.G., 12, 842, is probably not to be connected with grain prices. The right
side of this early Fasti, which exhibits a script with three-bar sigma, reads in part as follows:
e'Hp[qf]v 7rvp65v TpEZs /38Xot'.Prott (Leges graecorum sacrae, I, Leipzig, 1896, p. 6), who
Uvo xOCVuKE,
published the text as no. 2 of his Fasti Sacri, stated that the form 03l3eAo6 must refer to a loaf of
bread, and there is ample evidence for the use of the form with this meaning, as it must now be noted
against Prott's objections for its use as a coin. On the other hand, Hicks (Ancient Greek Inscriptions
in the British Museum, I, Oxford, 1874, p. 136), who was the first editor of the text, believed that
the reference was to the price of wheat: "To the two heroes, two choinixes of wheat, (price)
three obols." This would make the medimnos, which contained 48 choinikes, amount to 12 drachmas.
B6ckh has suggested with reference to the prices in a similar sacred calendar that a considerable
OROBOS
The price of orobos can be roughly estimated from the five line entry in II, 91-95,
the total of which amounted to 160 drachmas. If we allow 97' 2 drachmas for the
fifteen phormoi of wheat (6? dr. per phormos) and approximately 3 drachmas for
the medimnos of barley,"' we are left with 59Y2drachmas for the 7 phormoi of orobos
and the one phormos of phakos. If the two latter sold at the same rate, the price per
phormos would be 7' 2 draclimas. Records of the sale of orobos are few. In a papyrus
from Karanis dated in A.D. 191 (some 600 years later than our figure) the price of an
artaba of orobos and an artaba of wheat is identical: eighteen drachmas.'72Barley,
incidentally, was slightly more than one-half this price. In the Edict of Diocletian
(A.D. 301) the price of orobos was fixed at the same price as wheat (sitos), 100 denarii
for one castrensis modius.'73As to the price of phakos, there is more abundant evi-
dence from Egypt, for lentils were there equated with wheat in payment of tax.174
Similarly, in the Edict of Diocletian, the maximum price of lentils was made the same
as the price of wheat (sitos) and orobos.'75 Our figure then, which indicates that
certainly orobos, and probably phakos, was a drachma per phormos higher than
wheat, seems not entirely unreasonable.
OINOS
The two entries in our Stelai which preserved wine prices are as follows: 176
Price Entry Reference

[..]HFAAA olvoao[p [----1 VI, 60-61
1PAAAA Tp[eL] XOE[ ]
profit was allowed to the priests (Staatshaushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 132); and hence that these
documents should not be used as evidence for current prices (cf. J. H. Oliver, Hesperia, IV, 1935,
p. 27). Other sacrificial calendars (cf. S.E.G., X, 348) consistently establish prices, but such prices
seem to be indicated by numerals. It is not clear where numerals would be inscribed in our text,
which preserves both right and left sides at the place in question. Finally, Tod (Num. Chron., 6th
Ser., VII, 1947, p. 1) has defined these obeloi as ' spits' and has cited the parallel of a Coan sacri-
ficial calendar. In any case, one would hesitate to use the lines in question as evidence for retail
prices.
171 The price of barley was normally about half that of wheat; see Jarde, Ce're'ales, pp. 182-183.
Cf. Larsen, op. cit., p. 384. In I.G., 112, 1672, lines 283 ff., 298 ff., where the price of wheat is given
as 5-6 drachmas, the price of barley is 3 to 3% drachmas; and in I.G., 112, 408, the prices of wheat
and barley are 9 and 5 drachmas, respectively.
172 E. J. Goodspeed, " Greek Papyri from the Cairo Museum," University of Chicago Decen-
nial Publications, V, Chicago, 1904, p. 33.

173 Col. I, 16.
174
Grenfell, Hunt, and Hogarth, Fayum Towns and their Papyri, London, 1900, 101; and
Westermann and Keyes, Columbia Papyri, Greek Series II, New York, 1932, I. 6.
175 Col. I, 11.
176
For the number of letter spaces in the sales prices, see below, p. 255.
[ . ]AA/\ ot'vo alioop[E]s 'ATIt*[KO] VI, 64-65

Kacapo HIII
E1[1 ]]Td Xo[es]
Before any computation can be made with regard to the price of the wine, the
meaning of the phrases ' three-choes ' and ' seven-choes ' must be determined. Are they
modifiers which indicate the capacity of jars called amphoras, or do they refer to the
quantity of the wine sold? It should be noted, as both Miss Mabel Lang and Miss
Virginia Grace have kindly informed me, that there seem to be preserved from this
period actual jars of the capacity of three choes and of seven choes, containers of
different standard sizes.177Secondly, one might expect, a priori, that reference to three
and seven choes, as quantities of wine sold, would be in the form XoEsIIIand XOEsFI I,
just as the references to the amphoreis of wine were by numerical symbols. Thirdly,
it may seem significant that if we have in the second entry 104 ' seven-choes ' am-
phoras, the price for the total sale can easily be completed as 520 drachmas, which
would give an even number of five drachmas for the price of each amphora of wine.
Furthermore, the price of the 590 'three-choes' amphoras of the first entry could be
completedas 1180 drachmas,which would yield a price of 2 drachmas for each ' three-
choes ' amphora, a price which is very close to being three-sevenths of the price of 5
drachmas per ' seven-choes ' amphora in the second entry. The ratio for the prices
in the two entries, as restored, would be 2.46: 1, which is almost exactly the ratio of
the quantities.
Nonetheless, the writer believes that the syntax will not permit this interpreta-
tion: the ' three-choes ' and ' seven-choes ' must refer to the quantity of the wine sold.
If the capacity of the jars were designated, one would expect either genitives of
measure or adjectival forms in -xoos, not the nominative case. Such adjectival com-
pounds (E'r6aXoogJ etc.) are collected in Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 178.
This point of syntax is in my opinion fundamental. As to the use of cardinal numerals,
it may be noted that they were several times used in this same inscription (lines 29,
68, 69, 70) in lines very near the passages under discussion. Furthermore, there are
epigraphical parallels to the practice of putting large numbers as signs following the
noun and smaller numbers as cardinal numerals usually preceding the noun; see I.G.,
112, 1672, line 267 (Kpt AAAFII EKTEVS TpEtS XOWVMKES), line 279 (E8ttvot XHPIll
VULEKTEMa rErrapaU3o XoWYKES). For numerous other examples, see lines 264, 268, 269,
270, 270-271, 279, etc. As far as the even prices go, the two batches of wine need not
have been of exactly the same quality, and so the achievement of the same price per
unit in both entries need not be truly significant.
In our former entry, then, 6963 choes, or 590.25 metretes of wine were sold; in
see V. Grace's article "Standard Pottery Containers" in Hesperia, Suppl. VIII:
177Also,
"Ancient pointed amphoras available for measurement do actually show very considerable vari-
ations" (p. 176).
the latter, 1255 choes, or 104.58 metretes. A metretes contains twelve choes. The
ratio of the quantities is 4.83: 1.
To determine the numerals which may reasonably be restored for the cost prices
of the two entries, the more significant figures for the prices of wine in classical
antiquity have been collected. For the fifth century, there are no Athenian prices for
wine preserved in literary sources unless we regard Hesychius' gloss on Trikotylos
oinos as reflecting the price in the period of Old Comedy, as V. Ehrenberg does.178
Trikotylos, which occurs in Aristophanes, Thesm., 743, and in adesp., 1320 (Kock,
C.A.F., III, p. 628) is defined by Hesychius as an obol's worth of wine. A metretes
at this rate would be worth eight drachmas. In a fragment of Alexis,179the price of
wine is given as ten obols a chous, which is at the rate of twenty drachmas a metretes,
but the price appears to be an exaggeration in a comic author. Plutarch states that in
the time of Sokrates a costly Chian wine was worth one hundred drachmas the
metretes.180
From the fourth century, we have the statement in [Demosthenes], XLII,
Against Phainippos, 20, that wine was sold at a price of 12 drachmas a metretes, but
later in the same oration the speaker states that wine had been disposed of at three
times its former price.181The latter price for the metretes would be only four
drachmas. In [Demosthenes], XXXV, Against Lakritos, 10 and 18, there is reference
to a marine loan, which usually amounted to fifty per cent of the capital required,182
on three thousand keramia of Mendaean wine at three thousand drachmas. The
borrowers gave out, moreover, that they possessed security for three hundred drach-
mas more;183 So the goods were valuedat a price of two drachmasa keramion. In
this sum was included the cost of the vessels, for reference is made to the stowage of
the wine. If we assign a capacity of eight choes to the keramion as a unit of measure-
ment, the figure used by Larsen for his Delian estimates,184the price of the wine
would amount to three drachmas a metretes.185
As instances of very low prices in extremely fertile areas outside of Greece,
178 op. cit., p. 223.
179 Kock, C.A.F., II, 301.
180De tranquillitate animi, 470 F.
181 XLII, 37. Clearly, the barley, quoted with the wine, sold at a price much higher than normal.
182
See G. M. Calhoun, Journal of Economic and Business History, II, 1930, p. 581.
183
See the commentary of Paley-Sandys, Select Private Orations of Demosthenes, 3rd edition,
Cambridge, 1898, pp. 71-72.
184
op. cit., pp. 393-395: " It is probable but not certain that when keramion was applied to a
unit smaller than the 12-choes metretes it meant par excellence an 8-choes measure (cf. Viedebantt,
s.v. Kepacptov,P.-W., XI, 254)." F. Heichelheim (Schwankungen, p. 111) regards the keramion as
equivalent to 6 choes.
185Apart from literary references, graffiti on ancient jars may sometimes be interpreted as
referring to the price of the contents. Some such were reported by L. Talcott in Hesperia, IV, 1935,
pp. 495-496, 515-516.
Polybios states that the metretes of wine in the Po Valley was worth two obols and
in Lusitania one drachma.'86T. Frank states that these prices seem preposterously
low, and he explains that neither area had an export market; 187 the normal Roman
price was six to eight times the Lusitanian price. For Ptolemaic Egypt, Heichelheim
has presented a lengthy table for the price of wine in which it appears that the cheapest
price per keramion, which he regards as a half metretes, is 3% drachmas and that the
average is considerably higher.188Concerning Delos, Larsen has written, " The one
definite fact known concerning the price of wine is that in 296 B.C. 1 metretes cost
11 dr." 189 He notes that the normal sum was 10 drachmas and in another context
states that wine production could not have been profitable if the wine sold at 4
drachmas 3 obols a metretes.'90The prices of wine at Rome are given by T. Frank in
Volume I of the EcotnomicSurvey.'9' In Diocletian's Edict, the entire second para-
graph was devoted to the prices of wine. Vin ordinaire (10) sold for 8 denarii an
Italian pint (one seventy-second of a metretes), but good Italian wines brought much
higher prices.'02
To return to the problemof the numerals to be restored for the cost prices of the
two entries, we may offer the following table for some of the lowest figures which
may be restored.
Wine Prices
First Entry Total Price in Drachmtas Price per Metretes in Drachmas
(VI, 60-61) 380 .64
1280 2.17
2180 3.69
5280 8.94
6180 10.47
etc. etc.
186 II 15; and XXXIV, 8.
187 EconomicSurvey, I, pp. 195-197.
188Op. cit., p. 111. A. C. Johnson (Economic Survey, II, pp. 314-315) lists prices which will
give about the same average. There are, doubtless, additions from recent papyrological publications.
M. Segre, in identifying the figures 22 drachmas 1 obol with the price for a metretes of Cyprian
wine, has noted some such prices in Arnuario della Scuola archaeologica di Atene, XXVII-XXIX,
1949-1951, p. 322. For wine prices in Byzantine Egypt, see L. Casson, T.A.P.A., LXX, 1939,
pp. 1-16.
189 Op. cit., p. 392. For a more recent discussion of wine prices at Delos, see J. H. Kent,
Hesperia, XVII, 1941, p. 312.

190 Op. cit., p. 394.
191 Pp.
193, 284, 355, 403-404.
We have not included in our study of the price of wine any reference to the graffiti on
192
ancient amphoras (Hesperia, XXV, 1956, pp. 1-24). Their connection with wine is uncertain. Just
as the stamnos was associated in our inscriptions with oil, olives, and vinegar as well as with wine, so
we know from literary sources that the amphora was a container, for example, for oil, milk, and
Second Entry Total Price in Drachmas Prices per Metretes in Drachmnas

(VI, 64-65) 120 1.14
520 5.00
1020 9.81
etc. etc.
For the second entry, which gives the price of domestic Athenian wine, described
as katharos ('pure, unmixed'), I would favor the reading of the figures for 520
drachmas. This price would more nearly approximate the fourth century figure of
four drachmas a metretes inferred from [Demosthenes], XLII, Against Phainippos,
20 and 31; and, secondly, it is hard to overlook the coincidence that the figure of 520
drachmas results in the even figure of five drachmas a metretes-disregarding the
seven choes.'93
The first entry may well refer to unexported Thasian wine. The descriptive
adjective of line 60 is unfortunately lost, but the five preceding lines (VI, 55-59)
concern property on the island of Thasos, and lines 60-61, the concluding lines under
the name of Adeimantos, may well be part of the Thasian list. The restoration of the
sum of 2180 drachmas would give a ratio for the prices in the two entries of 4.19: 1,
which is close to the ratio of the quantities (4.83: 1). The price of 3.69 a metretes
might then be explained on the assumption that there was considerable war risk in a
purchase made in Athens of wine on Thasos. On the other hand, Thasian wine was
considered by Dionysos, in a fragment of Hermippos,194to be the best of wines, with
the exception of Chian; so a figure of 8.94, 10.47, or higher for a metretes may seem
preferable. There is scarcely evidence to permit a choice.
II. CLOTHING AND SHOES

The most convenient bibliography on clothing of the classical period is given by
F. Heichelheim, Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Altertumns,II, pp. 1048-49, note 35. Hei-
chelheim includes articles in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, and those published in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopaedie,up to 1938. In addition, there is a spate of works
on garments written primarily from the standpoint of the drapery in Greek sculpture.
These include L. Heuzey, HIistoire du costume antique, Paris, 1922; A. W. Barker,
" Domestic Costumes of the Athenian Women in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries,
B.C.," A.J.A., XXVI, 1922, pp. 410-425; M. Bieber, GriechischeKleidurng,Berlin and
pickled slices of dolphin (Simonides, 147: Diehl; Euripides, Cyclops, 327; Xenophon, Anab., V, 4,
28). Presumably the contents could be extended to a wide variety of products. A price on an
amphora is not, then, in itself necessarily an indication of the price of wine.
198 Since the standard United States gallon is equivalent to 3.7853 liters, the metretes would
amount to more than 10 gallons.
194 Kock, C.A.F., I, 249.
Leipzig, 1928, and Entwicklungsgeschichte des griechischen Trcacht,Berlin, 1934; and

G. M. A. Richter, Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, rev. ed., New Haven, 1950,
pp. 87-108. For ancient textiles in general, see the references given below, p. 249,
note 250. On the whole, however, the author has found the article of Leroux in
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Pallium, the most useful. This article is well
documented in the references to ancient sources. For the unusual difficulty in the
matter of defining articles of costume, reference should be made to the well-chosen
introductory remarks of Buck, Dictionary, p. 416.
We may also present here for convenience a few references to prices in the
literature where the garment is not specifically designated.1 We learn from Eupolis
(frag. 252) that in the twenties of the fifth century, a woollen garment was valued
at 20 drachmas. In the Ecclesiazcusaeof Aristophanes (ca. 392 B.C.), a pauper who
appearedat the Pnyx unclad is said to have announcedhimself in need of 16 drachmas
for an outer garment.2 Extravagant women paid as much as 1000 drachmas for
garments.!
For literature concerning footwear, reference may be made to Hug in R.E., s.v.
Schuh. Of the works there cited, use has particularly been made of K. Erbacher's
Wiirzburg dissertation (1914), Griechisches Schuhwerk.
As with clothing so wlith footwear, there are ancient references to prices for the
general category (hypodemata). These include a passage in the Plutus of Aristo-
phanes (388 B.C.),' in which a young man asks an old lady for eight drachmas to
purchase a pair of shoes. In the year 327 B.C. the accounts of the epistatai of Eleusis
show a payment for shoes for 17 slaves at the rate of 6 drachmas per pair.' Two
prytanies later for the repair of the same number of shoes a payment of 4 drachmas
per zeugos was made.6 In Lucian,7a pair of woman's shoes, of Sikyonian manufacture,
cost two drachmas.
1 For the price of a chiton of wool at Delos, see G. Glotz, Journal des Savan'ts, XI, 1913, p. 24
2 Line 413.
3 Adesp., 516 (Kock, C.A.F., III, p. 503).
4 Line 983.
5 I.G., 112, 1672, line 105. Cato (De agric., 59) assumes that a slave should have a pair of shoes
every other year.
6 Line 190; cf. line 230. The passage in question reads as follows: v{ronL/a'Tv 8?q/AOLOrLot KaTT7vaoJ,
Vo g &yov3 'A?roXAoOavyt TvpE18,ELFFFF,KE0aJAac rAPFIH. P. Guiraud (La Main-d'oeuvre industrielie

dcansl1ancienneGrece, Paris, 1900, p. 190) states that the price of repair was 2 drachmas per pair.
This would apparently require that we interpret zeugos as totalling four shoes. But it is clear, for
example, from the phrase tE6yo'eftuj8a8wv in Aristophanes, Equites, line 872, that zeugos here means
only one pair of slippers. The Sausage-seller gives the slippers to Demos to wear. It should be
noted that the word Ka'TTvTvS (Attic), or Ka'aaVat3 known only from I.G., 112, 1672, lines 190 anid
230, does not appear in Liddell-Scott-Jones. See, however, Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index,
p. 595.
7 D. Meretr., 14, 2.
Our evidence concerning clothes and footwear is very scattered, but no prices
seem to be cheap in terms of work-days.
The following table lists references to prices contained in Economic Survey, I-V.
For the most part, references are to general terms for clothing and shoes and they
afford little evidence for the prices of the specific items preserved in our lists.
Source Volume Pages Items
Rome I 194, 200 Clothing
Egypt II 318-320 Clothing, Shoes
Syria IV 179 Clothing allowance to one's wife'
186-187 Clothing
Greece IV 399-400 Clothing
Diocletian V 351-353 Shoes
Edict 369 ff. Clothing
1. adjTExovov(I, 160). Mantle or shawl. The garment is discussed in con-

nection with the himation by G. Leroux in Daremberg-Saglio, s.v. Pallium, 290 b.
It is here described as a Dorian mantle worn by the Syracusans of Theokritos, and
reference is made to Theokritos, 15, 21. Gow in his study of this idyll has defined the
ampechononas a " wrap, regularly worn by women at this period, which resembles an
ample himation, but is often made of thin and clinging materials which allow the
heavier folds of what is worn beneath to show through. It can be draped about the
figure in a great variety of ways, but when worn out of doors most usually envelops
both arms and also hoods the head." 9 He provides illustrations from terracotta
figures. Praxinoa's ampechononwas put on last and was torn in the crowd. In I.G.,
JJ2, 1514 ff., the inventories of the overseers of Artemis Brauronia, the ampechonon
appears as distinct from the himation.
2. E4cwpiq (VII, 107-111). Type of chiton or tunic. The garment was worn in
such a way as to leave the right shoulder bare and the arm free. The exomis is the
ordinary dress of workers and craftsmen, human and divine; it is a short plain rather
scanty garment, usually, as seen on the monuments, of some fairly heavy material.10
8 This interesting passage from the Talmud of the first or second century after Christ specifies
the minimum allowance to be made by a husband to his wife. The annual allowance included a hat,
an apron, new shoes for each major festival and new clothes to the value of fifty denarii. This was
prescribed for the poorest.
9 J.H.S., LVIII, 1938, pp. 185-186.
10 Cf. e. g., the vase-painter at work, on the bell-krater in Oxford, Cloche, Classes, etc., pl. XXII,
1; or, for Hephaistos, an oinochoe in New York (Richter and Hall, Red-Figured Athenian Vases
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Haven, 1936, pl. 142, no. 140). Here the contrast between
this garment and the fuller, often pleated, and much thinner short chiton, likewise often worn
exomos by horsemen and others and called by convention chitoniskos, is plainly seen; Hephaistos
For a description of this garment, see Heuzey, op. cit., pp. 37-62; and Amelung, R.E.,
S.V.XurG9V,2328-2330.
Aristophanes ( Vespae, 444) enumerates the exomis among the garments which a
master provides for his slaves. We are fortunate in possessing in the Eleusinian
building accounts of the year 327/6 three entries for exomides purchasedfrom various
himnatiopolcaifor public slaves.11The first entry was for eleven garments at 7 drachmas
3'2 obols each; the second for thirteen garments at 7 drachmas 1 obol; the last for
four garments at 7 drachmas 4 obols. The average price for the 28 exomides was
roughlly 7 drachmas 2 % obols. Sokrates says in Plutarch (Mor., 470 F) that the
price of the exomis at Athens was 10 drachmas.12
3. 4/tantov(I, 189-201, 209-210; VII, 101-106). Cloak, or loose outer garment.13
The hilnation, worn by both men and women, was a large rectangular piece of cloth,
seven or eight feet long, which could be wrapped about the body in every conceivable
way; it is familiar from innumerable representations in vase-painting and sculpture.
For the great variety of cloaks, see Heuzey, op. cit., pp. 85-113; G. Leroux in Darem-
berg-Saglio, Dictionaire, s.v. Pcallium;and Amelung, R.E., s.v. lov.
In the Plutus of Aristophanes (388 B.C.), the young man asks the old lady whom
he was pretending to woo for 20 drachmas to purchase an himation.4 He doubtless
had in mind one of superior quality.
In 329 B.C. the cost to the state of himatia for 17 slaves was 314 drachmas 3
obols.15 The purchase was made from a Megarian, Antigenes. The price for each
himation was 10 drachmas 3 obols. In the Delian records of the third century B.C., a
man's himation in 279 cost 24 drachmas; 16 in 274, 22 (?) drachmas; 17 in 269, 20
drachmas.'8 For 200 B.C. there are recorded two purchases of a man's himation for
20 drachmas and one purchase of a woman's himation at 30 drachmas.9 All of these
Delian garments, as well as the Athenian garments of 329 B.C., were for slaves and
must have been of a cheaper sort. In 92 B.C., the maximum value of himatia which
could have been worn in connection with the mysteries of Andania in Messenia varied
wears the exomis proper to his trade but his companion Dionysos wears the thinner more elaborate
short chiton.
11I.G., I12, 1673, lines 45 ff. Of the four himatiopolai named in these lines and in I.G., II2, 1672,
line 103, three were Megarians.
12 Cf. I.G., XI, 2, 287 A, line 87, where the price of a chiton is given as 10 drachmas.
13 For the derivation of the word, see, in particular, WV. Petersen, Greek Diminutives in -ov,
Weimar, 1910, p. 46; and Buck, Dictionary, pp. 395 and 416.
14
Lines 982, 983.
15 I.G., II2, 1672,lines 102-103.
16 I.G., XI, 2, 161 A, line 117.
17 I.G. XI, 2, 199 C, lines 59-60.
18 I.G., XI, 2, 203 A, line 60.
19 For references, see J. A. 0. Larsen, " Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, p. 399.
from 50 to 200 drachmas.20These values of course were for finer garments. For
prices of himatia in Egypt, see A. Segre, Circolazione monetaria e prezzi nel mondo
antico, Rome, 1922, p. 161.
Of the various items of clothing in our lists, the himatia are the only ones for
which there is a clue as to the price. The sales tax for a single himation was 3 drach-
mas.2' The price, then, falls into the 5-50 drachmas bracket.
4. KpcKq (I, 212). Woollen cloth. The word is derived from KpEK&O, and ety-
mologically means the 'woof, thread which is passed between the threads of the
warp.'22 In the passage of Euripides cited in Athenaeus, X, 413 d and in Aristophanes,
Vespae, 1144, the reference is to the 'nap' of the woollen cloth. In Pindar, Nem.,
10, 83, kroke seems to be used for a cloak of woollen texture. In Sophocles, O.C., 474,
it is woollen cloth.
Kroke in our list is qualified by the adjective 0a*vrq. This word, describing the
color of the cloth, takes its name from the thapsos, the fustic plant from the island of
Thapsos which is called by modern botanists Thapsia Asclepium L.23 A plant used by
dyers,24it imparted a yellow cadaverous or sallow hue which was associated with
the pallor of sickness and death.25 Plutarch associates thapsine with the color of the
fillets or headbandswhich entwined the mystic koitai, or chests.26 Significant for the
meaning of kroke in our texts is its position between two entries for the same word,
koite, 'chest.' Our yellow-colored woollen cloth must have been contained in or
been used as a cover for the chests.
If our arrangement of fragments d and h of Stele I is correct, a very rough
approximation of the cost of the material can be obtained. Only the first numeral of
the sales tax is preserved, but this is an obol sign, which means that the price of the
cloth was some figure between one obol and 49 drachmas 5 obols.
5. Tpt/3ov(II, 105-111). Thick cloak or mantle. For a description of the various
types, see M. Brillant in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Tribon, also G. Leroux,
s.v. Pallium, p. 290a; and E. Schuppe, R.E., s.v. Tribon. It is noted by these authors
that the original and early use of this word had nothing to do with 'used or ragged
clothing,' but that the tribon was rather a particular type of dress. The definition of
20 Syll.3, 736, lines 15-20.
21
IJ 209-210. The sales tax is inscribed on one stone, the word himation on another. Their
position with relation to one another is determined by counting upwards from the original last
lines of columns III and IV of the stele.
22 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. xp5w. It is not to be confused with kroke, meaning 'pebble,'
which is of different derivation.
23
See Bliimner, Technologie, I2, p. 251, and IV, p. 522.
24
See V. Chapot in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Tinctor, p. 340 b.
25
Aristophanes, Vespae, 1413.
26 Phocion, 28.
Liddell-Scott-Jones, 'worn garment, threadbare cloak,' is, therefore, not complete.

The Spartans wore a rather short himation, made of a warm and rough material, often
doubled, which was called the tribon or tribonion.27 It was introduced into Athens
following the Persian Wars, but was worn chiefly by young men, and was looked upon
as a sign of poverty.28
6. 'AuVKXa8ta, Ta (II, 203-204). Amyclean shoes. Amyclae was a city in Laconia.
Hesychius defines 'A1LVKXa8Eg as an expensive type of Laconian shoe. For a description
of the shoes, see Erbacher, op. cit., pp. 1-2; and Hug, R.E., s.v. ScJhuh,748.
7. a'crKE'pa (II, 148). Shaggy shoe for winter wear.29 Suidas terms it an Attic
shoe. For reference to the particular type of shoe, see Erbacher, op. cit., p. 3; and
Hug, R.E., s.v. Schuh, 748.
8. KOViTOVS (VI, 38; see below, p. 230, note 129).
This form [Kovi] wTO8Eg,suggested by the fact that the item came from the property
of a shoemaker, was offered as a restoration for line 38 of Stele VI. Tod, however,
has kindly invited my attention to the fact that the substitution of the restoration
[(oK ]7 O8ES would have the advantage that a fairly homogeneous group would then be
listed in consecutive lines. Lines 38-42 and possibly lines 35-42 (see below, s.v.
KpovvTE;uOv) would be items of furniture. This would seem a more probablerestoration.
It may be mentioned that the konipous was a type of sandal which covered only
part of the foot. The earliest mention of it is in Aristophanes, Eccl., 848, where the
context shows that it was rather elegant.30 A. A. Bryant suggests that it may have
been a kind of Chinese slipper without straps.3' For references and a description, see
Erbacher, op. cit., pp. 12 and 33.
9. KpqITt&8OV (II, 205). Type of sandal. The only meaning cited for krepidion
in Liddell-Scott-Jones is ' kerb,' which is doubtless derived from the general meaning
of ' groundwork, foundation' of krepis.32Since our word occurs after the entry for a
pair of Amyclean shoes, it must be taken as the diminutive of krepis in the meaning
of a type of sandal.33 Liddell-Scott-Jones has defined krepis as 'man's high boot,
half boot,' 3 but this meaning was corrected in the addenda (p. 2085) to 'shoe with
27
Plato, Prt., 342; Xenophon, Lac., II, 4; Demosthenes, LIV, Against Konon, 34. Cf. Plutarch,
Nicias, 19; Athenaeus, XII, 535 e.
28
Aristophanes, Eccl., 850; Isaios, V, Estate of Dikaiogenes, 11.
29
So Pollux, VII, 85.
30
Cf. the translation of Van Daele, 'fines sandales,' and see the commentary of Van Leeuwen,
ad loc.
81H.S.C.P., X, 1899, p. 79.
32 For krepis, see Buck, Dictionary, p. 428, who derives it probably from *(s)ker- 'cut.'
33The suffix -ion, when applied to footwear, usually has the meaning ' belonging to the category
of'; see Petersen, op. cit., p. 96.
34 Also Bryant, op. cit., p. 85.
upper or straps covering, or partly covering, the foot.' Gow, on the authority of
Plutarch and Pliny, has defined the krepis as " a nail-studded sole with loops at the
side by which it was laced to the foot." 3 Hippokrates, as cited by Galen,36the most
ancient authority, recommendedhis contemporaries to " wear shoes fitted with lead,
fastened on the outside by ties (straps) and having the same properties as the krepida
of Chios." This probably means a heavy peasant's shoe, suitable for long walks, in
which the nails of the sole are replaced by lead plates( ?). E. Pottier in Daremberg-
Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Crepida,states that such shoes can be seen in parts of modern
Greece; his article fully illustrates the sandal. See also Erbacher, op. cit., pp. 12-13,
and Bieber, R.E., s.v. Krepis.
10. KpOVWE'4tov (VI, 35; see below, p. 241). The form KpolrE]4ov, which occurs
in Pollux, X, where so many of our items are found, was offered as a restoration in
line 35 of Stele VI. The item had belonged to Aristarchos the shoemaker. But the
use of the singular number seems to weigh against this restoration, and the reading
[IrpaE'] 4tov, therefore, may be substituted.37
Pollux (VII, 87) refers to KpOVlrE4aas shoes with wooden soles. Kratinos (f rag.
310: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 103) mentions these as Boeotian. They correspond to the
Roman scabellumand are illustrated in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, IV, 2, pp. 317
and 1106. For further description, see Erbacher, op. cit., p. 14; and Hug, R.E., s.vv.
Schuh, 757; and Sculponea, 909.
11. G-Kta'&WoV (II, 144). Parasol. The history of the parasol is given by G.
Nicole in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnctire,s.v. Umbellca.The word is not mentioned
in Greek authors until a date roughly contemporary with our inscription,38but the
diminutive form uKLa8tO-Kq occurs in Anakreon (frag. 54, line 11: Diehl). The
skiadeion, however, was commonly represented on vase paintings at least as early as
the late sixth century B.c.,3gand later especially in works of Myson, the Pig Painter,
and the Mannerists generally. Vases with representations of parasols have been
studied particularly in connection with the festival Skira.40 Deubner has noted that
there are a great number of vases in which men clothed as women or women clothed
as men carry parasols.4' Beazley has describedthese figures as komasts. The footnotes
35 J.H.S., LVIII, 1938, p. 190. He cites Plutarch, Alex., 40, al.; Pliny, N.H., XXXV, 85;
XXXVI, 127.
36Art., IV (C. Kuhn, Medicorum Graecorum Opera, XVIII, p. 678).
37 See Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 72.
38 Aristophanes, Equites, 1348; Aves, 1508, 1550; Thesm., 823, 829; Eupolis, frag. 445 (Kock,
C.A.F., I, p. 367), etc..

"INaples 2729, C.V.A., pl. 27; and Beazley, A.R.V., p. 123, no. 29.
40 For a recent discussion of this festival, see F. Jacoby, F. Gr. Hist., 328 (Philochoros), Notes,
pp. 194-195.
41 A ttische Feste, Berlin, 1932, p. 49. Caskey and Beazley, Attic Vase Paintings in Boston, II,
London and Boston, 1954, p. 56.

of the publications of these two scholars contain numerous references to the ceramic
literature. On the Parthenon frieze, Eros holds a parasol to protect Aphrodite.
III. FURNITURE
Our record of the sale of confiscated furniture seems to show that there was
little sense of personal luxury in Athens in the last quarter of the fifth century, even
among men of wealth. Doubtless the couches, chairs, and tables listed had the same
elegant lines as the furniture pictured on vases and in reliefs, but there is no least
suggestion of the later kind of lavishness which brought Cicero, for instance, to pay
12,000,000 sesterces for a table of rare citrus wood. Greek furniture makers knew
how to make pieces that were costly as well as beautiful, but such elaborate products
were not intended for private use. Stools of ebony, couches inlaid with ivory, chests
of rare woods, tables with golden legs, and others covered with silver, are carefully
listed as such in the temple inventories of Athens, Eleusis and Delos, but the furniture
from the houses of the companions of Alkibiades was for the most part made simply
of wood. A few decades later Lysias, in arguing that Aristophanes had lived modestly,
maintained that the wealth of prominent men was always being overestimated by the
people; Aristophanes, he said, had had to borrow table vessels when he entertained
important guests, and in truth, many of the representatives of the old rich families
could make no show at all in the way of furniture.1 Though they may be exaggerated,
Lysias' remarks reflect a kind of distaste for any exhibit of private wealth, a distaste
which must have been prevalent enough at the close of the Periclean age to influence
even the circle of Alkibiades in its manner of living.2 Indeed, it is possible that these
young men went further than most, and affected certain " Spartan " simplicities.
Even for plain furniture the prices listed in the Attic Stelai are remarkably low.
When the property of Aristophanes was sold, that same household equipment which
had had to be pieced out with loans from friends brought 1000 drachmas; 'presumably
this included the furniture, dishes and utensils (but not the doors, which had been
stolen) of a fairly typical Athenian town house belonging to a man of some promi-
nence. Yet if we use the furniture prices found in our list and mentally furnish such
a house, it is almost impossible to reach a total expenditure much over 500 drachmas.
Does this really mean that the friends of Alkibiades lived about as rudely as the
Naxian farmer whose furniture, according to a mortgage stone of ca. 300 B.C., secured
500 drachmasof dowry? ' Probably not; rather, the low prices should be consideredas
ILysias, XIX, Property of Aristophanes, 30.
2
It is tempting to try to draw some conclusion from a fragment of Eupolis' Poleis, where house-
hold equipment is listed, but there is no knowing whether this catalogue was supposed to apply
to a poor or rich, country or city, house (frag. 228: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 320).
3 Lysias, XIX, 31.
4I.G., XII, Suppl., 195; see Finley, Studies in Land and Credit in Ancient Athens, New
a result of the low demand even among the wealthier citizens of Athens for commodi-
ties like furniture, after so many expensive years of war.
Table A, wherein the furniture prices in the Attic Stelai are summarized, may
help to make clear our statement about the cost of furnishing the typical Athenian
house. Assume even a very large town house with an upstairs room, and a family of
four adults, three children and fifteen slaves living comfortably: "if the prices of the
required items of furniture, as given in our list, are totalled, the result, after amounts
for utensils and furnishings have been added, is a figure of something near 650
drachmas.
TABLE A. FURNITURE PRICES
ARTICLE OF ATTIC STELAI DELOS ELSEWHERE IN GREECE
FURNITURE drachmas obols drachmas obols drachmcas obols
aLVAKXTL9- 2 1
or 6 1?
/aadopov I I
&'iPo9 1 2
EITtKXATPOV 15
Opavi8tov 5
Opo4vog
Ovpa 18 Epidauros 3rd c.
{39 2
20 3
8taptrro 20 4
crvvSpop4s 11 3/
KWfl/T69 (OVpAS.) 21 Eleusis 4th c.
20
r6 Epidauros ca. 300 B.C.
KXtv7) {6 4 19 12
MtXq7rtovpys {8 1
17 3
KXtV&8tOV 6 1
KXLVr7np
Brunswick, 1951, p. 72. In addition, it should be noted that Finley (Political Science Quarterly,
LXVIII, 1953, p. 255) believes that the property marked by a horos was as a rule worth at least
twice the amount of the indebtedness.
5 The figures for slaves are an extreme. I am well aware that Professor Gomme (J.H.S., LXVI,
1946, p. 128) would not allow, on the average, more than one domestic servant per adult among
the hoplite and richer classes, very few among the thetes.
less than
KOLI7) 5
XVXVELoV 1
vaparEmoa7a 10 1
Vrtvae 6 4 12-100
lTprIcXrKApol-
OCKq.LTOVg 2
TpdlTE4a 4 4 3
Terpa1rovs 6 2
barmP7 10 1
XaI.LEVva 17
The economic picture which emerges from this chapter on Greek furniture is of
a relatively simple mode of life. The words of Rostovtzeff, descriptive of the later,
Hellenistic, period, could equally well be cited for the fifth century: " House fur-
niture was very scanty: it consisted of a. few couches, chairs, tables, and chests of
various forms. In rich houses, couches for example-the best known pieces of
furniture-were real products of art, being adorned with bronze sculptures (on the
legs, backs, and side-supports), inlaid with ivory and coloured glass, and covered with
fine mattresses, rugs, and pillows. But in the average houses all the articles of fur-
niture were of plain design and cheap material. Table and domestic utensils, including
lamps, were mostly of clay and of comparatively few shapes and plainly made." 6
Rostovtzeff's statement may be comparedwith the opening sentence of Richter's book
on Greek furniture: " When we begin to study Greek furniture nothing is more
striking than the comparative simnplicityof the life of the Greeks." By modern stand-
ards, certainly, the Greekhouse must have been relatively empty.
The present chapter can be regarded only as an approach to the study of Greek
furn'iture. Probably in no other section of this work has the need been more obvious
for an authoritative work defining and illustrating all of the words studied. The
present writer has of course restricted his investigation to those terms which occur
in the Attic Stelai. But there is unquestionably material for an investigation of the
meaning of numerous related words. Present studies do not begin with the literary
material and are concerned for the most part with artistic representations and their
development.
Miscellaneous household furnishings, like pillows, bedspreads,and curtains, have
been considered with the furniture. From archaic times Greeks were fond of piling
their couches and chairs with colored cushions, and of draping them with rugs and
tapestries.7 It may have been in his choice of furnishings that an Attic householder
6 Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World, II, pp. 1203-1204.
7 See G. M. A. Richter,AncientFurniture,Oxford, 1926,figs. 6, 7, 69, 113, 118, 121, 152, 159,
161, 162, etc.
could proclaim his taste, for we find a plain hanging which sold for 10 drachmas,
suggesting that the embroideredones may have brought as much as two couches, or
three tables, or even the price of a house door.
Those words for furniture which occur in the Attic Stelai have been studied under
the following headings in this order: 1. Chairs. 2. Chests and Boxes. 3. Couches and
Beds. 4. Doors. 5. Lampstands. 6. Tables. 7. Furnishings. The Greek words are
arranged alphabeticallyunder each heading.
CHAIRS
There are six terms used in the Attic Stelai for pieces of furniture meant to be
sat upon, and one more, klinter, which seems to have denoted something between a
chair and a couch. Fifth-century painting and sculpture are rich in representations
of various sorts of seats, but it is sometimes difficult to establish a definite relation
between a given term and one of the pictured pieces of furniture. Richter, in her
Ancient Furniture, has made only three large distinctions: the throne, the chair with
a back (which she calls simply klismos), and the stool. There are two articles in the
Daremberg-Saglio Dictionnaire (Saglio, s.v. Cathedra, and Chapot, s.v. Sell) and
one by Hug in R.E., s.v. Stuhl, but in none of these is there much attempt at a close
consideration of the differences between various sorts of chairs.
1. awa'KXtOXt (I, 236). Chair having a back. This term appears only once in our
list, in a group of furniture items. Wilhelm 8 assumes that anaklisis equals canaklintron,
and refers to Pollux, VI, 9, where anaklintron is listed as a part of a bed, the same
as is referred to by Aristophanes, Eccl. 907, as epiklintron. Phrynichos, 130 (ed.
Rutherford, p. 207), stated that it was proper Attic usage to say epiklintron, not
anaklintron, and thus in another passage on beds Pollux (X, 34) uses only the term
epiklintron. It has been assumed that all three words might apply to the raised end
of a couch, on which one might rest an elbow while dining, or lean his head for sleep.
In support of this interpretation we find that Hesychius defines cmphikephcalosas a
bed which had an anaklintronat both ends.
However, if we do not immediately accept the equation of terms made above,
but consider only the uses of the special term ancaklisis,the result is somewhat different.
In Attic inscriptions this word is associated not with couches but with various sorts
of chairs. A typical entry is that of I.G., 112, 1421, lines 97-99: Opovot uE-yaXot rpEs
OVK V)/CE' c'cKXTEX 7)XE4?avT/EVcs.10 In I.G., IV, 39, line9 it is a bathronwhich
has an anaklisis. There might be some doubt as to whether this part of the chair were
the back or the arms, since according to Richter the thronos might appear with back
8 Jahreshefte, VI, 1903, p. 240.
9 Ransom, Couches and Beds, pp. 109 and 111.
10Cf. I.G., II2, 1415, line 26; 1425, lines 206-207; 1460, lines 6-7.
or arms, or both, or neither; 11 fortunately another item in a furniture list makes it

clear that an anaklisis is the back, against which one leans. In I.G., 112, 1379, line 4,
there is an oklcadia('folding chair') which has an anaklisis; 2 the singular could
conceivably be used for a pair of arms, but examination of vase-painting representa-
tions of okladiai 13 shows that the Greeks sat on their folding chairs with the two rigid
edges of the seat at front and back, unlike moderns. If the stool was to be collapsible
an anaklisis could be added only at the back. The meaning ' chair-back' which is
thus revealed is borne out in Et. Mag., s.v. KXtV1'pEs where that elongated chair or
chaise-longue is describedas having an anaklisis.
In all the cases listed above, the anaklisis is clearly described as a part of a chair
item. There is, however, one inscription besides our own which lists it separately, as
though it were not a part of anything but an independent item. This is a dedicatory
inscription from western Cilicia belonging to the Roman period: the priest of a
temple of Hermes records that he provided from his own funds the anaklisis, the
apoklimakosis, and the mageireion for the temple."4 Hicks has suggested that the
first gift may have been an outdoor bench of some kind; whether or not this was the
case, in the absence of any modification it must have been, if a piece of furniture, a
whole piece.15 Another inscription lists its later repair." Robert has reported an
inscription from Asia Minor which lists four avaKXvrv)pta as separate items; the
editor, in rejecting the sense of 'couch- or chair-rests ' for this term, compares it with
the anaklisis of the Attic Stelai, and would define both as comfortable chairs, having
backs."7This seems to be the best meaning for the item as it stands in our list, since
it was sold separately as a whole piece of furniture.
Price. The price of the anaklisis in our inscription was at its lowest 2 drachmas 1
obol; the next possible price is 6 drachmas 1 obol. If what was sold was something
like one of the elegant curved-backed chairs so often seen on vases,'8 or if it was
similar to the klinter, which Hesychius called a &4pos av'a'KXCros, the higher price
(nearly the same as the price of a kline) is appropriate. If on the other hand it was
a plain straight chair having a back, then the lower price would be suitable, since a
bathron sold for 1 drachma 1 obol.
Richter, op. cit., pp. 2-29, passim.
12
Hug, R.E., s.v. Stuhl, assumes that a folding stool never had a back. See Daremberg-Saglio,
Dictionnaire, II, 480, fig. 2609, for a picture of one, from Roman times.
13 Richter, op. cit., pp. 39-43; no folding stools with backs are shown, however.
14
J.H.S., XII, 1891, p. 232.
15 It should be noted that Robert, Hellenica, IX, 1950, p. 46, note 2, says of this item, with no
explanation: " avaKXtLtUne peut guere s'appliquer 'a un meuble." Perhaps in this context, as H. A.
Thompson has suggested to me, the meaning is 'ramp.'
16
J.H.S., XII, 1891,p. 233.
17 Hellenica, IX, 1950, pp. 39 ff.
18
See Richter, op. cit., figs. 129-150.
2. /3aOpov(II, 145; III, 11; V, 12). Bench, stool. Bathron is used for 'that on
which anything steps or stands ' (Liddell-Scott-Jones) 19 there are three treatments
of the word as an article of furniture in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire. Girard
(II, 468), citing Plato, Protagoras 325 e, translates the word as 'escabeau,' a stool
or backless seat, and gives several illustrations from vases depicting school scenes.20
Saglio (IV, 1111), equating bathron with Latin scamnum and scabellum, regards
it as a footstool. Sometimes it was independent of the bed or chair; sometimes
attached.2' It served to help the person get up, or as a footrest. Chapot (IV, 1551),
equating it with subsellium, regards the bathron as a seat in the form of a bench, often
large enough for several people.22The most detailed study of the word is that of Hug
in R.E., s.v. subselliun. He refers to frescoes from Pompeii, reproducedin Bliimner,
Technologie, I2, pp. 309 ff., which illustrate this particular type of bench.
In the Attic Stelai, bcathronis grouped in II, 145, with thronoi and diphros; in
V, 12, with wooden household articles; and in III, 11, the entry is placed a few lines
away from those for beds. The most appropriate of its various meanings for our
context, therefore, seems to be 'seat, bench' (Liddell-Scott-Jones, no. 5), or ' stool.'
Price. The price of one bathron, in III, 11, if the restoration of the singular
number, as seems probable, is correct, is one drachma one obol.
3. &4pog (I, 235; II, 146, 223, 227). Backless stool. The diphros is usually
taken to mean a stool without arms or back; 23 however, the word is sometimes used
by ancient authors as a general term for any kind of seat.24 It is also used on occasion
for that part of a chair on which one sat, whether or not the chair had a back, for
Erotian 25 says Gas, yaip &cfipos aPaKV'X&o-/OVE'XCOV0EooTaXKos 7rapa Tots 74aXaL'Ovs XE7yEra&,
and cites Hippokrates, Art., 7, where a person is to sit in a chair (yE'ya E8oo 93Eo-o-aLX-
KOV), upon the seat (ET&r4^&4pp), resting his arm on the back (v'E`p Tovi a`vaKXAcr,ov) .26
Yet despite these special uses, diphros did ordinarily mean a backless stool; Plutarch 27
19Cf. Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. Batvw. For inscriptional meanings of /3aopov, not found in
Liddell-Scott-Jones, see Ebert, Fachausdriicke, p. 62. Cf. I.G., II2, 1672, line 149.
20
Cf. Demosthenes, XVIII, De Corona, 258.
21
For illustrations, see Deonna, Le mobilier De'lien, Paris, 1938, p. 11. It should also be noted
that v'ro'/acOpovwas used for footstool (I.G., II2, 1485, line 54).
22
Ehrenberg (People of Aristophanes2, p. 101, note 3) has asked the question whether bathra
in Phrynichos, frag. 3 (Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 370) refers to the seats in the theatre. The word would
here seem, as Meineke concluded, to refer to the benches in the courtroom or the lecture room.
23 Richter, op. cit., pp. 30 ff.; Hug, R.E., s.v. Stuhl. The latter article is the most detailed and
contains useful bibliography, but epigraphical references are still made to C.I.A.
24
For instance, Aelian, Var. Hist., IX, 3; Herodotos, III, 146.
25 IV, 36, s.v.
Mos.
26 Hug, op. cit., seems not to know this passage, for in discussing the Thessalian diphros, which
is also mentioned by Pollux (X, 47; VII, 112) and Athenaeus (XIII, 568 d), he says we have no
way of knowing what sort of pieces these Thessalian stools were, but that they probably were
decorated with color and had soft seats.
27Lyc., 9.
distinguished klinteres, which had backs, from diphroi, and Hesychius makes the
difference clear by defining a klinter as a diphros anaklitos: evidently one did not lean
back in a plain diphros.
The diphros is said by Athenaeus (V, 192 e-f) to be meaner than the thronos or
klismos (see Od., XX, 259), but this is contradictedby its frequent mention in other
authors as the seat of a wealthy or lordly man (as in Od., XIX, 97, 101; XXI, 177)
and by the fact that it was the term used to designate the chair of a Roman magis-
trate.28 The diphros could be very plain and cheap, but it was not necessarily so;
its essential characteristic seems to have been lightness and portability, for it was a
diphros that was most commonly brought out for visitors.29 The diphros was made
of wood, but Demosthenes 30 mentions a stool with silver feet, and Richter pictures
some with elegantly carved legs; among the treasures of Athena were five diphroi
with round feet and one with silver feet.3' In Homer the diphros often had a sheep-
skin thrown over it; later a comfortable stool might have a cushion, and we find in
Plato's Republic (I, 328 c) the phrase KaOc7rOo . . . ETW TtvOs ITpoO-KEfaXatoV TE Kac
&Opov. The kind of stool which was carried on the head of a girl in the Panathenaic
procession can be seen in the Parthenon frieze 32 or in the terracotta figure in Richter,33
and the four stools listed among the Parthenon treasures were probablythus carried.34
There is also epigraphical mention of wicker stools with round cushions in a temple
in Andania.35
Stools shown in sculpture or vase-painting usually have four legs, but the fact
that Eupolis36 mentioneda &fpog OeT-7aXWtKosTETLpaTrovsuggests that a three-legged
was possible. A folding stool was called &Obpog oKAa8&og; therefore the plain diphros
may be thought of as always having fixed legs. The seat might be rectangular or
round, and so might the legs, which were ordinarily made each of a single piece of
wood fixed to the corners of the seat by nails or pegs. The diphros is often mentioned
among the furniture of the bedroom,37and it can have the special sense of toilet stool.38
Price. In our text of the Attic Stelai the price of a diphros is given once (II, 223)
as 1 obol and again as 11(II, 227). A reconsideration of the photograph and the
28 sella curulis, Polybios, VI, 53, 9; cf. Plutarch, Caes., 66.

=
29
See Gow, ad Theokritos, 14, 41; 15, 3.
30
XXIV, Against Tirnokrates,129.
81
I.G., II2, 1394, lines 13-14. C.I.G., 3071, line 9, lists an ebony diphros.
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Panathenaia, fig. 5496.
82
33 Op. cit., fig. 105. The Sctpooo'pos is mentioned in Aristophanes, Aves, 1550 ff. and Eccl., 730-
744. See also the relief from Lokroi Epizephyrioi, Ausonia, III, 1908, p. 204, fig. 53.
34 I.G., 12, 288, line 216.
35 I.G., V, 1, 1390, lines 23-24.
36 Frag. 58; Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 272. See also Pollux, X, 48.
37 II., III,
424; Pollux, X, 47.
38
Pollux, X, 45; Aristeides, Or., 49(25), 19; Plutarch, Lyc., 20.
squeeze has made it clear that the price in Stele II, 223, should be read either as
I or as F, since the angle of the break in the stone makes it impossible to determine
whether or not there was a horizontal stroke. The reading of one drachma is more
consistent with other furniture prices, and it is probable that the price in II, 227, was
1 drachma2 obols.
4. Opavi8tov(I, 140).3 Bench. This form, with a suffix in -t&ov, has hitherto
been found only in Pollux, X, 47 (= Aristophanes, frag. 399) in a section which
lists various words for stools including diphroi, bathrca,and skolythra. The form is
listed as a diminutive in Liddell-Scott-Jones; it may more accurately be grouped with
instrument nouns and names of tools which are equivalent to their primitives.40 As
BIumner notes,41the thranos is defined in the scholium to Aristophanes, Equites, 369,
as the tanning-bench or the form on which the tanner stretches the hide. From
Plutus, 545, it is clear that a thranos may be a wooden bench or seat. In Galen, 19,
104, it is explained as an excrement-stool. The word is defined by Saglio in Diction-
naire, IV, 111 lb, as a stool or bench; 42 and is grouped by Hug in R.E., .v. Stuhl, 399
with other words for stools.
Price. The price of our thranidion is clearly given as five drachmas.
5. Opo'vog(II, 145, 236). Chair of honor. Like many of the other terms in our
list, the word thronos underwent a change and broadening of meaning in its ancient
usage. At the time of Homer it was the chair which belonged especially to gods and
to princes 4 (although, as Buck 44 has pointed out, it was not absolutely restricted to
use by such persons) ; yet in late Greek, thronos could mean any sort of seat or chair."
However, since most literary appearances of the word from the fifth and fourth
centuries continue the old idea that the thronos is the seat of authority,46the obvious
method of finding out what a thronos was is to collect the chairs which we find pictured
as seats of gods and kings. This is what Richter has done,47and what Hug 48 has also
So
See Buck, Dictionary, p. 481. For the derivation and cognates, see also Boisacq, Dict on-
naire4, s.v. 6pavo3. The Homeric form threnys is used for a 'footstool. Cf. Athenaeus, V, 192 e. In
her treatment of the footstool (Ancient Furniture, pp. 73-75), Richter has taken threnys as the title
word.
40 So W. Petersen, Gr. Dim. in -tOv, p. 226.
41
Technologie, I2, p. 266.
42
Cf. Hesychius, s.v.
43 Od., I, 130; VI, 308; VII, 95; X, 314; IT., XXIV, 515, 522.
44Op. cit. p. 481.
45 For instance, Pollux, VII, 182. Hug, R.E., s.v. Stuhl, assumes that this was true
as early as
the period of our inscription.
46:For instance, Pindar, Pyth., 4, 271; Euripides, Heracl., 753; Aristophanes, Ranae, 765;
Theokritos, 7, 93.
47 Op. cit., pp. 3-29. It may be noted that Seltman
(J.H.S., LXVII, 1947, pp. 22-30) in
publishing two Athenian marble thrones, one of Hellenistic date and one of Roman, has collected
examples of chairs represented on coins.
done, leaning more heavily on literary evidence and using fewer graphic illustrations,
Both of these writers distinguish four major types of thronoi. First, and perhaps
earliest, a style which Richter considers orientalizing, with low curving back, often
ending in a decorative finial, and distinguished by carved legs, usually slanting out-
wards, terminating in animal feet. This type sometimes has an arm rest; it may have
a stretcher beneath the seat, and it often shows a figure standing as a brace between
legs and seat.49 This chair we have absolute permission to call a thronos, for on an
amphora in Paris, where the birth of Athena is shown, Zeus sits on such a seat, under
which is the label epovog0 The second type of seat for gods and princes distinguished
by Richter and Hug is rectangular in shape, having straight rectangular legs which
are often highly decorated and may be carved out in the same manner as the legs of
beds. This chair may have a low or high back, or no back at all; it may have arms
or not. In early examples it often shows animal or human motifs continuing on the
back or in the figures in the space beneath the seat, but by the later fifth century the
design had become almost purely architectural. The third type is a chair with cylin-
drical turned legs, with or without arms, which, like the rectangular-legged seat, may
show animal motifs in the early fifth century, but soon is purified of these only to
become excessively ornate in the fourth century. The final type of the thronos is the
typical seat of a terracotta goddess; a variation of it can be seen in the stone seats of
honor in the theatres. This thronos was made not with four legs, but with a solid
box-like base which extended upwards for the back and might continue around the
sides to create arms. According to Miss Richter,5"the most popular of these four
types in the late fifth century was the second, the throne with carved rectangular legs.
The thronos was also the seat of an authority which was neither politicalnor divine
but pedagogic. Plato, in the Protagoras (315 c), places Hippias on a thronos and his
companionsupon surrounding bathra. Plutarch speaks of the sophist's loss of dignity
when he gets up from his throne and puts aside his books,52and Philostratos frequently
mentions the thronos as the seat of the philosopher.53 This usage may be almost
entirely post-Platonic, however, for in vase-paintings of school-room scenes from
the fifth century there are teachers seated on folding stools, on plain diphroi, and
on the curved-backedchair which Richter calls a klismos, but not so far as I know
upon any of the types of thronoi listed above.54 It was probably following this tra-
R.E., s.v. Stuhl.

48
A variation of this first type, which Richter does not mention, can be seen in Ausonia, III,
49
1908, p. 175, fig. 29; here the base of the throne is a box set on animal feet.
50 Mon. Ined., VI, pl. LVI, 3; Richter, op. cit., p. 8.
"I Op. cit., p. 25.
52 Moralia, 43 F, De recte ratione audiendi.
!3Vit. Soph., II, 588, 591, 613.

54 See Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, II, figs. 2599-2603.
dition of the philosopher's chair that the early Christians called the chair of a bishop
a thronos.55
The use of the term throios in other inscriptions does not help to determine its
precise meaning in the Alkibiades list, for the word does not often occur, and when
it does it refers to pieces of votive furniture which are neither describednor evaluated.
Most probably the thronoi which were set up in the temples were of Miss Richter's
type 4, a type very unlikely to appear in a list of ordinary household furniture because
of its extra weight. A group of twelve thronoi is repeatedlymentioned in the accounts
of the treasurers of Athena; in the Delian inscriptions a thronos is occasionally men-
tioned, apparently as the seat for a figure of a god which was held in place by a cord
or chain, but the chair is not given any specific character, and the term seems to be
used interchangeablywith klismos.6
Hug believed that the thronos was not often a piece of furniture for ordinary
household use,57but our text seems to show that it was common enough at the end
of the fifth century. Richter gives one representation of a thronos in domestic sur-
roundings,58but it seems at least likely that the woman who is here seated upon an
ornate throne with rectangularlegs is Phaedra, so that we have a princely mythological
scene and not one from everyday life. However, in an archaic funerary plaque from
Berlin a group of women are shown in their quarters, some sitting on thronoi of
Richter's type 1, and some on animal-legged folding stools.59A fourth-century lekanis,
or covered bowl, from Kertch, apparently intended especially for women's use, shows
a group of women and a bridegroomgathered around a herm in the closed courtyard of
a house. One lady, who is regarded as the bride's mother, sits on a throne of type 2,
with a high back, arms, and rectangular, cut-out legs.60 It may be that in ordinary use
the thronos was particularly associated with women, for Pollux lists it among Ta ra
KOtTcvt TTapaKEt1LEVa (X, 47). Athenaeus quotes a phrase of Kritias about the Thes-
salian thronos, which was much admired, emphasizing the comfort rather than the
prestige of the chair.6"
Probably the thronoi of the Attic Stelai were something like the chair shown on
the bowl fromnKertch. It is doubtful that they were inlaid with metal or ivory, for
this would have been specified,but they may have been highly decoratedand elaborately
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., VII, 30.
56 I.G., XI, 161 B, line 22 and note; cf. 287 B, line 20.
57 Op. cit., 415: " In den Darstellungen des taglichen Lebens begegnet man dem Thronsessel
als Hausm6bel sehr selten."
58 Op. cit., fig.
51.
5 Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, II, fig. 2597.
60 Furtwangler-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, Ser. 2, pp. 34 ff. and pl. 68
(= K.
Schefold, Untersuchungen zu den Kertschen Vasen, Berlin and Leipzig, 1934, no. 10; and Kertscher
Vasen, Berlin, 1930, pls. 13 and 14).
61 J, 28 b: oeraXKOs 8e yVv
Opo'vo%, rpfpvOepra1-q 'Spa.
carved. One last problemis whether or not the item thronos included a footstool. Cer-
tainly a low stool was a regular adjunct to the thronos; it is frequently mentioned 62
and pictured.63Athenaeus (V, 192 e) describes the thronos as EXEVOEptOs KaOE'8paLo-vV
and Hug defines it as " Lehn-Stuhl mit zugehorigem Schemel, Op7jvvg.""
V?7TOr(8tLt),
Since we have no Op'vvg in our list it might be tempting to suppose that a footstool
accompanied each thronos; however, when so much of the inscription is lost, it is
certainly unwise to argue from the absence of an item, and it is the practice of the list
to indicate each separate piece. Either these particular thronoi did not have footstools,
or the stools were mentioned on parts of the stone which can no longer be read.
Price. Neither price nor sales tax has been preserved for any of the thronoi.
An Egyptian price of 20 drachmas for a throne for a festival is noted by Johnson,
"RomanEgypt," Economic Survey, II, p. 473.
6. wp6crKAwrpov (VI, 169). Chair with a back. This word is otherwise known
only from the lexicons; we have found no examples of its usage at any time before
the Byzantine period. And the lexicons are neither consistent nor very clear in their
definitions. According to Et. Mag. the prosklintron is the same as the proskliton; then
it is added that a klinter is a thronos which has a prosklintron, which would give us
the meaning 'chair-back.' However, in the definition of KXAprog (519, 42) proskliton
and katakliton are equated and explained as parts of the house; this interpretation is
repeated under a-rod(728, 12), where the porch is defined as a proskliton.6"So from
Et. Mag. two meanings emerge: 'chair-back' and 'porch.' Suidas, however, con-
tains a definiton of proskliton as E' GOa'KOVfJK3t 0,UEV, and the Thesaurus GraeccaeLinguae
follows this interpretationwith: Id cui acclinare nos possumus.
Since a removablechair-backis by no means so easy to conceive of as a removable
epiklintron, probablywe must see in our item some kind of chair having a back. How
it was different from the anaklisis cannot be decided without more evidence.
No price remains in our list.
CHESTS AND BOXES
1. (I, 215, 216, 227, 228; V, 16). Chest, box. There is a

Kt/3OTO%, Kl/3wrV
chapter on the chest in Richter's Ancient Furniture, pp. 89-99, a brief article by
Reincke, R.E., s.v. Truhen, and another by Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Arca. G. Davidson, Corinth, XII, pp. 131-136, has a section on boxes and chests,
but the finds she reports are of hardware and not of chests themselves, which were
62For example, Od., VIII, 422; XVII, 409; XIX, 57; II., XIV, 240; XVIII, 390.
Of 55 examples in Richter, op. cit., of types 1, 2, and 3 of the thronos only 15 are without
footstools, and these tend to be from the archaic period or the early fifth century.
64 op. cit., p. 415.
65 Cf. the English 'lean-to' for a shed attached to a major building.

usually made of wood. On Delian chests, see Deonna, De'los, XVIII, pp. 235 ff. For
representations of chests in vase-paintings, see the red-figured pyxis published by C.
Clairmont in A .J.A., LVII, 1953, pp. 92-94 with references (especially W. von Mas-
sow, Ath. Mitt., XLI, 1916, pp. 3-10).
These writers have assumed that the kibotos of the Greeks was a box, large or
small, which had a hinged lid that might be raised, or closed and made fast; this was
what the Romans called the arca. A second sort of storage box was presumably intro-
ducedlaterby the Romans;it was the armarium(7Tvpyto-Ko9 in late Greek),or upright
cupboardor cabinet, having doors placed vertically at the front. A fine large cupboard
of this sort is shown in a frescoe from Herculaneum in the National Museum at
Naples,66but Miss Richter has found no evidence of the use of this sort of cabinet
by the Greeks, and she concludes, " Here. .. the Romans made an important original
contribution ... .n 67
However, there is a 1940 dissertation from Wiirzburg, by E. G. Budde, Armarium
und KL(AnO63, which would contest the purely Roman character of the armarium; one
of its contentions is that the cupboard or cabinet appeared in Greece as early as the
fifth century B.C. As literary evidence for Greek cupboardswith vertical doors Budde
cites Plato's Symposium, 215, which describes busts of Silenos: "when their two
halves are pulled open, they are found to contain images of gods." 68 Actually there
is nothing here to specify doors,69and Budde himself, following Panofka, refers us to
certain German peasant wood carvings, the " Niirnberger Kapseln," for comparison,
although here the upper half of the body was removed and the lower half split to
reveal a scene inside.70The silenos figure may indeed have opened in this way, but it
will take much 1norethan this to establish the existence in fifth-century Greece of an
upright cupboard.
The kibotoi listed in our inscription are of primary importance to Budde's argu-
ment, for he assumes that they could not be describedas dithyros (I, 227), tetrathyros
(I, 228), and thyridotos (V, 16), unless the ' doors ' were set in a vertical plane.
Nevertheless he rejects, for reasons which are not altogether clear, the interpretation
of Dorpfeld 71 which would make the kibotoi standing in the arsenal of Philo open
with doors at the front or sides rather than by lids at the top. Indeed, D6rpfeld's
suggestion is not compelling; it seems more likely that since the chests of Philo were
made to hold sails they would be similar to other Greek chests for storing clothes.
66 Richter, op. cit., fig. 343; cf. fig. 340.
67 Ibid., p. 145.
68 Loeb translation by W. R. M. Lamb.
69 He might perhaps have cited the bronze horse of Republic, 359 d, which was said to have
" little doors," through which the body inside could be seen, since chests and coffins were often
made on the same plan.
70 Arch. Anz., XLVIII, 1933, p. 390, fig. 1.
71 Ath. Mitt., VIII, 1883, p. 164.
They would be large and low, for the sails could be folded one directly on top of
another, and shelves, which would be necessary for a high cupboard with front
openings, would only be a useless expense. If the tops of these chests were open their
contents would be visible for a passing inspection, as the inscription provides.72It may
be noted that Marstrand 7 has reconstructed the kibotoi of the armory with open
grillwork panels set in their sides; there is no evidence for such a detail in the words of
the inscription, but openings of some sort would be effective in discouraging mildew in
the sails, and Marstrand's notion is interesting in connection with the chest of our
list which is called thyridotos, 'having apertures.'
At any rate, Budde does not cite the chests of Philo as examples of his Greek
armaric. He admits that representations of cupboards are extremely rare in Greek
art but he believes that he has found some in the fifth-century reliefs from Lokroi
Epizephyrioi.74 In these scenes there is frequently shown what seems to be a chest
placed on rather long legs so that it attains the height of a table. These are highly
decorated pieces, and on the vertical face which is shown in full there are usually two
panels set off in the carving; these Budde supposes to be the doors of the cabinet. It
is easy to appreciate-his interpretation of the function of the panels, and yet no one
of the many reliefs offers clinching evidence. The panels are never shown ajar or
being opened; never can we see anything which might have been meant to suggest
hinge, knob or fastening, although this is the sort of detail which Greek artists were
usually careful to reproduce. Sometimes the raised outline of the panel is so continued
by the decorative scheme that a break in it would be necessary if the panel were to
open as a door, and yet the border is shown as perfectly continuous.75And we know
that some of the panels certainly did not open, for they are shown on a table with a
very deep facing around the top,76and again, and this is a strong point against Budde,
the same sort of panel is shown on the side of a chest, the top of which a woman is in
the act of raising.77 One fact which Budde might note but does not is that the tops of
these small chests or tables are often laden with objects; however, the presence of these
objects discourages the idea of a top opening only if we must believe that the chests
were frequently opened; and since these particular reliefs show cult scenes, it may be
supposed that the chests contained sacred objects which were not often brought out.
Two of the Locrian chests had on their paired front panels representations of a pair
of tiny, double-leaveddoors, complete with lintels and consoles.8 These were thought
72 I.G., II2, 1668, lines 85 ff.
73 Arsenalet i Piraeus og Oldtidens byggeregler, Kopenhagen, 1922, pp. 116 ff.
74 Ausonia, III, 1908, pp. 136 ff.
75 Ibid., fig. 47.

76 Ibid.,fig. 48; an -altar, according to Quagliati.
77Ibid., fig. 63. See also Clairmont, op. cit., pl. 51, fig. 11.
78 Ibid., figs. 77 and 78; cf. Studniczka, Abh. der konigl. sdchs. Gesellschaft der Wissensch.,
Phil.-hist. Ki., XXX, Leipzig, 1913, p. 165, figs. 48, 49. The fact that a pot might be placed on
by Quagliati to be merely decorative carving9 but Budde and Studniczka have taken
them to be the functioning doors to the chest, and Studniczka suggests that this is the
kibotos dithyros of our inscription.80The little doors, if they opened, would offer two
very restricted and awkward entrances, through which only very small objects could
be introduced, although the space within was quite large.8' Yet, whether or not they
opened, they do constitute a representationfrom the fifth century B.C. of a door placed
vertically in the face of a piece of furniture not unlike the usual chests, which some-
times also stood on legs. The question is: does such a cupboard, though only so
doubtfully established, suit the terms of our inscription better than the well authenti-
cated chest ?
First it must be established that the mere use of the term 'door ' does not, as
Budde assumes, necessitate a vertical plane. A thyra was primarily an entrance, and
the fact that it could be thought of in a horizontal plane is made clear by the term
used for a trap-door, thyra katapakte (Herodotos, V, 16). It seems reasonable to
assume that the chest which is described as thyridotos (V, 16) had apertures of the
sort supposed by Marstrand. The same sort of open grillwork panel can be seen on a
chest found in a Euboean chamber grave, a chest which incidentally shows a plain
panel in its own front surface which clearly did not open.82 A kibotos of this sort
would open in the usual way, with a lid at the top.
The two-doored kibotos (I, 227) might easily have been one of the known types
of chest. In the case of a large chest, it would be natural to divide the lid, which other-
wise might be too heavy to lift easily, and to compartmentalizethe interior; this would
provide the usefulness of two chests, while the cost would hardly be increased. Since
these chests are nearly always shown in profile, the possibility of a split lid can neither
be confirmednor ruled out by a study of vase-paintings and reliefs. Miss Richter has
found a variation in the coffin-chest, with gabled top, which would also lend itself
to a two-doored construction.83
The four-doored kibotos is much harder to envisage. The only other ancient
usages of the term tetrathyros are by Aristotle, H.A., 628a, where the meaning is
top of a kibotos which opened by a lid is demonstrated by Furtwangler-Reichhold, Griechische
Vasenmalerei, pl. 57, 3.
9 Ausonia, III, 1908, p. 227. W. von Massow, op. cit., p. 10, agrees, yet sees these false doors
as pointing toward actual vertical doors in the kibotai of the Attic Stelai. Note that Theophrastos,
H.P., V, 7, 6, mentions the ornamental work which was frequently glued to the surface of the chests.
80 Op. cit., p. 165. It should be noted that Studniczka nevertheless treats the pieces as examples
of the kuliouchion, ' buffet' or 'side table,' and refers to Brunn, Monum. AnncaliBull. d. Inst., 1856,
p. 114, where these same pieces of furniture are called cult tables.
81 It should be remembered that Miss Richter was not unaware of the Locrian reliefs when
she reached her conclusion that the cupboard with vertical doors in its face was an invention of
the Romans.
82
Vollmoeller, Ath. Mitt., XXVI, 1901, p1. XIII.
83
Op. cit., pp. 94 ff., figs. 232, 234.
' four-chambered,' rather than ' four-doored,' and Kallixeinos, ap. Athenaeus, V,
205b, where a single doorway in a ship's hold apparentlyhad four leaves. TET [pa'vpof]
has been restored in the text of Stele I, line 228, by all editors; the only other possi-
bility would seem to be tetrapous (as diphros tetrapous, Eupolis, 58: Kock, C.A.F.,
I, p. 272; Pap. Oxy., 646; Epicharmos, 149), that is, a chest standing on four legs
instead of resting directly on the ground or on a low stand. This alternative restora-
tion is not very attractive since by the late fifth century nearly all chests stood on
legs; Richter shows only one which does not.84 Either the chest or the coffin-chest
might well have been divided into four compartments,each with its lid, and this would
be our preference, although admittedly we have no evidence for such pieces.85 In the
same way, a cupboard of the Locrian type could be broadened so that it would
offer four doors in a row, or it could be heightened by the addition of another two-
compartment tier. This last possibility seems the least likely, since the only repre-
sentations we have of a possible Greek cupboard show a piece of furniture which
was clearly used as much for a low table as it was for a chest, and the pieces may
actually have been only tables, as was suggested by Brunn.86 We cannot then assert
that this kibotos tetrathyros was definitely either chest or cupboard; certainly Budde
cannot use it as a proof of the early existence of the cupboard form.
Whatever their shape, the kibotoi were made of wood 87 with lids (or doors)
attached by metal hinges.88 From vase-paintings it can be seen that the usual method
of closing was with thongs bound around two knobs, one on the body of the chest and
one on the lid.89 A kibotos could be even more firmly sealed if necessary, for in I.G.,
12, 1469, line 102, there are chests which are specified as sesemasmene and asemantos.
The kibotos could be used for storing clothes,90or money,9'or scrolls and documents,92
or miscellaneous objects.93
84 Op. cit., fig. 224.
85 In Insc. Delos, 442 B, line 25, there is a list of vessels from the first, second, and third
rhyoi of a kibotos. It has been generally thought (Homolle, B.C.H., VI, 1882, p. 90, note 3;
Holleaux, B.C.H., XXXI, 1907, pp. 53-56) that in the inventories the word rhymos meant 'group'
or ' class,' and it might then seem possible that in this Delian chest there were actual compartments,
conceivably with separate lids. But D. B. Thompson (Hesperia, XIII, 1944, p. 186) has shown
that in some Athenian records the word mreansthe 'yard' or lever (statera) of the weighing instru-
ment. We must then take our Delian word to refer to 'weighing-lots.' In connection with the word
rhymos, it may be noted that in the inventory I.G., II2, 1443, the numerals modifying the word run
as high as twenty-two (lines 12-71).
86 Loc. cit. They are called tables also by the Brit. Mus., Greek and Roman Life, 2nd ed.,
London, 1920, p. 41, fig. 31.

87 On occasion a kibotos might be of ivory or bronze, or even papyrus (Insc. Delos, 442 B,
line 214; 443, line 138), but these materials would be specified in a list such as ours.
88
Deonna, Delos, XVIII, pp. 242-244; Davidson, loc. cit., and p. 129 for bone hinges and knobs.
89 Richter, op. cit., figs. 236-241.
90Aristophanes, Vespae, 1056; Athenaeus, III, 84 a; I.G., J2, 386, line 22; XI, 2, 287 A, line 49.
91Lysias, XII, Against Eratosthenes, 10; I.G., IJ2, 1388, line 61.
The diminutive kibotion has been grouped with its primitive kibotos. W. Peter-
sen " has shown that the diminutive may mean ' a small box,' 95 or it may mean ' that
which is like a box,' 96 or it may simply mean ' box,' regardless of size.97 The word is
frequently used in the Delian inscriptions, where it probablydid refer to a fairly small
box, since it was nearly always used as a place to store gold ornaments, crowns and
rings, or glass cups.98 In domestic use the kibotion would contain jewelry, money, or
utensils; Pollux (X, 61) mentions kibotia grammatophora, which held the papyrus
rolls of a teacher. Like the ordinary kibotos, the smaller box was usually of wood but
might also be of ivory or metal.99These boxes unquestionably opened at the top, and
the box described in Stele I, line 215, as wXariv,'broad,' probably looked something
like Miss Richter's fig. 240.
Price. The price of the kibotos thyridotos (V, 16) must be restored as at least
21 drachmas, the highest price we have found for any piece of furniture; only the
folding doors were more expensive at 23 drachmas 1 obol. This chest must have been
quite large (in more than one legend the kibotos was big enough for a man to hide in),
but the price may also be partially explained by the fact that the grillwork of carved
wood or metal would add considerably to the value of the chest. It is reasonable to
suppose that the other chests sold at somewhat lower prices. In the records of the
temple at Eleusis for 329/8 B.c. a kibotos is valued at 20 drachmas.100One other not
very indicative comparative price has been found: in the Delian accounts of 250 B.C.
a workman was paid 5 drachmas (a high wage) for the repair of a kibotos.101
2. KOtTrIJ(I, 211, 213). Chest. As an article of furniture, koite has two meanings:
'couch' and ' chest.' The former meaning is well attested; see Thesaurus Graecae
Linguae, s.v. KOtT'Y and Buck, Dictionary, p. 480. Most of the passages cited in the
Thesaurus and in Liddell-Scott-Jones are from lyric poetry, and the word has been
regarded as poetical for 'couch' by Ransom 102 and Rodenwaldt.Y'8
Hlesychius, however, has defined the koite as a chest in which food was carried.
92
I.G., 112, 1455, line 16; Aristophanes, Equites, 1000; in papyri the term is used to mean
'archives'; R.E., s.v. Truhe, 704.
93 Pausanias, X, 28, 3; I.G., 112, 1388, lines 73 ff.
94 Gr. Dim. in -tov, pp. 83, 147.
95 Ibid., p. 83.
96 Ibid., p. 112.
97 Ibid., p. 98. We found no reference to kibotion in J. Friedrich, Deminutivbildungen mit nicht
deminutiver Bedeutung, Leipzig, 1916, but it should be noted that the work is not provided with
an index.
98 Deonna, Delos, XVIII, p. 235.
99 I.G., J2-, 314, col. I, line 25; HJ2, 1456, line 34.
100I.G., 112, 1672, line 192.
101I.G., XI, 2, 287 A, line 49.
102 Op. cit., p. 109.
103 R.E., s.v. Kline, 847.
He also equates it with kiste, which he defines as a vessel (angeiom) in which food or
clothing was placed. In Plutarch, Phocion, 28, reference is made to fillets which
entwined the mystic koitai at the time of the celebration of the mysteries, and in this
context the word has been studied by Lenormant in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Cista, 1205. Ancient references have been collected by E. G. Budde, op. cit., p. 5.
Pollux, X, 91, quotes fragments from Eupolis (frag. 76: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 276)
and Pherekrates (f rag. 122: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 180) to show that the koite was used
for carrying food (4o4oXpoq). In VI, 10, he defines the koite as the chest in which
bed-clothing was stored.
In the Parthenon records beginning in 434/3 B.c., a koite of gilded wood is
reported.104This item continues to be mentioned at least through the accounts of
368/7 B.C. (I.G., II2, 1425, lines 271-2). In one record of the treasurers of Athena,
dated shortly after 385/4 B.C., thirty bronze koitai are described as ' empty,' one
without a lid (epithema). .5 Three lines above a box for alabaster ornaments was
inventoried. Clearly the reference in this context and with this description is not to a
bed. In I.G., II2, 1485, line 58, the koite was also of gilded wood.
Liddell-Scott-Joneshas defined koite in our inscription as 'bedstead.' But earlier
Wilhelm had defended the meaning 'chest,' 106 in my opinion correctly. The word is
inscribed only two lines from kibotion, 'chest,' and is precededby articles of clothing.
The definition of Pollux in VI, 10, would be most suitable for our entry. Moreover,
Pollux, in VII, 159, lists koite with kibotos, kibotion, and other words for ' chest.'
Price. The sales-tax for our koite was one obol, if fragments b and d were given
tlleir correct positions as the writer has posited in Part I, p. 248. This means that the
sales-price was some figure less than 5 drachmas. It seems reasonable to assume that
our chest was of unadorned wood.
COUCHES AND BEDS

Our stele preserves the following words for 'beds' or 'places for lying': KXW'Y,
and XaI,uEvva.There is also listed an elbow rest for a couch,
KXWVt8tOV,KXWVflp, CTKipJ4TOVg
E7tKXtvTpov.'07 The most detailed study of the couch or bed is that of C. L. Ransom
(Couches and Beds), who devotes Chapter II to a study of the construction of the
ancient couch from the modest wooden type to the most elaborate. Richter,108who
uses kline as the index word, divides the forms of the couch into three groups accord-
ing to the types of legs (animal-footed, rectangular, and turned). The main article in
Daremberg-Saglio is that of Girard,s.v. Lectus; in R.E. those of Mau s.v. Betten and
104
I.G., 276, line 10, etc.
J2,
105
I.G., 1408, lines 14-15. Similarly, I.G., II2, 120, lines 37 ff. (362/1 B.C.).
II2,
06fJahreshefte, VI, 1903, p. 240. Cf. Ransom, op. cit., p. 110, note 3.
107
For xa,cw, which in our list refers to the strap of the bedstead, see sub Tools.
08 Ancient Furniture, pp. 54-71.
of Rodenwaldt s.v. Kline. Delian beds are discussed by Deonna in De'los, XVIII,
pp. 1-4. A convenient list of words connected with the couch is given in Reincke's
1935 article s.v. Mobel in R.E., Suppl. 6, 508. More recently, Miss D. K. Hill has
published a bronze couch of about the first century B.C. in Journal of Walters Art
Gallery, XV-XVI, 1952-3, pp. 49-61. References to preserved copies of ancient
couches are usually made by their numbers in the list of Greifenhagen (Rom. Mitt.,
XLV, 1930, pp. 137-146).
The couch was a very common article of furniture. Robinson surmises that a
dining room with three couches (triklinon) was most common,109 although his refer-
ence (Athenaeus I, 23 e) hardly seems to confirm this. In the case of the men's rooms,
Robinson and Graham have reported: "Of the twenty-five completely excavated
androns at Olynthus ... fifteen could have accommodatedfive couches 2.00 to 2.25 m.
long." 110 Studniczka reconstructs nine couches in rooms of a house in Megara.'
For an interesting list of the known numeral compounds with -KXLvo3 see Buck and
Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 273.112
1. KXi-Vrq(I, 229, 233; II, 7, 241, 244, 245; III, 6 [see below, p. 228]; VI, 40,
41). Couch, bed. For the derivation of the word (KXi0voat, 'recline, lie '), see
Boisacq, Dictionnaire,4p. 470; and Buck, Dictionary, p. 480. The earliest occurrences
of this post-Homeric word are in Herodotos (VI, 139; IX, 16) and I.G., XII, 5,
593, line 6."'
The kline was a couch for sleeping, banquets and funerals. One could lie upon it,
use it at table, or sit upon it."14The dimensions must have varied considerably; see
B.C.H., X, 1886, p. 467, line 143; and I.G., I2, 1638, line 68. Repairs of klinai are
frequently mentioned in the Delian inventories.115
Prices. So far as the writer knows, the prices of couches, as of those of other
articles of furniture, have never been collected. Some prices are preserved from
ancient sources. In I.G., XI, 2, 287, A, line 115 (250 B.C.), the price of making 14
beds for the sanctuary of Zeus Kynthios on Delos is given as 275 drachmas, or
slightly more than 19.6 drachmas apiece.'16 In I.G., IV2, 114, lines 20-24 (ca. 300
109 Olynthus, XII, p. 350. As Robinson and Graham (Olynthus, VIII, p. 173) note, " in later
times triclinium became the accepted term for a dining room among the Romans."
110 Olynthus,VIII, p. 173.
Op. cit., p. 142.
112 The 4tIKktVoV, or half-sized couch, of I.G., XI, 2, 147 B, line 14, seems to have received no
attention in the literature dealing with furniture.
113
Cf. Buck and Petersen,Reverse Index, p. 292.
114
See the references in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v.
115I.G., XI, 144, A, line 65; 199, A, line 27; 287, A, line 70 (this is for fixing the ropes which
supported the mattress) ; Insc. Delos, 443, Bb, lines 141, 162.
116 I would assume that these were beds of metal construction, especially in view of Pliny's
(H.N., XXXIV, 4, 9) statement that the bronze of Delos was used for triclinii. When klinai were
B.C.), the price for making 50 klinai for the inn at Epidauros is given as 12 drachmas
apiece.
The evidence for the prices of klinai in our document is rather extensive. There
are two entries for Milesian-made klinai in I, 229 and II, 244. In the former, eleven
klinai were recordedas being sold at 90 drachmas, or 8-2/11 drachmas apiece. In the
latter, one kline sold at 7 drachmas 3 obols. The unmodified entry kline occurs in II,
241; the sales price was 6 drachmas 4 obols. The author now believes that KAtX[e]
is to be restored in III, 6, where the sales price was 8 drachmas 1 obol (see below,
p. 229). A broken kline, as recordedin II, 6-7, was sold for 3 drachmas 1 obol. There
remains for considerationthe entry of seven klinai in II, 245. The sales-price has been
read as . AAIF-F.One would expect the price of each of these beds to be somewhat
less than that for Milesian-made klinai and roughly the same as the entry in II, 241.
The most likely restoration, then, would be the figures for 42 drachmas, or an average
of six drachmas per kline. The sales tax must then be restored as [li] 1. Reexamina-
tion of this fragment shows that the one preserved obol of the sales tax was inscribed
beneath the third obol of line 244 above; so there is room for the restoration of two
obol signs to the left. The average price, then, of the Milesian-made bed is ca. 8
drachmas apiece; of the simple kline, ca. 6 drachmas.1"'
Milesicanbeds. The eleven klinai listed in Stele I, 229, and the one kline in I, 233,
are specified as MtLXqo-tovpyEZs.Athenaeus in cataloguing the special products of each
city cites a fragment of the fifth-century writer Kritias in which the lechoi (the
Homeric and poetic word for couch) of Miletos and of Chios are singled out for
mention.118Elsewhere Athenaeus, in discussing etymologies in -ovpyeZst, quotes another
fragment from a prose work of Kritias which mentioned Milesian-made and Chian-
made klinai.79 In the Parthenon inventory records, Milesian-made klinai appear in
the accounts for the year 434/3 and occur regularly thereafter.120
Miss Ransom has examined the view of Rayet, concurred in by Benndorf and
Petersen, that the Milesian couch was a specific type having rectangular legs.121This
view rests on the hypothesis that the couch with rectangular legs and incisions was
dedicated to Hera after the siege of Plataea, Thucydides (III, 68, 3) tells us that they were made
of bronze and iron. Similarly, beds inventoried in the Parthenon accounts contained feet overlaid
with silver (I.G., T2, 276, lines 16-17, etc.).
117 See Johnson, " Roman Egypt," Economic Survey, II, p. 473, where a triclinium and four
cushions are priced at 500 drachmas.

118 AthenaeusI, 28 b.
119 XI, 486 e.
120
I.G., I2, 276, line 14. In the accounts of the Treasurers of Athena for the year 368/7,
reference to the Milesian beds still appears (see I.G., II2, 1425, lines 217 and 277, and Kirchner's
commentary ad loc.).
121 Couches and Beds, p. 54, note 5. The bibliography on this subject is given by Rodenwaldt
(R.E., s.v. Kline, 848), who concludes that up to date no results have been certain. For the
application of the word milesiourges to metal work, see Deonna, La vie privee, p. 177.
distinguished in the fifth century for its elegance and richness and for the character of
its design which suggests Asiatic origin. She concludes that Rayet's hypothesis is
plausible but not indisputable. Richter, however, who does not refer to a Milesian
type, regards the rectangular legs as " a purely Greek creation " and fails to note
any Asiatic influence.122She notes many representations on Athenian vases.
One Milesian kline is designated as a fxKE'OaXog.A word of very similar spelling,
afOLKVE'OaXXog, occurs in Pollux, X, 36. If correct, it would mean 'with pillows at
both ends.' This is a hapax, however, and it would seem likely that it is an error for
our word. The forms are discussed by Wilhelm, Jahreshefte, VI, 1903, p. 237; and
by Rodenwaldt in R.E., s.v. Kline, 849. Hesychius, the Et. Mag., and Photius define
amphikephalos, which in medieval writers means 'two-headed,' as a bed which has
an anaklintron or anaklisis at either end. Miss Ransom regards her figures 11 and 12
and plate I as illustrations of this type of kline.
2. KXW8t&ov(III, 7). Diminutive of KX&ATv.
The first four letters of this word in
III, 7, are wholly preserved; the fifth only partially so. The base of a vertical stroke
may be seen in the photograph in Hesperia XXII, plate 74, with no horizontal stroke
extending from it. Since the word could not be read as kline, the restorationKXW [8ov]
was suggested in Part I. In the line above only three letters are preserved, and the
restoration kli[nidion] was also suggested there. But there is a difference in price of
2 drachmas and to explain this difference the writer would now prefer the restoration
KXV[E] in the upper line, with the required diminutive form for the lower price.
The word is regarded by W. Petersen as having the same meaning as the
primitive kline and klinis,'23and Ransom groups it with possible colloquial words for
'bed.' The word is not listed in J. Friedrich's Leipzig dissertation, Deminutivbildun-
gen mit nicht deminutiver Bedeutung, and its occurrence in our list would speak for
some distinction from kline, which would reasonablyseem to be one of size."'
Price. The price of the klinidion in III, 7, is given as 6 drachmas 1 obol.
3. KXWVp (II, 150). Type of couch or reclining chair. In Daremberg-Saglio,
Dictionnaire, s.v. Cathedra, Saglio identifies klinter with klismos and defines it as a
seat with rounded and inclined back in which one could half-recline. He gives no
ancient references to support this definition. Later (s.v. Scamnum, p. 111Ib) the
same writer defines the klinter as a seat less elevated than a thronos. Lecrivain (s.v.
Matrimonium) defines the word as a bed on which the bride reclined at the nuptial
feast. In the R.E., Hug regards the klinter as a variety of klisia arranged for
122 Op. cit., p. 58.
123 Op. cit., pp. 222, 226.
124
Suidas glosses the form as a diminutive, and Pollux (VI, 9) lists it separately from kline
and klinis.
slumbering,125but Rodenwaldt follows Ransom in defining it as a poetical term for

couch.126Finally, Studniczka, referring to Lucian, Symp., 8, describes it as " eine
lange einheitliche Bank."
In spite of so many varied definitions, there are relatively few literary references
to the klinter. The word is applied to Penelope's bed in Od., XVIII, 190, and to
Simaetha's in Theokritos, 2, 86 and 113. In both passages reference is made to
sleeping, in the latter for a period of ten days and ten nights. Moreover, Delphis sits
down beside Simaetha on the klinter, and in line 139, lektra, 'marriage-bed,' is used
as a synonym. In Lucian, Symp., 8, all of the ladies who had been invited to the
banquet occupied one klinter, and in chapter 44 during the ensuing melee one of the
male guests was thrown from a klinter.
Two definitions of the word are preserved in the lexicographers. Hesychius
defines the klinter as &4pos JvaKXLT6', but the plural form is defined both as diphroi
and as klinlai. Elsewhere in defining &4pae, presumably of Theokritos 14, 41, Hesy-
chius equates klinter with a woman's thronos.127Photius says the klinter is a sort of
easy chair: E781o fopEiov E'o-TiV 8E Kat KXtVOKa6OE8ptov.Et. Mag. (s.v. lTpO'-KXWITpOV)
calls a klinter a thronos which has a back (prosklintron).
The appearanceof the word in our inscription shows that Ransom and Roden-
waldt erred in considering klinter as a poetical variant of kline, and, indeed, Gow has
observed that it is "rare in serious poetry." 128 In most, but not all, of the passages
it is specified that a klinter was an article of furniture for women. Two of the pas-
sages connect the word with leaning back. In modern Greek, klinter means sofa or
armchair. The composite picture that emerges is of something like the modern chaise-
longue: a semi-reclining seat, large enough for more than one person. Such a seat,
from Roman times, can be seen in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnatire, s.v. Cathedra,
fig. 1252.
4. o-K4rovs (III, 8; V, 9).129 Mean bed, pallet. A separate article by Roden-
waldt is devoted to skimpous in the R.E. This is the most detailed study of the word.
The brief article of Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Scimpodiurm,
contains in the footnotes the most complete list of ancient literary references.130
Pollux lists the word under the genus of klinai.'3' Hesychius explains the word
125R.E., s.v. Stuhl 399.
126
R.E. s.v. Kline, 847; cf. Ransom, Couches and Beds, p. 109.
127
Gow (ad Theokritos 14, 41) states that the definition is "probably no more than an in-
ference " from the Theocritean passage.
128 Ad Theokritos, 24, 43.
129
To these two references should now be added VI, 38, where the restoration [cKtj]w-o8E3may
be substituted for [Kovt']wo&S. See above, p. 208.
130
For the etymology of skimpous, see Walde-Hofmann, Lateinisches etymologisches Worter-
buch, s.v. scamnum.
131 X, 35.
as Kpa'f33w3aoa, from which the modern Greek word for ' bed ' (KpE/3/3dTt) is derived."32
In the entry above, the diminutive form is definedas a ' cheap klinidion for one sleeper.'
The scholiast on Aristophanes, Nubes, 254 gives- skimpous as the Attic word for
Kpal/3/a3ros. Pollux speaks of it as nothing more than a pallet.133 Eustathius (ad
Homer, Iliad, XVI, 608) likewise states that it is an Attic word and defines it as a
cheap and low bed which is near the ground.
In NAbes, 254, in the caricature of the initiation of a neophyte into the secret
mysteries, a ' sacred skimpous ' takes the place of the thronos. At the beginning of
Plato's Protagoras (310 c) Sokrates is represented as seated on a skimpous. In
Xenophon (Anab. VI, 1, 4) the soldiers dined reclining upon them.134The picture
which emerges is that of a low, humble bed, of light weight, which could be used by
soldiers as a field-bed.'35
Price. The price paid for our skimpous in Stele III, line 8, was two obols.136
5. XdEvva 1TapaKOXXoS (I, 231).13 Veneered, low couch. Hesychius and the
scholiast to Aristophanes, Aves, 816, define the chacmeunaas raTEtrEWKXWVS, which by
the etymology (Xa4at', 'on the ground') must refer to the low position of the bed
and not to lowness in the sense of cheapness. Fraenkel (ad Aeschylus, Agacmemnon,
1540) defines it as a ' poor and mean couch.'1"8 He believes that the body of Agamem-
non was exposed in a low and narrow bath-tub.139Pickard-Cambridge, on the other
hand, believes that the conditions of the text are satisfied by the display of the body
at the doorway on a very simple and unobtrusive vehicle.140All that is necessary to
infer in the Agamemnon, 1540 passage is that the body of the king is in a low position.
The price paid for our chameunais exactly twice the average price for a Milesian
bed. Clearly, the chameunawas not poor and mean."4'
132
Cf. Buck, Dictionary, p. 480. Krabbatos is frequent in later Greek, but was condemned as
un-Attic by Phrynichos, 44.
133 X, 35.
134 Inferior manuscripts here read un/la3'w, ' bed of straw or leaves.'
135 Mrs. Karouzou (A.J.A., L, 1946, p. 135) associates the skimpous with the festival of the
Anthesteria, but her representations seem to be rather footstools.
136 By the Roman period, skimpous or skimpodium had come to mean a single bed for a rich
person. Thus Dio Cassius, LVII, 15, 4, refers to a " covered skimpodium such as the wives of the
senators use." See Gellius, N.A., XIX, 10, 1, and other references in Saglio. Cf. B. B. Rogers'
note ad Nubes, 254. In Galen, the word is used for a sort of litter.
137 For the accent of
chatmeuna,see Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., I, p. 476, and Buck and Petersen,
Reverse Index, p. 294. In epigraphical publications, the word has usually been accented as a
properispomenon. Liddell-Scott-Jones straddles the issue by using both accents (pp. 1313 and 1976).
138 Similarly, Mau in R.E., s.v. Betten, 371. Mau refers to an article in the R.E., s.v.
xaoE4v'7)
which I have been unable to locate. Hesychius' gloss of chatmeuneas a stibas (= ' a bed of straw,
rushes, or leaves,' Liddell-Scott-Jones) may derive from Euripides, Rhesus, 9, where the chameuna
is modified by 0vkXourTpWro0.
139 Op. cit., I, p. 175. 140 The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, Oxford, 1946, pp. 106-107.
141
The chamneuna,of course, might be a simple inexpensive one (AXt ), as in Nikainetos, 6, 3.
Whereas chameunais definedby Liddell-Scott-Jones as ' pallet-bed,'the Irapa6KoX-

Xoschameunaof our inscription is defined as a 'low couch with only one end to it.' 142
The meaning of parakollos is rather 'veneered' or 'tessellated,' as Bliimner (Tech-
nologie, II, p. 328) and Ransom (op. cit., p. 109) define it. Theophrastos (H.P. V,
7, 6; cf. IV, 3, 4) uses wrapaKoXXijaprafor the ornamental work attached to chests,
footstools, and the like. The word means literally 'things glued on.' 143
6. (II,
EITLKXtvITpOV 235-236). Elbow-or head-restfor a couch. Two meanings
for epiklintron are given in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae and in Liddell-Scott-
Jones: the first is 'comfortable chair or couch' and the second is 'arm or head-rest of
a couch or bed.' Pollux mentions the term thrice (VI, 9; X, 34; IX, 72), in the first
two cases clearly in the second sense, contrasting the epiklintron with the enelata or
legs and lower frame of the bed or couch. A statement similar to that of Pollux, X,
34, is to be found in Phrynichos, frag. 130 (p. 207: ed. Rutherford), who defines
epiklintron as the Attic word for acnaklintron.A number of Delian inscriptions use
the term, always as a part of a couch. For example, in I.G., XI, 2, 147 B, lines 13-14,
fifty beds are listed and four are specified as being without epiklintra.'44
It is in fact difficult to discover upon what evidence the first meaning is based.
Liddell-Scott-Jones cites in its support Aristophanes, frag. 44 (= Pollux, IX, 72) p45
which is inconclusive, and Aristophanes, Eccl., 907,140 which does not bear out this
meaning, since here the epiklintron is thrown down from a couch, and finally I.G.,
II2, 1541, line 26.147The latter is an inscription from Eleusis of 363/2 B.C. in which,
at the end of a list of bed items, seven epiklintra are listed independently,followed by
tables. The argument apparently is that an arm-rest of a couch cannot be a separate
item in an inventory, and so these must be regarded as seven chairs. However, while
this argument will hold for a chair-back,it will not necessarily apply to the elbow-rest
at the end of a couch. Miss Ransom 148 has conjectured that some types of couch
were portable and could be taken down and set up at any time; in her figure 28 she
shows such a couch from two angles in a drawing which makes it clear that the
In this passage, quoted in Athenaeus, XV, 673 b, Gulick follows Dindorf in reading xauEvvavs,which
on the evidence of our inscription must be corrected to xa`jevva(xa,iuvvcva:ms.).
142 P. 1313.
143
xo'Aa - glue. For various compounds, see Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 367.
144
Cf. I.G., XI, 2, 144, line 66; 163, lines 64-65.
145
1TOVT
' 'N 'V
avTo 7rparwT& 8v'
V3
o/w Kat corv3ov vro p '7rLKXvTpW.
. K
146 7o T7 xtVTpOV IOarOXO

/ ovXo/1Edvy
uroStrOat,
Kart T77)S KXLVrjS, KTX.
147 Liddell-Scott-Jones also cites Galen 12, 302 (Kuhn, XVIII: 1, p. 344) as evidence for the
meaning ' straight-backed chair'; however, the phrase here is W'cXvKAtvpov ToVi Opo'vov,and the meaning
is ' straight back of the chair.'
148 Couches and Beds, p. 48, note 2.
basic structure was a perfectly symmetrical frame with four legs of equal length,
to which was added at one end a curved rest so constructed that it could be fixed in
place by means of pegs fitting into sockets made in the frame. The conjecture that
such head-rests were often removable, and so could be considered separate items of
furniture, finds support in the bronze beds of a later period which have been found at
Priene and in the Boscoreale treasure.'49 These pieces have metal frames which are
exactly alike at head and foot; resting lightly on the leg-tops at one end is a separate
head-rest which is attached by two dowel pins which fit into small holes made both in
the rest and in the center of the top surface of each leg piece.150K. G. Vollmoeller, in
describing the stone beds of an Euboean tomb belonging to the fourth or third century
B.C.,15 assumes that the head-rests were made as separate pieces, and that they were
fixed in place by a ridge which fitted into a correspondinggroove in the bed frame.
There is then no reason to assume that an epiklintron was a chair simply because
it appears alone in furniture lists. It was an elbow- or head-rest which could be fitted
onto couches and beds, or removed, at will. This is the explanation of the term in
Aristophanes, Eccl., 907; according to the old hag's taunts the girl will eagerly throw
away the epiklintron of her couch in the hope of being crushed by her lover, only to
be disappointedin his performance.
Price. In our inscription neither the price nor the amount of the sales tax for
the epiklintron is preserved. However, the Delian inscriptions offer one clear price
and some indirect evidence. In I.G., XI, 2, 163, lines 64-65, it is recorded that two
epiklintra were bought for the beds for 3 drachmas 4 obols, or 1 drachma 5 obols
each; I.G., XI, 2, 144, line 66, mentions a payment of 12 drachmas for wood for the
epiklintra and feet of an unknown number of beds.
DOORS
In the Attic Stelai doors are listed among the items of furniture. This is not
irregular, for apparently doors were treated as movable pieces of property. Kent 152
has noted that in the Delian inventories of the hieropoioi buildings were regularly
listed 'with a door ' or 'without a door '; he shows also that in an Attic lease inscrip-
tion of 306/5 B.C. the doors and roof tiling did not belong permanently to the real
149 Wiegand and Schrader, Priene, Berlin, 1904, pp. 378 ff., figs. 480 and 481; Arch. Anz., XV,
1900, pp. 178-179; Ransom, op. cit., plates VIII-XVIII. Cf. the Etruscan couch with epiklintra at
both ends, Studniczka, op. cit., fig. 28, and the bronze couch in the Walters Art Gallery (D. K. Hill,
Journal of Walters Art Gallery, XV-XVI, 1952-1953, pp. 49-61).
150 A description and good pictures of such rests which were found in Italy appear in Not.
d.
Scavi, 1902, pp. 448 ff., figs. 17, 19a and b, 26, 27. See also the description and photographs of what
Miss Hill, op. cit., terms the fulcra.
151 Ath. Mitt., XXVI, 1901, p. 371.
152 Hesperia, XVII, 1948, p. 293.
estate,'53and that in a Tenian inscription of approximately the same date the doors
were clearly not a part of the house.154In addition, Kent cites Greek leases of today,
according to which the lessees furnish their own doors. Finley,'55however, would
argue that while doors might occasionally be movable, the general practice was to
consider them as a fixed part of the building, since doors and roofs were usually not
mentioned in mortgage inscriptions. Yet it is dangerous to draw conclusions e silentio,
particularlyin inscriptions; moreover, we cannot ignore the high cost of wood suitable
for doors. The Attic Stelai add another example to those cited by Kent of a house
which is specifiedas 'with a door' (IV, 20).
The fact that doors were auctioned separately shows that they were in effect
items of movable property; it is also clear that the houses from which they came could
be rented or sold doorless, and that there was an active market for doors which were
not new. We may conclude from the evidence of Kent and Finley that in the case
of rented houses custom varied; clearly many tenants were expected to bring their
own doors with them when they moved into a house. Thus Thucydides (II, 14, 1)
relates that the inhabitants of Attica brought the very woodwork from their houses
into the city with them in 431 B.C.; this does not of course necessarily mean that what
they salvaged was their own, but it does mean that they thought they would have a
use for individual doors. There is a passage in Lysias, XIX, The Property of Aristo-
phanes, 31, which describes the precautions taken to make sure that the doors of a
house were not stolen, and Robinson and Graham156 note that the scarcity of door
hardware to be found at Olynthos is probably due to the " wholesale removal of the
doors after the destruction of the city."
The following terms for doors are used in our inscription: Gtpa,Ov'pa o-airpa,Ovpa
KXw-ta'8E 0-alTpat, Kipraca.
&6arpto-roa, Ovpa crvvApoa'8q, KXLt-taL8E, On the derivation
of the word thyra see Buck, Dictionary, p. 465, and for a general list of Greek terms
for doors, Pollux, I, 76. H. Klenk has written a Giessen dissertation, Die antike Tiir
(1924), which is based on literary and inscriptional evidence and refers to examples
in ancient art. This work suffers from its lack of illustrations or diagrams, and from
its failure to take advantage of archaeological findings. The use of inscriptions is
unmethodical and incomplete; all the detailed evidence as to construction and cost
which the building records can offer has been ignored. In H. Diels' Parmenides there
is an Appendix, " Ueber altgriechische Thiiren und Schl6sser ; 157 this is an extended
commentary on the Proemion, 11, 11-15, but its emphasis is almost entirely upon
techniques of barring and locking doors, and not on the doors themselves. There is a
153
I.G., II2, 2499, lines 11-14 and 30-37.
154 I.G., XII, 5, 872, line 44.
155 Land and Credit,pp. 72 and 261, note 120.
156 Olynthus,VIII, p. 257.
157
Berlin, 1897, pp. 117-151; also published in his Antike Technik.
section on temple doors in Ebert, Fachausdricke, pp. 19-22, 52-58. The most usable
general article on the Greek door is that of E. Pottier in Daremberg-Saglio, Diction-
naire, s.v. Janua, which includes a number of illustrations from vase-paintings, and a
history of the development of the door. The article by Ebert 'in R.E., s.v. Thyra is
briefer and more concerned with details of technique and terminology. On the woods
used and the care taken in constructing doors, see Theophrastos, H.P., V, 3, 5.
Most representations of doors in art show temple or palace entrances, but house
doors are by no means unknown on vases."58References to house doors in ancient
authors are frequent, but seldom explicit enough to be very helpful. Thus the most
valuable treatment of doors for the purpose of this study is that of Robinson and
Graham."59
Houses in Olynthos had single or double doors, and in three instances the same
house had a single and a double door set side by side, one presumably for pedestrians,
the other for carts and animals. The house doors were set flush in the wall, sometimes
under a small projecting roof, and sometimes within a shallow porch or prothyron.
There were no wooden doors found at Olynthos, but from odd fittings and from
pictures of ancient doors it can be assumed that a house door of the fifth century
was made of vertical boards held together by three cross-pieces (Zvya))," the middle
one a little above center, fixed by decorative bronze nails. Doorways at Olynthos were
between 0.90 and 1.40 meters in width. The door was hung on a vertical pivot of wood
which was as a rule tipped with bronze at the bottom end and fixed in bronze or
stone sockets set in the threshold and the lintel.'61 These doors consistently opened
inward."62
The house doors at Delos were more elegant than those at Olynthos, with stone
frames and carved lintels; one in the neighborhood of the theatre measured 1.78 m.
158
In vase-painting, they were especially popular in works of the Meidian circle, and most
particularly on pyxides showing scenes of women's activities. See C.V.A., U.S.A., Robinson Collec-
tion, fasc. 3, pl. 11 and p. 20, fig. 1; C.V.A., Bonn, pl. 27, 4; C.V.A., Copenhagen, fasc. 4, pl. 162,
5 b; Furtwangler-Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, pl. 57, 1 and 3; Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeich-
nung der Griechen, III, fig. 580 (all double doors); C.V.A., Bonn, fasc. 1, pl. 25, 4 (single door);
Van Hoorn, Choes and Anthesteria, Leiden, 1951, no. 761, fig. 117; Pfuhl, op. cit., pl. 561 (double
door, opened).
159 Olynthus, VIII, pp. 153 ff. and pp. 249 ff. with plates 69-72. For stone doors, see the
literature cited on page 252, note 6.
160 See Ebert, Fachausdriicke, p.
53.
""The pivot was called arpoOcv", arpo'(ct$or 4acv: the cap at the bottom was the pty$ or
xoLvLKs (xotvL'xr) : the socket was the XAvosor o'Xos (6X,dutKos), according to Robinson and Graham,
Olynthus, VIII, p. 254, note 15; actual finds of these objects are listed in Olynthus, X, p. 295, and
good pictures of them can be found in Delos, VIII, 2, fig. 157; cf. Wiegand, Priene, pp. 304 f. The
socket was also v{ro1ooxov: I.G., XI, 2, 287 A, line 116. These terms are also discussed by Klenk,
op. cit., pp. 39 ff., and Ebert, Fachausdriicke, p. 55. Some modern Greek doors still are hung in
exactly the same way; see R. H. Dawkins, B.S.A., IX, 1902-1903, p. 184.
162
Compare this description with Parmenides' Proem. 11, 11-12.
in width at bottom and 1.64 m. at top, and 3.17 m. in height, but another was only
2.17 m. in height.163There is some further evidence in inscriptions as to the size of
doors, but these are usually in public records and refer to buildings of considerable
size. Thus we learn that the doors to the arsenal of Philo in the Piraeus were 15X2 ft.
high, under a lintel 12 ft. across,164and that at Eleusis the jambs of a door were made
of four stones, each 5 ft. in height and 3 ft. in width, making a door of a little under
10 feet.165
1. Hvpa(II, 13-16; V, 3, 6). Door. The Attic Stelai list one door without any
description (V, 6), three Ov'pat -awrpat(V, 3), one Ovpa&6irptwrTos(II, 13-14), and
OvpaG-vv8po/LaLE (II, 15-16) in the dual number. The listing of the rotten or damaged
doors is a reminder that all of these items were second-hand, a fact which must be
borne in mind when the prices are compared to prices for new objects. The first
problem that arises about these terms is whether or not a door listed simply as thyra
was single or double.166The usage of other inscriptions seems to indicate that the
singular might be used to indicate the two leaves of a temple door: the expression
9~~~~~~~~~
167* ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 6
Ovp&ov 4EV`ya16 iS sometimesemployed, but so also is thyra monothyros,168 which
would not be necessary if the plural were always used for a double door; individual
leaves of a double door are called the right or the left door.'69 However, since we
have a separate listing of KXfltac8LE (V, 2), which regularly has the meaning of
double door (see below, p. 239), we can consider the OiSpat in the Attic Stelai as having
only one leaf. It is probably also safe to assume that these were outside doors, for the
average Greek house seldom used doors inside, except occasionally for women's
quarters or a store-room; 170 the passages from room to room were closed, if at all,
by hangings (see vapavr'&aopa, pp. 248-250).
The phrase O1'pa ta'7rpto,ro immediately suggests the modern Dutch-door, sawed
horizontally through the middle so that top or bottom may open separately. Pollux,
X, 24, lists such a door, evidently having found it in a source which goes back to this
inscription, for he follows it with Ov'patowv8pop6a&8E, and fails to describe either. A
red-figured krater in the British Museum 171 shows a half-door, closed at the bottom
163Delos, VIII, 2, p. 265.
164I.G., 112, 1668, lines 30 if.
165
I.G., II2, 1672, line 131.
166 Gow, ad Theokritos 2, 6: "The plural is used in earlier Greek, as at 15.65, 24.15, 29.39, of
the double doors of palace, temple or courtyard, v'pa being the door of a private house. T. however,
uses singular and plural indifferently of Simaetha's door (31, 104, 127, cf. 6.32, 14.42 . .)."
167 I.G., 12, 313, II, line 123.
168
I.G., II2, 1627, line 418; II2, 2500, lines 43 ff.; IV2, 110, line 33, here used to distinguish
from other doors called simply Ov'pat.
169 I.G., II2, 1457, line 16.
170
Aristophanes, Thesm., 414-428.
171
Walters, Catalogue of Greek and Etruscan Vases in the British Museum, IV, p. 43, F65-
Beazley, A.R.V., p. 791, 23.
and opened (inwards, but clearly shown in perspective) at top, with a boy leaning out;
this surely is the O'pa 8t6ptpo-rg.172
The O'pa o-vv8podL'8E(dual) is a muchmoredifficultproblem,for the term itself
suggests something for which we can find only one piece of evidence-a sliding door.173
The expression occurs (outside of Pollux, which is not an independentnotice) so far
as I know only here and in I.G., 1I2, 2500, the record of the establishment of a
synoikia by the Eleusinians in Thriasian territory. There is a list of all the doors in
the building, with the final item preserved being one sawn-through door and eleven
thyrai syndromades.
There are several terms which are used to describe the usual pair of doors which
close together at the center,174and it may be that syndromade was merely another of
these, applying to some slight variation in the way the actual closing was made. It seems
more likely, however, that the syndromas was a true folding door, that is, one made of
three or four leaves,'75hinged 176 together to make a single or double door. Such a
door would be hung in the same way as an ordinary door, and so would leave no special
evidence in the archaeological remains, while yet its movement in closing might
accurately be described by its name. The conjecture that such doors existed at Delos
and at Pompeii has already been made 177 and a pair can be seen on a large standing
cupboardin a fresco from Herculaneumn,'78 but they have not been connected with the
term owvv8polta6.
Prices. Most prices which can be found are for temple doors 179 and so cannot be
172 This example is also noted by Robinson and Graham, Olynthus, VIII, p. 252,
note 4a. It
should be remarked that Galen, 12,303 (Kuhn, XVIII, 1, p. 345) describes such a door but calls
it thyrai diktleides.
173 Certainly nothing in the doorways at Olynthos showed the slightest indication of any but
the type of closing described above. But the cuttings for the grille on the outer side of the doorway
of the Tholos at Delphi suggest a folding arrangement: Delphes, II, 2, p. 17. This reference I owe
to H. A. Thompson.
174 aUp@V gEvyos, Ovpat &KXL, KXatta'83E, Ovpa SurTX, 7rTVXeS, cav8s.
175 There are three-leaved doors pictured at Herculaneum (see Overbeck, Pomtpeji, Leipzig,
1884, fig. 77) but it is impossible to tell whether each leaf opened independently in its own doorway,
or whether this was a true folding door. Vitruvius (De arch. IV, 6, 5-6) speaks of a four-leaved
door; Klenk (op. cit., p. 14) assumes that this is an ordinary double door sawn through horizontally,
but this conclusion cannot be supported by any ancient evidence.
176 Hinges were found at Olynthos; see Robinson, Olynthus, X, pp. 299-301.
177
Delos, VIII, pp. 265-266, " Les baies des boutiques quelquefois beaucoup plus larges que
celles des habitations, etaient fermees soit par de veritables portes a vantaux, soit par des volets
mobiles. I1 semble que, dans le premier cas, l'un des vantaux etait plus large, et forme sans doute
de deux panneaux de rabattantl'un sur l'autre." Overbeck, op. cit., pp. 252-253, in treating the house
doors at Pompeii, assumes that the three-leaved doors of the House of the Fawn and the House of
Epidius Rufus had the middle panel hinged to one of its neighbors.
178
Overbeck, op. cit., fig. 301.
179
I.G., XI, 2, 199, line 76, notes payments of 570 drachmas to two workmen for doors, and
I.G., IV2, 102, line 37, lists a payment of 219 drachmas for doors of the ergasterion of the Ask-
comparedto those listed in the Attic Stelai. However, there are a few modestly priced
doors in other inscriptions. I.G., IV2, 110, line 25, lists a payment of 20 drachmas 312
obols for each pair of house doors made for properties at the Asklepieion at Epidauros
(fourth to third century); another group of doors was made by the same workman
for 39 drachmas 2 obols each, whether double or single (lines 31 ff.). In I.G., XI, 2,
147, line 11, a door to the Delian abatos was bought from Hierakos for 18 drachmas.
Another Delian house door was bought for a price which must be restored as 11
drachmas 2 obols, 12 drachmas 1 obol, or 13 drachmas (I.G., XI, 2, 159, line 56).180
Other prices for parts of doors can be found: I.G., XI, 2, 165, line 4, lists two lime-
wood boards for the kymatia of the pronaos doors at probably 20 drachmas, and 147,
line 11, shows that the bosses for one door cost 1 drachma 4 obols.1
We cannot be sure just what the door prices listed above included; in the case
of the double and single doors made for the Asklepieion, the term Ovp4,uara is used,
and it is quite certain that doorposts were included, with perhaps also lintel and
threshold, which would explain the high price. The first Delian door, on the other
hand, was probably nothing but the leaf itself, without even its decorative bosses,
which are listed as the following item.182Since the doors in the Attic Stelai were
taken from houses, they presumablydid not include frames or lintels; this impression
is confirmed by the fact that there is a separate listing of six doorposts (see below,
p. 240). Whether or not these doors still bore their metal fittings we do not know.
Price. The only door in our list for which there is an indicative partial price is
the thyra syrtdromas;the restoration of a price of 23 drachmas 1 obol for the two
lepieion, where iron for two doors cost 708 drachmas (line 61) and ivory for other doors cost 3,150
drachmas (line 65). Temple doors might be decorated with designs in heated colored wax; see Insc.
De'los, 290, lines 144 ff., where 69 drachmas were paid Tas 7rpoyve18a& Ov'paS EyKavoaaJ and the same
for the doors behind the altar.
180 There are also some inconclusive prices from Delos: I.G., XI, 2, 163, lines 2 ff., mentions
that Demetrios was paid 200 drachmas for making 30 minas' weight of doors and a window, but
the line is incomplete; he may have made other things too, and we do not know how much a single
door weighed. The fact that the weight is given suggests that these doors were metal covered.
XI, 2, 154 A, line 4, notes a payment of 20 drachmas for doors and windows of the hestiatorion, but
again the line is broken and we cannot be sure that this was not merely a payment for repairs.
181 Some doors were covered with pitch; see I.G., XI, 2, 158, line 78. We know that one
metretes of pitch cost about 20 drachmas (line 76-20 drachmas 4 obols; cf. I.G., XI, 2, 199, line
36) at Delos, and it is recorded in I.G., XI, 2, 204, line 59, that a workman was paid 12 drachmas
for thus sealing a number of doors.
182 There are some recoverable prices for door hardware: amphidai (the rings into which the
bolt slid in fastening the doors) could cost 1 drachma each (I.G., XI, 2, 147, line 4) or somewhat
less (several for 1 drachma 2 plus obols: I.G., XI, 2, 156, line 53). I.G., XI, 2, 165, line 28, lists a
number of items of hardware which seem to have been bought all at the one price of 1 drachma 3
obols per mina (cf. lines 11 ff.). For the pronaos doors (line 30) 8 pairs of choinikes (sockets for
the posts) were required, at 4 drachmas a pair. See also I.G., XI, 2, 287, lines 115-116.
suits the other house-door prices which have been found. It seems likely that the price
of the thyra diapristos was 20 drachmas 4 obols.
2. KVpTaU7a (V, 40). Gardengate. Near the listings of a phatneand a pigpenin
Stele V is the phrase K7-Tqata ETT
rctGI3o,3vt.Kepcaiais short for kepcaiathyra (see Pollux
I, 76 and IX, 13), which is usually taken to mean the back door of a house (Olynthus,
VIII, p. 152, note 4). That it was not merely a garden gate is shown by [Demos-
thenes] XLVII, Against Euergos and Mnesiboulos, 53, where a violent entry into a
farm house was made through the door which led to the garden (,rqv Ov9pavrq)vE1s r07J
K'TOV bE'pov-cav). A second passage which should be helpful in defining the kepaia is
a fragment from Hermippos: 183 8E,raXatvav -a6a-rtyy' av '8ootssap& rov mrpo4Ea
T2) K7pTratas
EV TOUOrtKOp7yLccTav
ovi-av. Here the kepaia is the door out of which refuse
was thrown.
The problemto be solved in trying to visualize our kepaia is what the modifying
phrase E'Tr4tC,8o6vt means. If the kepaia is always a house door, then here we have a
back door, opening into an attached cow shed, or leading to a detached cow shed. But
the phrase should describe some permanent characteristic of the door-the mere fact
that it once, on a certain house, led out towards a shed need not have been recorded in
this list. Therefore, if these are the only alternatives, the first must be chosen, and the
door thought of as of a special sort which ordinarily separated house from shed.
However, it is possible that this door may have been a cow shed door and not a house
door at all.'84 In either case the kepaia was presumably of much rougher and cheaper
construction than any door which would be placed at the front of a house, but neces-
sarily strong enough not to be knockeddown by the animals.
3. KXtW-ta'SE3(V, 2, 39). Broad double door. In Stele V there are two entries,
one of klisiades and one of klisiades saprai; in neither case is a price preserved. This
term is derived from KXELtO-tovor KXLcTLOV, which is from KXtV(o, according to Liddell-
Scott-Jones, thus doors belonging to a lean-to or outhouse. However, Pollux derived
it from KXELO)(IX, 50), and he has been followed by Dindorf. The word klisiades is
used sometimes for an outer or street door (Dionysios Halikarnassos V, 39), some-
times for an inner door which connects the vestibule with the house (Philo Mech., I,
520). Suidas and Hesychius define it simply as a 'double door,' Oipat &7-rvrXot,while
Pollux (IV, 125) uses it as the door of the KXWtLo1V,which is wide enough to allow
chariots to pass. Et. Mag. suggests that the connection with klision, which can mean
stable, shows that such a door was wide enough for a yoked team,'85and Herodotos
183 Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 238.
184On cow sheds, see H. Kraemer, R.E., Suppl. 7, s.v. Rind, and Alphonse Hauger, Zur
rimischen Lanzdwirtschaftund Haustierzucht, Hanover, 1921, especially p. 16. Doors to sheds were
in demand, just as house doors were, as we know from B.C.H., XXXV, 1911, p. 243, lines 50 ff.,
where there is mention of a 7rpo,8ar3va aOvpa, and a ovorfacrtv still presumably possessing a door.
185
Cf. Photius, s.v., where the door is wide enough for a pair of animals.
(IX, 9) uses the term simply to denote a very broad gate in a wall (cf. Plutarch,
Alc., 10).
We have then a broad double door, more expensive than the doors called simply
thyrai, which we have assumed had only a single leaf.
4. bXta' (V, 19). Doorjamb. Six phliai are listed among the furniture items in
Stele V. This term seems to have had two meanings, an older, particular one-
' doorjamb,'and a later, general one-any part of the framework of a door. However,
the second usage does not appear much earlier than Apollonios Rhodios (III, 278),
where the meaning is 'lintel'; it is most frequent among very late writers (Artemi-
doros, On., 4, 42: Schol. Gen. H to II. XXIII, 202; Quintus Smyrnaeus, 7, 338;
Palladios, Hist. Laus., XII, 3 and XVIII, 23; Suidas s.v. ovi0s6). As ' jamb' the
word appears in Od., XVII, 221; Theokritos, 23, 18; Bion, 1, 87; Kallimachos, Iamb.,
4, 24 and 91 (Pfeiffer, frag. 194) and Epig., 42, 5-6; Polybios, XII, 11, 2; Josephus,
A.J., V, 305.186 The usual word for doorjamb in inscriptions is parastas (see Pollux,
I, 76, where stathmoi are equated with parastades, but phlicaiare not mentioned), but
phlicaoccurs in I.G., 2, 386, line 6; I.G., XII, 3, 170, line 24; I.G., XII, 7, 237, line
50; in each of these cases the meaning is 'jamb.'
In temples, public buildings and very fine houses the door frames were of stone 187
but the jambs sold among the possessions of the Hermokopidaiwere surely wooden, of
the sort pictured in Olynthus, VIII, p. 250, fig. 21.
LAMPSTANDS
XvXvELov (II, 199-200). Lampstand.188There seems to be no reference to the
word lychneion in Toutain's article in Daremberg-Saglio, s.v. Lucerna, or in Hug's in
R.E., s.v. Lucerna.
The most pertinent literary passage for this word occurs in Athenaeus, XV, 700
c-d,189where the author collects passages to illustrate the use of the word lychneion for
what in his day was called lychnia.90 Rutherford (op. cit., p. 132) states that the
lychneion was used indoors to support or suspend one or more lychnoi.
186 See Gow's discussion, Theocritus, II, pp. 47 and 410.
187
See, for instance, Delos, VIII, 2, figs. 127-131; in I.G., II2, 1672, line 129, a threshold is
listed at AA. ., but since this one was probably of marble it does not help us to conjecture a price
for the phliai in Stele V.
188 For the etymology, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. XEvKo'; and Buck, Dictionary, p. 483.
Liddell-Scott-Jones defines Xvxvo3xosas 'lampstand.' As Rutherford has shown (The New Phry-
nichus, London, 1881, p. 131), however, lychnouchos was more correctly a lantern used in the
open air. See also Gulick ad Athenaeus, XV, 699 f in the Loeb Classical Library.
189For epigraphical references, see, for example, I.G., J2, 313, line 142 (408/7 B.C.); II2, 1425,
line 348; etc.
190For lychnia, a shortened form, of lychneion, and condemned by Phrynichos, see Rutherford,
op. cit., p. 367. See also Gow ad Theokritos, 21, 36, vol. II, p. 377.
Our two lampstands were made of wood, and must have been of very simple
construction, since the price was one obol each. An article of J. D. Beazley's on lamps
of the archaic period 191 gives a clue to the sort of stand which seems most likely.
From the lamps collected, three sorts of stands can be inferred: (1) a tripod,192wall
bracket, or upright with an arm, from which the lamp was suspended by chains or
thongs; (2) a stand ring, of metal or terracotta, in an ornate or simple form 93 (a
wooden stand ring is not likely); (3) a spike which went through the central hole of
a circular lamp, with a ridge at a short distance from the top, on which the lamp would
rest; at the bottom some kind of flat base to allow the spike to stand upright.194This
last type suits the qualificationsof our entry very well, since it would be easily made of
wood and simpler even in construction than type 1, so that it might well sell for an
obol. That such stands were common is shown by the number of lamps of the pierced
variety which have been found.95
Price. The price for the two wooden lampstands was two obols. For prices of
expensive lampstands from Roman Egypt, see A. C. Johnson, Economic Survey, II,
p. 473.
TABLES
1. rpdirERa(I, 110, 230; II, 149, 221, 222, 242-243; V, 88) and rpac're4ov(VI,
35; see above, p. 209). Table. The word trapes2 originally meant ' four-footed' 196
and appliedto a table around which people sat to eat. When the Greeks began to dine
from couches a much smaller table could be used, and since it was customary to bring
in tables and remove them sometimes several times during a meal,197they came to be
of the lightest possible construction. The table most frequently pictured in the fifth
century was small and rectangular, with two legs at the corners of one end, and a
single leg centered at the other end.198This table continued to be called, inappropri-
ately, a trapeza, but it could also be called a tripous.199The jokes of Ulpian Epicharmus
191J.H.S., LX, 1940, pp. 22-49.
192
Antiphanes (frag. 110: Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 54) describes an improvised lychneion in the
form of a tripod: " We fasten three javelins upright together and use them as a lampstand."
193 Beazley, op. cit., fig. 30; 0. Broneer, Corinth, IV, 2, p. 49, fig. 24 (Hellenistic); Daremberg-
Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Lucerna, p. 1335, fig. 4606; Wiegand and Schrader, Priene, fig. 484; Arch.
Anz., 1900, p. 182, fig. 7.
194 However, see H. A. Thompson, Hesperia, II, 1933, p. 198, note 1, who alone among those
who have studied lamps seems to have doubts about this type of stand.
195 Beazley, op. cit., pp. 30, 33, 46; Broneer, op. cit., p. 33; Deonna, B.C.H., XXXII, 1908,
pp. 140 ff., with references; Howland, Athenian Agora, IV, Greek Lamps (in press), Types 11,
19, 22, 26A, 27A-D.
196 Buck,Dictionary, p. 483.
197
For the use of tables in Greece, see, in particular, Richter, op. cit., pp. 76 ff.
198 Richter, op. cit., figs. 195-205; Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Mensa. Note also the
greater stability of a three-legged table especially on a clay floor.

199 For references to representations of tables of three legs from antiquity, see Schwendemann
in Jahrbuch, XXXVI, 1921, pp. 114-120.
and Aristophanes quoted by Athenaeus 200 are evidence that either term was used
simply as a generic for 'table,' and one might find himself calling a four-legged piece
tripous, or a three-legged one trapeza.201 One of the tables in the Attic Stelai is speci-
fied as TETpaiTrovS(II, 242-243), which leads us to the conclusionthat the others
mentioned had only three legs.
The second question which arises concerns the shape of the tables in our list.
Bliumner,in his early article on Greek tables,202spoke of rectangular and round tables
as main-course and dessert pieces, without considering which was the older form, but
it is now customary to say that the round table so frequently seen on late pots and
reliefs was not introduceduntil the fourth century.203I have seen no specific literary
reference to a round table earlier than the first century B.C.; Asklepiades of Myrlea
explains in a passage quoted by Athenaeus (XI, 489 c) that the ancients thought
the universe sphericaland for this reason T'v TpaLTE;c KVKXOEL& KaTEOKEvao-aVrO.
Studniczka for some reason assumes that any table called a tripous was round and so
cites Xenophon, Anab., VII, 3, 21 and Antiphanes, frag. 287 (Kock, C.A.F., II,
p. 127), although there is nothing in either of these passages to suggest roundness.
On the contrary, we know that the term tripous did not necessarily mean a round
table, for in Athenaeus' (II, 49 a) anecdote of Ulpian it was applied to a rectangular
four-legged table. However, if Pollux (X, 81) is right, the Attic Stelai once con-
tained the term Tpa'rEZa /LOVoKVKXOS,which could only have been a circular table (the
top was presumably made of a single piece); thus the period of the introduction of
this style would have to be pushed back to the late fifth century. One would expect a
new style to appear first at Athens, and in the houses of rich and fashionable men; we
may suppose that this round table had the carved animal legs which characterized the
round pieces of the following century.
Probably the tables which were listed simply as trapeza were rectangular, three-
legged, and of the small size which might fit under a couch."04Such tables were made
200 49 a and c.
II,
201
Pollux (X, 69) notes that there was a sort of drinking table called a TpawrEca 4Lovo7roVs.
202
Arch. Zeit., XLII, 1884, 179 if. and 285; XLIII, 1885, 287 if. He is followed by Kruse, R.E.,
s.v. Mensa.
203
Richter, op. cit., p. 87, where it is called " a Greek invention "; Reincke, R.E., Suppl. 6, s.v.
Mabel, p. 505, " Mit orientalischen Einfluisser zusammenzubringen ist wohl auch die im 4 Jhdt. neu
auftretende Form des runden Tisches mit drei Tierfiissen "; Studniczka, op. cit., pp. 123 ff.; Furt-
wangler, op. cit., p. 38, of a round animal-legged table, " dergleichen niemals auf Vasen des fiinften
Jahrhunderts vorkommt." For other round tables, represented on the painted stelai of Demetrios
Pagasai and dated at least as early as the third century B.C., see A. S. Arvanitopoulos, rpapraL
YrTuat, 1928, pl. 10 (stele of Demetrios, son of Olympos) and pl. 7 (stele of Phila), both of which
have more or less 'naturalistic' animal legs, three in number. Cf. also the 'drum table' in pl. 5
(stele of Choirile).
204 A Delian inscription of 364 B.C. distinguishes small and large tables, but gives no real indi-
cation of the size of either type; B.C.H., X, 1886, p. 467, line 145.
of wood, maple ordinarily,205or citrus for more expensive pieces. Luxurious tables
might be carved and inlaid with ivory,206decorated with bronze or silver feet, or even
coated with silver.207The legs were attached to the top, according to Richter,208by
wooden dowels; but in the Delian lists table items are usually followed by mention of
bronze 'Xot; either these were for decoration or else they were used to hold the piece
together. In I.G., XI, 199 A, line 43, it is specified that the nails were used in the feet
(i. e., legs) of a table. The most famous ancient tables were Sicilian; a ' Syracusan
table' was one that was both elegantly made and heavily laden.209
Prices. In I, 230, four tables were sold for 16 drachmas, or 4 drachmasapiece; in
II, 242-3 the four-legged table, which was probably larger, sold for 6 drachmas 2
obols. The one clear-cut table price I have found in the Delian inscriptions is 4
drachmas3 obolsfor a Tpa6-EIaTEEtS cEpoWoov.2"0 Tablescomparableto those in the Attic
Stelai are probably referred to in I.G., XI, 2, 144 A, line 60, where a workman was
paid 7 drachmas to repair the doors and tables of the Dioskourion, using for the
table bases wood bought for 4 drachmas 3 obols, and 2 drachmas' worth of nails.
There were surely only two or three tables repaired at this time, since the price of a
single nail was about 4 obols (I.G., XI, 165, lines 13, 27), and thus only three or four
at most were used. In the repair of the tables of the hestiatorion in the Asklepieion in
the same year (line 67) boards for the tops and bases cost 12 drachmas but we do
not know how many tables there were.
Pliny reports that Cicero paid a half-million sesterces for a table of Maure-
tanian citrus wood and ivory; a hanging table of King Juba was sold for 1,200,000
sesterces, and a table from the estate of the Cethegi was sold for 1,300,000 sesterces,
the price of a large estate.21' It is interesting to note the relatively small size of the
tables which Pliny mentions as the largest yet known: a table-top of only 4'2 feet in
diameter heads the list.
2. Oa'rv-q(II, 39; V, 37). Manger,table. The specificmeaningof phatne must
be determinedby the context.212In architecture, the word was used for the coffer of
205
Kratinos ap. Athenaeus, II, 49 a; Pollux, X, 35. Wicker tables are restored in I.G., I2, 313,
line 143.
206 Athenaeus, II, 49 a. See G. Bakalakis, University of Mississippi and
tEXAqavtKa parcEo'oopa,
Johns Hopkins Studies in Archaeology, No. 39, Thessaloniki, 1948.
207
I.G., XI, 199 A, lines 82 ff. Herodotos, IX, 82, 2, mentions gold and silver tables among the
possessions of Xerxes.
208 Op. cit., p. 81.
209
Aristophanes, frag. 216 ap. Athenaeus, XII, 527 c; [Xenophon], Epist., 1, 8; Plato, Rep.,
III, 404 D; Lucian, De mort., 9, 2.
210I.G., XI, 2, 161 A, line 110 (279 B.C.).
211 Pliny, H.N., XIII, 92-93; see also R. M. Haywood, " Roman Africa," Economic Survey, IV,
p. 25; and R.E., s.v. Citrus.

212 For the derivation of the word, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. a form which was sup-
wra-Gvq,
planted by the Attic phatne.
the ceiling. It is there synonymous with phatnoma and in one building inscription the
price for executing the work is given as 300 drachmas per phatne.213A coffer might
be of wood, just as the phatne was in Stele II, 39.214 However, the usual meaning of
phatne is 'manger, feeding-trough,' for which Liddell-Scott-Jones gives numerous
references. For example, Herodotos (IX, 70) states that the Tegeans dedicated to
Athena Alea a bronze phatne which they found in Mardonios' tent on the Plataean
battlefield.
Two factors must be considered in defining our phatne. The first is the position
in the list; the second is the price. The entry in Stele II follows that of the entry for
kiste, ' box ' or ' basket '; in Stele V, those of plinthoi and staphylobouloi. In Stele II
our article was made of wood, and the price is given as 10 drachmas 1 obol. It is
possible that there was an otherwise unattested chest which was named phatne because
of its shape, just as the coffer of the ceiling was so called because of its resemblance
to a box. This would explain the juxtaposition of our entry to kiste. But Hesychius
defines phatne simply as a trapeza and this definition is repeated in Suidas. The
passages cited in Suidas are proverbialin the sense of ease and comfort and this is the
use recognized in Liddell-Scott-Jones. For example, Euripides, frag. 379: ' .
irXovaav >'X71 a6v-v. Back of this, however, may be the use of phatne as a ' dining
table.' Hesychius' definition could then be understood in a literal sense.
FURNISHINGS
1. a cvrqOa'wr (I, 164-172).215 Rug or blanket with pile on both sides. For the
meaning of amphi- ' on both sides,' see Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., II, p. 437. For the
Iranian derivation of the word, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4,p. 942; and Schroff, R.E.,
s.v. Tapes. The word is defined in several lexicographers including Suidas, s.v.; Pol-
lux, VI, 9; and Eustathius (Commentarii ad Homeri Iliadem .. . , p. 746, 39, citing
Aelius Dionysius and Pausanias; and p. 1057, 8)216 as a tapes having wool (mnallosor
dasys) on both sides.
The hitherto earliest known occurrence of the word was in the fourth-century
comic poet Alexis (f rag. 93: Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 327). In a fragment from Diphilos
the speaker had apparently been sleeping under the amphitapes.Zl7In Athenaeus V,
213
I.G., XI, 2, 161 A, line 46. Cf. also the Delian account of the year 279, Insc. Delos, 504.
214I.G.R., IV, 556 (Ancyra). For a study of phatne as an architectural term, see Ebert,
Fachausdriicke, p. 47. Cf. I.G., IV2, 1, 109, III, line 85.
For Sa'=, (vel Ta=,3), q.v.
215
216
Cf. the convenient list of references in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae. One lexicographer,
Hesychius, offers a different definition, as follows: XtTW'V (KaT1-p4OeV (Xwv tXaAXov'q. Dindorf (ad
Thesaurus) suggests that the first word is repeated from the definition of a4q+tyr/aXoa.
217 See Kock's note ad frag.51 (C.A.F., II, p. 558) ; and
Studniczka, op. cit., p. 121: " Zweiseitig
wohl deshalb, weil sie auch zum Sinwickeln des gauzen Bettzeugs dienten."
197 b, purple amphitapoiwere spread over the klinai (couches); 218 and in VI, 255 e,
a young man of princely rank was covered with an amphitapos as he lay upon his
couch spread with a psilotapis. In Homer, the uncompoundedform tapes was used as
a carpet, but more frequently signified a covering for seats and beds. In Pollux, X,
38, it is grouped with furnishings for beds. Whereas tapes designates various woven
goods which are used for the furnishings of a house, all references to the compound
amphitapesseem to be to a sort of blanket; this is not surprising since the amphitapes
was reversible.219
The amphitapetesare qualifiedby two adjectives:
A. XEVKO6, white. For leukos, as applied to a color, see the numerous references
in the Thesaurus and in Liddell-Scott-Jones. For example, in Aristophanes, Acch.,
1024, the reference is to the white, or homespun,himation of the rustics from Phyle.220
In the Diocletian Edict, covers (stromata) were to be sold according to the dyeing
and embroidery.221
For poikilos as a descriptive adjective of bedding or carpets, see, e. g., Aeschylus,
Ag., 923; Plutarch, Them., 29.
B. 'OpXopVtos. The preserved letters are as follows: OIX[]MENIO. In the
left part of the fourth letter space there are probablytraces of an omicron. The second
and third letters were cut very close together; no correction of the upright stroke was
possible without erasure. The original editor suggested 'O<p>x[o]pE'vto (),222 which
seems the only possible reading.
The R.E. lists four towns of this name,223and we cannot be sure which one was
referred to here. Two of them, those in Thessaly and Euboea,224seem unlikely because
of distance and size respectively. To distinguish the remaining two, the practice of a
second-century Delphic list referring to the Boeotian town as '?pX - - and the
Arcadian as 'EpX - - was unfortunately not otherwise adopted.225No reference to
Orchomenian woollens is contained in Athenaeus' catalogue of special products of
218
For a detailed discussion of this passage, see Studniczka, loc. cit.
219 Liddell-Scott-Jones refers to tVAai ctmphitapetesin an inscription from Ionian Teos. The
text in C.I.G., II, 3071, is incomplete, and it is possible that in the phrase attTar[Tr-Tas] evvea nxaXSs,
v [v] -aa -, as punctuated by Boeckh, the qILaX is a substantive (i. e., modified by the second
evvea) as it frequently was in late Greek, meaning 'carpets.' See, e. g., Liddell-Scott-Jones, s.v.
qtxok, II, b and Gulick ad Athenaeus V, 197 b.
220
See schol. ad loc.
221 Col. XIX, 25.
222 Hesperia, XVII, 1948, p. 34.
223Discussion of the Boeotian city in the R.E. was reserved for Suppl. 8. In addition to
the cities of Arcadia, Boeotia, and Thessaly, the scholiast ad Apollonios Rhodios, II, 1186, refers to
a city of Pontus.
224 However, there are representations of Euboean tapides on the stone beds of two chamber-
graves; see K. G. Vollmoeller, Ath. Mitt., XXVI, 1901, pp. 331 ff. and pls. XVI-XVII.
225B.C.H., XLV, 1921, pp. 1 ff.
individual cities. He cites, rather, a fragment of Hermippos (f rag. 63: Kock, C.A.F.,
I, 243) in which reference is made to Carthage in connection with dapis and proske-
phalaia,220and Milesian wool, woven into garments or rugs, was, of course, highly
esteemed throughout the ancient world and its popularity continued for centuries.227
Two Cyprianswere named as the chief artists in the textile profession.228In Hellenistic
and Roman times, Strabo informs us that wool from Spain, Patavium, Brundisium,
and Laodicea was famous.229Whereas one city, such as Miletos, won renown for
the fineness of its fabrics,230another such as Megara, specialized in rough fabrics fit
for slaves' clothing.213 Since sheep were raised almost everywhere in mountainous
districts including those of Arcadia and Boeotia, trade in textiles must have been
considerable. The reference to Orchomenos in our inscription in itself, then, affords
no clue to the nature of the blanket or carpet. Elsewhere, Athenaeus notes that
Themistokles was presented by the Persian king with Perkote and Palaiskepsis to
supply him bedding and clothing.231a
2. U qrts(vel racsg) (I, 175). Rug. The form rarts has been restored in Part L,
following the original editor, but &ins would now seem to the present editor to be
the more likely form. Boisacq, Dictionnaire4,p. 942, lists both as Attic, &a1TLsoccurring
in Aristophanes, Pherekrates, and Xenophon, and rdrtq first in Xenophon.232Buck
and Petersen use &a'in for the index form.233Pollux in VI, 10, places the two forms
beside each other, but in X, 38, in a section which contains a reference to our Stelai,
the form is dapis and it is followed by amphitapes, which likewise occurs in our lists.
Moreover, in Aelius Dionysius (frag. 116: ed. E. Schwabe), &artg is recognized as
the old Attic form.
The word is discussed s.v. Tapes by Schroff in the R.E.234 In Xenophon, Cyr.,
VIII, 8, 16, the reference is clearly to a carpet, for the posts of the beds are placed on
dapides that yield. In Aristophanes, Plutus, 528, on the other hand, the reference is to
sleeping on dapides. In Athenaeus IV, 138 f, the dapis is spread upon a couch of
wood. Hesychius defines &mgtssimply as tapes. Aelius Dionysius defines the plural as
226J, 28 a.
227
Aristophanes, Lys., 729; Ranae, 542; Cicero, Verr., II: I, 34; Pliny, H.N., VIII, 73; Horace,
Epist., I, 17, 30; Vergil, Georg., III, 306; IV, 335; etc.
228
Athenaeus,II, 48 b.
229
2, 6; V, 1, 12; VI, 3, 6; XII, 8, 16.
III,
230
J. Rohlig, Der Handel von Milet, Hamburg Diss., 1933, pp. 12, 22, 37.
Cf.
231
Aristophanes, Ach., 519; Pax, 1002; Xenophon, Mem., II, 7, 6.
231a I, 29 f.
232
Tapis is the form used in a Delian inventory of 301 B.C., I.G., XI, 2, 147, B, line 12.
233
Reverse Index, p. 424. Since the modifying adjective, poikile, is in the feminine gender, the
more common ra-s is not a possible restoration.
234
For a convenient collection of literary passages referring to coverlets and carpets (including
dapis), see W. Miller, Univ. of Missouri Studies, VII, 1932, pp. 669-672.
strotcata, something spread out for lying upon.23 The dapis, as the tapes, then, is a
rug which could be spread upon the floor or on a bed.
3. ITl,3X TlOV (I, 219-223). Bedspread. The word is known only from our
inscription.236The first four letters are not preserved on the stone, but were first
restored by Wilhelm,237who suggested that epibletiawas identical with E7TL,8/3X?jaraand
of Pollux VI, 10, and that the meaning was 'bedspread'
ETLt,3o0XaLat ('Bettdecken').
This meaning has been adopted in Liddell-Scott-Jones, and it would accord with the
position of our word in Stele I, where it follows KVEbacXXov
(lines 217-218).
4. Ka6vva (I, 238). Reed, reed-mat. Kcannais defined by Hesychius, Eusta-
thius 23 and the Ravenna scholiast to Aristophanes, Vespae, 394, as Otiaoo0. Suidas
mentions it in conjunction with reeds (kalamoi) ." Pollux (X, 183-184) is the chief
source of information about the word. He quotes its use in Aristophanes, Pherekrates,
Kratinos, Hipponax, and Eupolis (in X, 192), and defines it as wickerwork. In X,
166, he states that it is a psiathos or mat, used in light boats. For the Sumerian origin
of the word through the intermediary of Babylonian, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v.
5. KVE'baXov (I, 217, 218; II, 218, 219). Cushion, mattress. Of the Greek
words for pillows, cushions, mattresses, two occur in our inscription: KvEaAcXXovand
TrpOOrKEbaAXatov.40Other words of this meaning are listed in Ransom, Couches and
Beds, p. 110. The manufacture of cushionlsand its place in ancient industry are dis-
cussed by Bliimner, Technologie, IP,pp. 215-218. The R.E. article on this subject is by
Herzog-Hauser, s.v. Torus (with bibliography), but there are references to pillows in
Mau's article s.v. Betten and in Herzog-Hauser's article s.v. Tomentum. The subject
is treated by Graillot in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Torus, with references
to illustrations published throughout the Dictionnaire.
Knephcllon is defined by both Hesychius and Suidas as Tv'XA.24 Pollux (X, 41)
speaks of it as soft bedding. The most interesting passage on the word is probably
235
Frag. 116: ed. E. Schwabe.
236
Cf. Liddell-Scott-Jones and Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 114.
237
Jahreshefte, VI, 1903, p. 240.
238
1344, 42: ad II., XXIV, 189.
239
Cf. Thesaurus, s.v.
240
It should be noted that the qtda0oo, rush-mat, was also used as a mattress and in Stele II,
when the word follows proskephalaion and knephallon, the position would lead us to favor this mean-
ing. See below, p. 254.
241 For the derivation of TVAX3,see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. o. The word originally meant
'callus' (cf. Hesychius, s.v.), and was applied to a 'hump,' especially one that had been hardened
by carrying burdens (see Starkie ad Aristophanes, Ach., 860). When used as the word for a
cushion, it could be applied even to the 'shoulder-pad' as in Diogenes Laertius, IX, 53. Artemi-
doros (V, 8) refers to a tyle stuffed with wheat. From such passages one might expect that the
tyle was a hard cushion and knephallon a soft one, and this would be favored by the etymologies.
In Sappho, 50 (Bergk), however, the adjective /aXOa9K-, ' soft,' is applied to a tyle.
that of the grammarianHerodian in Grcammcatici Graceci,III, p. 944, lines 23 ff., where

knephcallonis referred to as an Attic form of tyle and quotations from Aristophanes
and Plato Comicusare given. Herodian gives the derivation of the word from Kva'0o0,
'fuller's thistle,' which was used for cushioning.242Phrynichos (f rag. 151) also refers
to the word as Attic. Lobeck (Phrynichi EclogcaeNominum, p. 173) has suggested
that in popular speech TvrXq was equivalent to Latin culcita, 'cushion,' and KvE?0aXXov
to tomentum, the ' material for cushioning,' but in our reference to KvEbaXXov -X&oCv
the word must be used for the cushion (or mattress) itself. Herzog-Hauser translates
the two words as ' gefiillte Matratzen.' 243
Illustrations of cushions are given by Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Pulvinus.
Prices. In the Diocletian Edict, yvaL4aXXovis the word used for cushioning or
wool flock, and the maximum price was fixed at 8 denarii per pound.244For the prices
of mattresses and cushions in Egypt, see A. C. Johnson, " Roman Egypt," Economic
Survey, II, pp. 472-473.
6. 1raparE'rao-/a (I, 173, 174, 232). Curtain, hanging. Suidas defines parca-
or 7rapacAwixa, and a similar definition is found in Hesychius.
petacsmcaas i"apaKaXv,utpta
Herodotos (IX, 82) mentions an embroidered hanging and Aristophanes (Ranae,
938) refers to Persian parapetasmata which contained representations of hybrid
creatures.245Pausanias (V, 12, 4) refers to an Assyrian parapetasmapresented to the
temple of Zeus at Olympia by Antiochos, which was suspended from the roof. Por-
phyry (De cantronymphacrum,26 f.) states that in Greek temples the curtains were
drawn at noon, and a sign was put on the door to warn people not to enter.246Pollux
(X, 32) refers to curtains at the door of the bedchamber. Robinson and Grahamhave
deduced from the complete absence of pivot-holes in paved rooms at Olynthos that
internal wooden doors were quite unusual and that probably parapetasmatatook their
place.247
The word is mentionedby Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictioncnire, s.v. Aulaec,
and is referred to by Deonna in Delos, XVIII, p. 263, note 11.248
The parapetasmain the text of I, 173 is modified by the adjective lrotKtXov; of I,
232 by an adjective which has been restored as [Xtr]6v. When U. Kohler first pub-
lished the fragment which has the text of I, 232, he restored [Xtv]ovi[v] or [a&rX]ovi[v].
Wilhelm, however, republishing the text in Jahreshefte, VI, 1903, pp. 236-237, stated
242 Cf. Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. icavOs.
243 R.E., s.v. Tomentum, 1699.
244 Col. XVIII, line 7.
245
Also, probably, Euripides, Ion, 1158; the term here is v'(pa' ra.
246
Cf. Fraser ad Pausanias V, 12, 4.
247
Olynthus, VIII, p. 251.
248
Cf. also Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 466.
that neither of these words could have been on the stone, for traces of them would
now be visible. He proposed instead, [Xur]4v, 'frugal,' which has been restored in all
subsequenteditions, including that in Hesperia, XXII, 1953. But such an adjective is
clearly out of character in our document. One might expect a technical description of
a parapetasma, or an adjective giving the place of manufacture, the type, or the
condition, color, etc. Purely descriptive adjectives do not occur in the Attic Stelai.
The present writer would, therefore, reject Wilhelm's restoration. But the lacuna
between the alpha and the omicron may have been of two letter-spaces only. The traces
which remain on the stone today are not conclusive.249The distance from the right-
most part of the final alpha of pcarcapetcasnat
to the left part of the omicron in the word
in question is 0.02 m. There is no other example on this fragment of three letters being
inscribed in so small a space, as measured horizontally. The nearest parallel occurs
three lines above where the crowded letters -a-to-occupy 0.022 m. If three letters are
to be restored before the omicron, it would seem most likely that one of them was an
iota.
With regard to the ' vari '-colored (poikilon) fabrics, with colored designs either
embroideredor woven, we have very little direct evidence. All the more important,
then, are the fragments, found recently in Koropi near Athens, of a linen textile
embroideredin silver-gilt with a diaper pattern of walking lions, which evidently dates
from the late fifth century.250Pollux (X, 32) says that a parapetasma may be of
simple white linen, of a dyed woven stuff, or it may be many-colored, like that men-
tioned by Aristophanes (frag. 611): wapa1Erao7pja Ktrptov tro o0LKicXov. The wall
paintings of Pompeii and Rome reproduce hangings in various colors,25'and may
afford some idea of earlier textiles. Theophrastos (H.P., IV, 2, 7) mentions em-
broidered bed-hangings, and Rostovtzeff, Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World, III,
p. 1412, note 177, refers to representations of such hangings on the front of funeral
couches.
Price. The price of our parapetasmahas been read as 10 drachmas 1 obol. This
price hardly favors the restoration Xtrov'frugal.' However, if the word Xtvov,'linen,'
is restored, the high price would be understandable. For the manufacture of linen, see
249
Sinlce 7rotdXov was inscribed in I, 173, it is possible that the parapetasma in I, 232, was
described by its color. In VII, 129, Pollux lists words for color, of which only ato'v,'gray,' would
meet the requirements of space in I, 232.
250 J. Beckwith, Illustrated London News, January 23, 1954, pp. 114-115. See, on Greek textiles
in general, E. Buschor, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der griechischen Textilkunst, Diss., Munich, 1912;
A.J.B. Wace, Jahreshefte, XXXIX, 1952, pp. 111-118; and M. T. Picard-Schmitter, Revue Arch.,
XLVI, 1955, pp. 17-26. See also the fifth-century polychrome wool carpet and tapestry found at
Pazyryk in Central Siberia (Illustrated London News, July 11, 1953, pp. 69-71).
251 See, e. g., G. E. Rizzo, Monumenti della pittura ellenisticoromana, III, fasc. I, Roma, 1936;
and H. G. Beyen, Die pompeianische Wanddekoration vorn zweiten bis zum vierten Stil, I, 1938.
Bliimner, Technologie, I2, pp. 191 if. For prices, see, in particular, the Edict of Dio-
cletian,cols. XXVI-XXVIII, inclusive.
7. wivac. (VII, 59, 60-61, 62). Picture, painted board. At the end of a long
listing of wine jars and other vessels in Stele VII come three notations of the sale of
pinakes. This is a word of many meanings: it might be simply a board or plank,252
a hard piece of wood on which knives were sharpened,253 a plate from which one ate,254
or a table,255but in the fifth century it most frequently referred to a piece of wood
(or possibly terracotta or metal) on which somethingwas written, drawn, or painted.256
The pinax in this latter sense could be a votive plaque,257a public notice,258or a writing
tablet; 259 the surface might bear a picture,260a map, or a chart.26' Since our pinakes
were household objects of some value, many of these meanings can be ruled out as
inappropriate; quite evidently the confiscated plaques were pictures which had deco-
rated the houses of the condemned men.
At the end of the fifth century murals were no longer the dominant form which
Greek painting took; instead, panel pictures (pinakes) became more and more
popular.262Votive plaques had in the past borne drawings as well as inscriptions,263
but their purpose had been primarily to communicatea message to the god, not neces-
sarily to please the human eye. We have examples of these earlier, utilitarian paintings
in the Pente Skouphia pinakes,264 which record pictorially the processes of mining and
smelting. The small pictures hanging on the wall of the Berlin cup sculptor's shop
252
Bluimer,Technologie, II, p. 305; Ath. Mitt., VIII, 1883, p. 163.
253 Theophrastos,H.P., V, 5, 1; Hesychius,s.v. 'rtvaKag; Bliimner,Technologie,I2, p. 279.
254
Odyssey, I, 141 and XVI, 49; Pollux, X, 82; Athenaeus, IV, 128 d; Thomas Magister, 714.
255 Pollux, III, 84.
256 Occasionally the word pinax was used to denote the message itself, and not the plaque on
which it was inscribed. It later took on the special meaning of 'list' or 'index,' and in this form it
is studied by Regenbogen in R.E., s.v. Pinax. The multiple meanings of this word are made the
basis of a pun in a votive poem; see Pfeiffer, Callim., II, 96, E 54.
257 Aeschylus, Supp., 463; Aristophanes, Thesm., 778; Strabo, VIII, 6, 15; I.G., IV2, 121,
lines 24 ff.
258 Plato, Critias, 120c; Aristotle, Pol., 1341a, 36; Plutarch, Them., 5. For pinakes used for
inscriptions, see Wilhelm, Beitrdge zutrgriech. Insch., Vienna, 1909, pp. 239 ff.
259
Iliad, VI, 169; Aeschylus, Supp., 946; Plato, Rep., 501a; Anth. Pal., XI, 126.
260
Plutarch, Arat., 12; Athenaeus, XII, 543 f.; Theophrastos, H.P., III, 9, 7; V, 7, 4.
261
Herodotos, V, 49; Plutarch, Thes., 1; Rom., 12; Strabo, I, 1, 11.
262
Bliimner, Technologie, IV, p. 431. Cf. M. H. Swindler, Ancient Painting, New Haven, 1929,
p. 217.
263
For example the early proto-Attic Sounion plaque of ca. 700 B.C. (B.S.A., XXXV, 1934-1935,
pl. 40 b). The subject of painted votive plaques has recently been treated by J. Boardman (B.S.A.,
XLIX, 1954, pp. 183-201), to whom the student of the history of painted plaques should be referred
for detailed bibliography.
264 Bliimner, Technologie, IV, pp. 204-205; see Davidson, Corinth, XII, p. 64; and Newhall,
A.J.A., XXXV, 1931, pp. 20-22.

show, more delicately but still very simply, two human figures, a centaur, and a deer;
they are hung around a male and a female mask, and Bliimner supposes that they may
have been models or votive offerings.265The victor in the games often dedicated a
pinax which represented himself; on a vase in Munich is a man who carries a small
plaquepainted with the silhouette of a runner.266Votive pictures of a far different sort
were dedicated by Alkibiades in the Acropolis Pinakotheke to commemorate his vic-
tories in the games; 267 from Satyros' descriptionof them 268 we can gather an im-
pression of their complex subjects and necessarily more elaborate technique. One of
the paintings showed Olympias and Pythias in the act of crowning Alkibiades, while
in the other Nemea was figured, attended by women and holding on her knees an
Alkibiades whose beauty far outshone that of all the other faces in the picture. The
paintings in our list were doubtless on a smaller scale, but they were probably similar
to these in style and conception. Alkibiades' dedications are thought to have been
the work of Aristophon,269who at other times treated scenes from the Trojan war
and the journey of the Argonauts.270 Another popular private painter of the last
decades of the fifth century was Parrhasios, whose work must have been of con-
siderable magnificence, for one of his paintings appealed to the taste of Tiberius.27
His subjects were not only mythological and heroic; he painted portraits and athletes,
and was known also for his obscene pictures,272 perhaps of the sort to which Hippolytos
owed his scant knowledge of women.273Fifth-century painters competed with one
another at festivals with works which may have been intended for civic decoration,274
like the large pinakes sometimes commissionedby temple treasurers; 275 but there were
also private collections famous in antiquity.276The pinakes in our list give evidence
that this taste for pictures had already been highly developedamong Athenian citizens
at the close of the Periclean age.
The problemwith our entries is to know what the modifying adjectives mean. An
unknown number of pinakes are described as gegrammenos (VII, 59), one is said to
265 Technologie, IV, p. 331.
266 Jahreshefte, VIII, 1905, p. 41.
267 See Rouse, Greek Votive
Offerings, Cambridge, 1902, p. 174.
268 Athenaeus,
XII, 534 d.
269 Athenaeus
says Aglaophon, but it is very doubtful that he lived so long, and since Plutarch
(Alc., 16) reports that the second picture was by Aristophon, it is probable that the son's name
should be substituted for that of the father in Athenaeus' account. See Gulick ad Athenaeus, XII,
534 d, and -O. Rossbach, R.E., s.vv. Aglaophon and Aristophon.
270
Pliny, H.N., XXXV, 138.
271 Ibid., XXXV, 70.
272
Ibid., XXXV, 67 ff.; cf. Plutarch, De poet. aud., 18b. See also Lippold, R.E., s.v. Parrasios;
Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung, II, pp. 689 ff. and 732.
273
Euripides, Hippolytos, 1005.
274
Athenaeus, XII, 543 e.
276 For example,
I.G., XI, 2, 158, lines 67 ff.; XI, 2, 161, line 75.
276 Plutarch, Arat., 12.
be smikros gegracmmenos(VII, 60-61), and one is called poikilos (VII, 62). Any-
thing with lettering, drawing, or painting could be referred to as gegrammenos,277
while poikilos definitely suggests the use of paint of various colors.278Painted pinakes
were ordinarily done in tempera on pieces of wood, stone, or terracotta, which had
been covered first with white paint or chalk.279There was a second method of coloring
a pinax called enkausis, by which heated wax color was applied to a plaque of wood or
ivory.280Since such a pinax was generallysigned o 8dEva 'VE'KavcrEv, it seems unlikely
that the term gegrammenos would be applied; thus it is possible that the pinakes first
mentioned in our list were painted in tempera, and that the one labelled poikilos was
done in encaustic.
Pollux (X, 84) reported the pinax poikilos as being air opo4hjg; apparently this
phrase comes from the Skeuographikon of Eratosthenes,28'representing the opinion
of a fourth-century antiquarian as to the kind of painted board this was. According
to Eratosthenes it was a panel to be fixed to a decorated ceiling, but Pliny 282 later
asserted that Pausias of Sikyon, a fourth-century painter, was the first to introduce
the practice of painting panels (laccncurica).Either Eratosthenes was reading a prac-
tice of his own day back into the Attic Stelai, or else Pliny was too precise in his
attempt to name the inventor of the technique. One painted Greek ceiling panel, of
marble, has been found, in the Lycian Nereid monument; 288 it is usually dated around
400 B.c.,284although J. Six has attempted to prove a date in the mid-fourth century.288
Whatever date is chosen, both the style and the provenanceof the Nereid panel suggest
that it was not from one of the very earliest decorated ceilings, but comes rather
from a time when the fashion was already widespread. Thus there is no reason to
discard the informed opinion of Eratosthenes; Pliny probably meant that Pausias was
the best known Greek painter of ceiling plaques. However, the private house from
which the pinax poikilos came must have been one of the first in Athens to boast of
277
Pliny, H.N., XXXV, 68, mentions the existence of sketches or drawings (graphides) by
Parrhasios, some on panels and some on parchment.
278
For a discussion of the meaning of poikilos, see A. J. B. Wace, A.J.A., LII, 1948, p. 54.
279 See I.G., XI, 2, 161, line 76: AXEVKaavYTt TrO'( 7rvaKa aALSobTEPWGEv FHI. Cf. I.G., J2 66, line 31;
112, 1237, line 62. There is a description of painted pinakes found near Sikyon in J.H.S., LV, 1935,
pp. 153-154.
280
For the technique of encaustic painting, see Elizabeth Dow, Technical Studies, V, 1936-37,
pp. 3-17; Bliimner, Technologie, IV, pp. 442 ff.; Pliny, H.N., XXXV, 122. A third sort of pinax
is found in the Delian lists of the second century B.C., the wrva4 4E/J3A7TrEo0, evidently done in mosaic
(Insc. Delos, 1403 B b II, line 18), but there is no evidence for the existence of mosaic pinakes in
fifth-century private homes.
281
See below, Pippin, p. 323.
282 H.N., XXXV, 123.
283 Brit. Mus. Cat., Greek Sculpture, II, no. 934.
284 I
note that there is a 1952 Columbia University dissertation by C. Gottlieb, The Restoration
of the " Nereid " Monument at Xanthos, which is not available to me.
285 Jahrbuch, XX, 1905, pp. 155 if.
this new form of decoration which was invented for use in public buildings. If we
take the pinax poikilos as a lacuncrium,then the conjecturethat it was done in enkausis
is strengthened, for this was the medium associated with Pausias.286 The Nereid
plaque is only about seven inches square, and shows a full-face drawing of a woman.
Six 287 supposes that other lacunaria were similar to coin types, with heads also shown
in three-quarters or profile, and hands holding objects of iconographical significance.
Pausias was famous also for his paintings of boys, and there may have been Erotes,
on round or rectangular plaques, among the ceiling pinakes painted for private
houses.288
Votive pictures were often equipped with doors which could be closed over the
painted surface,289and purely decorative pictures protected in this way can be seen in
the wall paintings at Pompeii."' This was evidently a late development,however, and
none of our pinakes is said to be tethyromenos. We can assume that the plaques listed
in the Attic Stelai were of wood, since the material of the ground is not specified.
Price. An unknown number of pictures called gegramtmenoswas sold for 60
drachmas (VII, 59); the one which was smikros gegrcammenosbrought 6 drachmas 4
obols (VII, 60-61), and the pincaxpoikilos sold for an amount which was more than
5 and less than 10 drachmas (VII, 62). Pinakes ordered for the temple buildings at
Delos varied in price from 12 to 100 drachmas,29'but some of these were probably
much larger than anything which would hang -in a private house. As time passed,
paintings became even more popular and more valuable; they were a suitable gift for
Aratos to send to the King of Egypt,292and an Archigallus by Parrhasios, valued at
6 million sesterces, was one of Tiberius' favorite treasures.293
8. 'Tpoo-KEba6Xtaov (II, 216-217). Pillow, cushion for the head. There are
several passages in which the word proskephcalaion occurs in a context in which refer-
ence is clearly made to a cushion for the head: Aristophanes, Plutus, 542; Plutarch,
Moralia, 59C; and Sextus Empiricus, M., 267. On the other hand, at the beginning
of Plato's Republic (328 c), Kephalos is seated on a sort of proskephalaionand stool.
286 Pliny, H.N., XXV, 122.
287 Op. cit., p. 158.
288 Pausanias,II, 27, 3; Hesychius,s.vv. 'EyKoVp4&e and Kovpas.
289
For instance, Insc. De'los, 1403, Bb II, line 30; 1414 b I, line 21. See Rene Vallois, " Les
IIINAKEKdeliens," Me'langes Holleaux, Paris, 1913, pp. 289 ff.
290
Van Buren, Mem. of Amer. Acad. in Rome, XV, 1938, pl. 6, fig. 3; pl. 7, figs. 1 and 2;
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Pictura, figs. 5651, 5652. For a recent popular discussion of
painted tablets from Herculaneum, see A. Maiuri, Roman Painting, Geneva, Albert Skira, 1953,
p. 105.
291
I.G., XI, 2, 158, lines 67 if.; 161, line 75.
292
Plutarch, Arat., 12.
293
Pliny, H.N., XXXV, 70. The figure has been questioned, and 60,000 sesterces and 1 million
sesterces have been suggested instead; see Lippold, R.E., s.v. Parrasios, 1876.
Pollux (X, 40) refers to a passage in Kratinos (frag. 269: Kock, C.A.F., I, p. 93)
where reference is made to the cushion on the rower's bench.294Saglio had discussed
the word in Daremberg-Saglio, s.v. Cervical. I have found no corresponding article
in the R.E., although the word is mentioned by Herzog-Hauser, s.v. Torus.
Pollux specificallystates (X, 40) that wool, leather, and linen proskephalaiawere
sold from the property of Alkibiades, and Stele II preserves the entry for seven
leather ones. A reference to linen cushions in the Delian accounts is noted by Deonna
(De'los, XVIII, p. 263, note 14). Proskephalaia were stuffed with feathers, wool,
cotton, rabbits' hair, or similar material.295With regard to color, Gow states (ad
Theokritos15, 3): " Hermippus(fr. 63, 23) mentions'TrOtKtXa 7rpoo-KEfiXaca from
Carthage, and on Attic vases the cushions are often of striped pattern; and the rugs
and cushions are so painted on a stone couch at Vathia (Ath. Mitt., 26, T. 17)."
Prices. In the Edict of Diocletian, proskephalaiawere not priced separately, but
were listed with mattresses (tyle). The maximum price for the two together varied
from 250 to 2,750 denarii.296The more expensive ones were presumably of linen; for
they are mentioned as coming from places which were noted for linen textiles.297For
prices of pillows in Egypt, see A. C. Johnson, " Roman Egypt," Economic Survey, II,
p. 473.
9. 4itaOoS (I, 108; II, 220). Rush-mat. The etymology of the word is obscure;
Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, p. 1077. Special articles are those of Pottier in Daremberg-
Saglio, s.v. Matta, and of Hug in R.E., s.v. Matta. The psiathos might be made of
papyrus 298 or of palm-leaves.299Athenaeus, citing Antigonos of Karystos, says that
either a psiathos or a sheepskin was provided on a kline,300depending on whether it
was summer or winter. It might be used as a mattress and a bed,30'but this usage was
not inherent in the word. Thus Pollux (VI, 11) needs to specify one particular
psiathos, that for sleeping, as a chameunia. The mat in Theophrastos, H.P., IX, 4, 4,
was clearly not used for sleeping.
294For the same meaning, see Hesychius, s.v. ravLKr 'v. Cf. Pollux, VI, 9, and Gow ad Theo-
kritos, 15, 3.
295 See Bliimner, Technologie, I2, p. 217.
296 Col. XXVIII, 46-55.
297
Cf. Broughton, " Roman Asia Minor," Economic Survey, IV, p. 616.
298 Theophrastos, H.P., IV, 8, 4.
299
Theophrastos,H.P., IX, 4, 4.
300 X, 420 a.
301
Aristophanes, Lys., 921; Aristotle, H.A., VI, 559 b; Plutarch, Mor., 236 b, where the point
is that it is a very mean way to sleep; schol. ad Aristophanes, Ranae, 567. Cf. Ransom (Couches
and Beds, p. 110) who defines the word as a ' rush mat to throw over a bed.'
IV. LIVESTOCK AND BEEHIVES

For a description of the nature and habitat of animals, reference has been made
to 0. Keller's standard work, Die antike Tierwelt, I and II, Leipzig, 1909, 1913; and
to individual articles in Pauly-Wissowa, R.E. For the prices of animals in Greece in
the fourth and third centuries B.C., the most convenient table is that of A. Segre,
Circolazione monetaria e prezzi nel mondo antico, Rome, 1922, pp. 168-169.
The entries for livestock in our inscriptions are found in one column of Stele VI.
The prices in each case are only partially preserved; the left part of the column of the
sales price is lost. Determination of the number of letter spaces occupied by the
numerals of the sales prices becomes critical for establishing the price of cattle, and
likewise of wine. The column in question can be seen in the photograph in Hesperia,
VIII, 1939, p. 70. The present writer in Part I followed the alignment given in
Meritt's text in Hesperia, VIII, pp. 72-73. This text shows the first numerals of all
the sales prices of the column in vertical alignment with the exception of that in line
86 (Meritt's 37), which was shifted one space to the left although the sales tax in
this line was correctly aligned. It clearly seems preferable to adopt a pattern which
would yield the greatest regularity.
1. /3ovi3 (VI, 68, 69, 70). Bous is a generic word for the bovine species. In the
singular, the word is used for ox or cow; in the plural it is equivalent to cattle.' In
Greece, the most famous cattle came from the north, from Epirus and Thessaly,2 but
Euboea and Boeotia were also cattle producers and served as a source of supply for
Attica, where there was a lack of pasture land. In 329 B.C. Eudemos of Plataea had to
import into Athens a thousand pair of animals to provide for construction work on
the Stadium.3
In Plutarch, Solon, XXIII, 3, the price of an ox in the time of Solon is given as
five drachmas. The information is said to have come from Demetrios of Phaleron.
Plutarch speaks of these prices as low in comparison with contemporary prices. In
410/9 B.C., 5114 drachmas were given for a hekatomb.4 The price of one cow,5 if the
'See Buck, Dictionary, p. 152.
2
Arrian, Anab., II, 16, 6; Aristotle, H.A., III, 16; Varro, R.R., II, 5, 10. See H. Kraemer,
R.E., s.v. Rind (Suppl. 7), 1166-67; and Keller, op. cit., I, pp. 332 if.
3 I.G., II2, 351, lines 18-19. Cf. Tod, Gr. Hist. Inscr., II, p. 279.
4 I.G., 12, 304 A, line 7.
5 I have assumed that since the offering was to Athena, the hekatomb would naturally consist
of cows. It should be noted that A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum, Leipzig, 1898,
p. 118, note 1, does not accept this view. His references prove that male animals were at times
sacrificed to female divinities, and vice versa (cf. also I.G., II2, 1358, where rams are prescribed
for Achaia, Kora, and Ge). However, the hekatomb to Athena seems to have consisted of cows;
see I.G., 112, 334, line 19, a decree concerning the Panathenaea: ot kpo7roto ---- GvovTOv raiTav Tag
tris 'AOqva&- - - -. Cf. I.G., 1II2, 1006, lines 14-15. This is the view of P.
,/oiv a7raoia3 oirt r t w/ou7h
hekatombtotalled 100, would be about 51 drachmas. Since the hekatomb was for the
Great Panathenaea it is generally thought that it amounted to the full complementof
100 animals.6 Another hekatomb, this of 109 oxen, cost 8,419 drachmas, which
would make an average of 77.14 drachmas apiece.7 In this case, it is to be noted, the
price is not dependenton the interpretation of the word ' hekatomb.'8 These animals
were purchasedfor sacrifice at the festival of Apollo at Delos in 375/4 B.C. In 335/4
(I.G., II2, 334, line 16) a hekatomb for the lesser Panathenaea cost 4100 drachmas,
which would be 41 drachmas apiece if the hekatombconsisted of 100 animals. Ziehen,
however, believes the hekatombwas now of smaller number and suggests 50 animals,9
which would make each animal cost 82 drachmas. The estimate, however, has no
probative value.
In an Athenian sacrificial calendar, dated shortly after 403/2 B.C.,'0 two oxen are
priced at 50 drachmas, but the low price may be explained by the qualifying adjective
' In I.G., I12, 1358, a sacrificial
XEtu7oyvW',ucot,'lacking the teeth which mark age.'
calendar from the Attic Epakria of the period 400-350 B.C., the price of a bous is
eight times given as 90 drachmas, once as 150 drachmas. Of the eight, one fee was
for a pregnant cow. Since the sacrifices were to both female and male deities, the
price of 90 drachmaswas for a cow or ox.'2 The reading of 150 drachmas is in doubt.
Moreover, the stone was subjectedto erasure in the letter spaces immediately following
(col. II, line 8). In the Agora inscription from 363/2 B.C., which contains a covenant
between the two branches of the clan of the Salaminioi, the price to be paid for a bous
is given as 70 drachmas.'3 In I.G., 12, 1672, line 290, the price of a single sacrificial
bous is given as 400 drachmas. This was apparentlynot normal, for the demos had in
this case expressly establishedthe price (6o-ov6 077o0 &amev). The well-known famine
of the period 330-326 B.C. doubtless caused a sharp rise in prices. This figure of 400
drachmas, in any case, cannot be regarded as normal. In a sacrificial calendar from
Cos, dated ca. 300 B.C., the price to be paid for a cow is given as no less than 50
drachmas.'4 In a still later sacrificial inscription, this from Olbia, the price of a cow
is given as 1200, but the coin is not specified.'5
Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer, 3rd edition, Munich, 1920, p. 153. On the sex of
sacrificial animals, see also W. K. C. Guthrie, The Greeks and their Gods, Boston, 1951, p. 221.
6 See L. Ziehen, Rh. Mus., LI, 1896, p. 217.
7I.G., II2, 1635, lines 35-36.

8 For various numbers of animals in a hekatomb, see P. Stengel, R.E., s.v. also
TEKaro0'1u4q;
Kirchner ad Syll.3, 271, note 7; and Syll.3, 1024, line 29.
9 L. Ziehen, Leges Graecorum Sacrae, II; 1, p. 95, note 22.
J. Oliver, Hesperia, IV, 1935, p. 21, lines 48-51.
"Pollux, I, 182.
12 Cf. R. B. Richardson, A.J.A., X, 1895, p. 225.
3 W. S. Ferguson, Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 5, line 86.

14 Syll.3, 1026, lines 6-7.
15 Syll.3, 1039. Ziehen (Leges Graecorum, p. 249) regards it as an obol; E. H. Minns
(Scythians and Greeks, Cambridge, 1913, p. 463) as a chalkous.

Prices from Delos include two work-bulls for 75 drachmas each 16 and a young
bull for 50 drachmas in 274 B.C.17 Larsen notes that the 50 drachmas is the lowest
price for cattle known from Delos. Other Delian prices of the period 190-169 vary
from 70 to 120 drachmas."8In a decree of the Amphictions at Delphi in 380/79, the
so-called hero-bull was priced at 100 Aeginetan staters."9 For a similar prize
animal Jason of Pherai offered a golden crown.20 In I.G., Tl2, 2311 (400-350 B.C.),
lines 71-81,cattleare listedamongthe vtKqr4Tpta andthe figureof 100 drachmasseems
to give the value of the animal.
Numerous other prices for cattle are preserved, all of which indicate considerable
fluctuation. " The value of cows varies in the sources from 8 to 30 denarii in Baby-
lonia, from 15 to 100 denarii in Egypt and from 100 to 200 denarii in Palestine." 21
Prices for oxen were higher.
Our Stele VI, lines 68-70, contains the following three entries:
/3.,o [ypaya 8]vo Ev'Ap[--]
1E[oE] s TETTapE9 KaU /hO [1xoL ovrovjT

The number of uninscribed spaces in the columns of prices is given according
to Meritt, Hesperia, VIII, 1939, p. 72.22 The price of the two working oxen in the
first entry could presumablybe 50 or 100 drachmas; for the two cows or oxen in the
second entry, 70 or 120 drachmas. In 410/09 B.C., we have seen above, the price of a
sacrificial cow was apparently 51 drachmas. Since the temples required only perfect
animals with the duty of selection delegated to a special board of hieropoioi, this price
of 51 drachmas should be regarded as a maximum for our inscription. I would sug-
gest, accordingly, the restoration of the 100 drachma sign in line 68 and the 50
drachma sign in the missing letter space of line 69. The working oxen would then be
worth 50 drachmas apiece; the cow (or, less likely, ox) of line 69, 35 drachmas.
The price of cattle would not seem to be overly high, considering the size of the
animal. This supposition is in contrast to the general conception that beef was very
expensive. To demonstrate the high cost of beef, Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece, p. 62,
note 1, cites a passage in Athenaeus (IX, 377 a) which speaks of the roasting of a
whole ox at a feast in a rich household and a passage in Theophrastos (Char., XXI,
7) where the scalp of an ox is nailed above the door for everyone to see. But the
16I.G., XI, 2, no. 142, line 11.
17 I.G.,
XI, 2, no. 199A, lines 70-71. Cf. Segre, op. cit., pp. 168-169.
18 J. A. 0. Larsen, "Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, p. 387.
19I.G., 112, 1126, line 32.

20
Xenophon,H.G., VI, 4, 29.
21
F. M. Heichelheim, "Roman Syria," Economic Survey, IV, p. 155. Cf. A. C. Johnson,
"Roman Egypt," Economic Survey, I, p. 232.
22
This requires a slight correction in line 68 of our Stele VI.
exceptional feature is that the roasted animals were large and whole.23 This appears
clearly from several passages in Athenaeus. In IV, 144 a, Athenaeus cites Herodotos,
I, 133, where the latter speaks of the poor as setting out small animals, the rich large
animals such as a cow, a horse or a camel. Similarly, Athenaeus IV, 130 e-f. In IV,
148 e, beef ribs are named among the foods served by the stingy, and in several
passages (I, 25 e; II, 63 d-e; III, 96 b), beef is mentioned along with other meats
without exceptional comment. It was doubtless true, as Antiphanes, the comic poet,
once said,24that the Greeks were leaf-chewing (phyllotroges), and scant of table
(mikrotrape2oi), but in comparisonwith other meats, beef does not seem to have been
costly. In the Edict of Diocletian, the price of beef per pound is less than those for
pork or lamb and the same as that for goat.25
2. ac'f (VI, 73). Goat. References to the ubiquitous goat are surprisingly few
in an economic context, but it is hard to believe that goats were less common in
ancient than in modern times.26
In the fourth-century sacrificial calendar which was found near Marathon,27the
price of the goat is given six times as 12 drachmas. In line 18 an all-black he-goat is
valued at 15 drachmas. The price of goats in this inscription is identical with that of
ewes for male divinities. In the inscription concerned with the cult of the Salanminioi
(363/2 B.C.), the price to be paid for a goat is given as 10 drachmas.28In the well-
known famine which affected Greece ca. 330 B.C., the price of a goat in an Eleusis
inscription is given as 30 drachmas.29Economic Survey contains reference to only one
fee for a goat-that at 80 drachmas in A.D. 22 in Egypt.30
The only literary passage which relates to the price of goats is in Isaios, XI,
Estate of Hagnias, 41.31 One hundred head of goats, together with sixty sheep, a fine
horse, and furniture, are estimated at 3000 drachmas (one-half talent). A riding
horse was seriously valued at 1200 drachmas in Aristophanes.32The furniture would
presumablybring much less. If we allow the same price for the goats and sheep, the
23
Aristophanes, Ach., 85.
24
Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 81.
25 Col. IV.
26See Larsen, op. cit., p. 485. What I would hope would be the definitive article on the goat
(Ziege) has not yet appeared in R.E.
27 I.G.,
I12,
1358.
28 W. S. Ferguson, Hesperia,
VII, 1938, p. 5, line 85.
29
I.G., I12, 1672, line 289 (329/8 B.C.). Ziehen (Rh. Mus., LI, 1896, p. 215), however, suggests
that these sacrificial victims had horns which were gilded and that the gilding was included in the
price.
30 !I, p. 231. For one other price from Egypt, see Segre, op. cit., p. 132.
31 Cf. the more indefinite passage in Isaios, VI, Estate of Philoktemon, 33.
32 Aristophanes, Nubes, 21; 1224. Cf. Ehrenberg, People of Aristophanes2,p. 223; and Michell,
Ec. of Anc. Greece, p. 66, note 1.
average price of the 160 head would be about 11 drachmas. This is only slightly below
the average of prices for sheep and goats in the sacrificial tables published as I.G., 12,
1357. Sheep, including rams, would probablyaverage a little more than goats.
In our Stele VI, line 73, the following entry occurs:
-- .. .A aatyE1F'AFIIKaE E'yyov[a roVrov].
The number of numerals in the original sales price is that determinedabove, p. 255.
The most likely restoration for the price of the 67 goats and their kids would
seem to be: [PHH]A (710 drachmas). The next larger figure would be [XAA]A
(1030 drachmas), the next lower one [P HA] A (620 drachmas). With the restora-
tion of the figure for 710 drachmas, the price of the single goat, omitting the young,
would be 10.6 drachmas apiece. This is not far from the price of 12 drachmas con-
tained in the fourth-century sacrificial calendar, our closest parallel. The kids were
numerous enough to receive mention; so the average per animal must have been under
10 drachmas.
3. rpo6,8arov (VI, 71). Sheep. In Attic, the word 7rpo',arov replaced o7g, the
regular word in Homer and most dialects, for 'sheep.'
According to Plutarch,33the price of a sheep under Solon was one drachma. By
the time of Lysias,34a lamb to be offered in sacrifice brought 16 drachmas. The price
of a small sheep, which had been selected for sacrifice, is given in Menander as 10
drachmas.35In [Demosthenes], XLVII, Against Euergos and Mnesiboulos, the con-
tention is made that fifty fine-wool sheep together with the shepherd and a serving-boy
were worth more than the fine of 1313 drachmas 2 obols.36 Since no particular skill
was involved in herding sheep, the two slaves might be roughly valued at 360 drachmas
(180 drachmas x 2) ." The value of the fifty sheep, then, would be 950 drachmas, or
19 drachmas for each. In a fragment of an Athenian sacrificial calendar, which
Oliver, its editor, dates shortly after 403/2 B.C.,38 sheep are valued at 12, 15, and 17
drachmas. The ewe (oTs) sacrificed to a female divinity is priced at 12 drachmas, to
a male divinity at 15 drachmas.39The ram (Kpto') is priced at 17 drachmas. Similarly,
in the Salaminioi inscription of 363/2 B.C., the price of the ois is given six times: three
(to male divinities) as 15 drachmas, three (to female divinities) as 12 drachmas.40In
33 Solon, 23. Cf. Orth, R.E., s.v. Schaf, 379.
34 XXXII, Against Diogeiton, 21.
35 Kock, C.A.F., III, p. 91; F. Allinson, Menander, Loeb Classical Library, London, 1921,
p. 402.
36
57 and 64.
37 For the figure 180 drachmas, as about average for a slave, see below, pp. 276-278.
38 Hesperia,IV, 1935, p. 21.
39 Oliver (ibid.,
p. 27) suggests the difference in price corresponds to a difference in the
animals' ages.
40
W. S. Ferguson, Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 5, lines 85-93.
another sacred calendar,this from the Attic Epakria and dated in the first half of the
fourth century (I.G., IJ2, 1358), the prices for sheep are given as 11, 12, 16 and 17
drachmas.4"Eleven drachmas was the price for the ewe to a female divinity, twelve
drachmas for the ewe to a male divinity and for the ram. Sixteen and seventeen
drachmas were the prices for sheep with young. The price of sacrificial sheep in the
famine year 329/8 B.C. is given as 30 drachmas in an Eleusis inscription.42Two years
later (327/6 B.C.) in a similar Eleusis inscription, the price of a sacrificial sheep (ois)
is twice given as 12 drachmas; the price of a ram (krios) for Kore as 17 drachmas.43
In a sacrificial list from Delos (ca. 200 B.C.),44 the price of a lamb, specified as white
and uncastrated, is given as 20 drachmas.
In Rome in the fourth and third centuries, sheep were early reckoned at one-
tenth the price of oxen, or at six denarii.5 For much later prices in Egypt where the
average was about 18 drachmas for sheep, see A. C. Johnson, Economic Survey, II,
pp. 231-232.46
4. p6o-Xog(VI, 70). Calf. The number of calves belonging to the four cattle-
(Stele VI, line 70) is not known. The line may well be completedwith the restoration
FO [rXot TovToV].
5. oupvoa (VI, 66). Beehives. Solon specified that beehives of one proprietor
must be at least 300 feet away from those of another,47and we may assume from this
prescription that beekeeping was a widespread industry in Attica at a time when
Mount Hymettos was covered with thyme. According to one estimate there were in
the fifth century twenty thousand stocks of bees in Attica.48
Sir George Wheler (A Journey into Greece, London, 1682, p. 412) in the seven-
teenth century described the Athenian beehive as made of wicker, with combs which
were built down from bars placed across the top, and this type was normal in Greece
up to World War II. It may well have resembled the ancient type. Aristotle knew a
beehive of which the interior could be seen, for he watched the ruler, the development
of the brood, and the feeding of the grubs, and it has been noted that the type of
hive described by Wheler would have permitted such observations."'
41 Cf. Segre, op. cit., pp. 168-169.
42I.G., II2, 1672, line 289. See above, p. 258.
431I.G., 112
1673, line 62.
44
1024, line 9.
Syll.3,
45 EconomicSurvey, I, pp. 47-48.
46 For prices in Roman Syria, see Heichelheim, Economic Survey, IV, P. 155.
47 Plutarch,Solon, XXIII.
48A. Gmelin, in J. Witzgall's Das Buch von der Biene, Stuttgart, 1898, p. 21. One beehive
would produce one to two and a half choes of honey at one harvesting. For taxes on beehives, see
Andreades, Hist. of Gr. Pub. Finance, I, p. 157; and Rostovtzeff, Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World,
III, pp. 1386-1387, note 99.
49 See H. M. Fraser,
Beekeeping in Antiquity, 2nd edition, London, 1951, p. 17.
Columella,who devotes chapter 6 of Book IX of the De Re Rustica to the hive,

states that the best were made of cork or reeds, and quotes Celsus as disapproving of
hives made of cow-dung.50
For bibliography on the subject of beehives, see Olck in R.E., s.v. Bienenzucht,
and Klek in Suppl. 4 of R.E. under the same word.5'
At the beginning of the fourth century B.C., the price of a kotyle of honey was
iII2 given as three obols. The prices occur in I.G.,
several times 1356, a sacred law
which set the tariff relating to sacrifices. For other prices, see, e. g., A. B6ckh, Staats-
haushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 132. The various indexes in the Economic Survey
contain no references to the prices of beehives or to honey, although bees must have
been kept wherever possible to producethe honey needed in an otherwise almost sugar-
less world, and their wax was a valuable by-product. The maximum price of honey
is given in the Edict of Diocletian as 24 to 40 denarii an Italian pint (sexte; 0.547
liter); 5 for Phoenician (i. e., date) honey, 9 denarii.53
V. REAL PROPERTY
TYPES OF PROPERTY
In our lists, there are eleven distinct types of ' real property' which were sold by
the poletai: EXypo%,Y?)qILXY,'y-?TE8oV, 8pVLVW'v, KMiTo%,OLKUa,OLKorE8OV, opya6, mnrvdv,
cTvVOLKLa, and Xoptov. Only five of these terms (kepos, oikia, oikopedon,synoikia, and
chorion) occur in the Greek horoi most recently re-edited by Fine and Finley in vir-
tually simultaneous publications. This may seem surprising in view of the fact that
more than two hundred of these horoi have now been published.2 On the other hand,
five terms which appear on the preserved horoi (E'8a5b,EpyacrTnp', Kcvos, Kaf7-XE'LOV,
and O1'iKca) do not occur in our fragmentary lists. One of our terms (kepos) is
largely restoration; 3 another (pityinon) rests on the early transcription of the text by
Pittakys.4 Finley has promised a study of the vocabulary of property terms in Greek
50 Fraser, op. cit., p. 54, refers to hives of wicker cloomed with cow-dung found in Spain today.
51 The series of articles by J. Klek and L. Armbruster, " Die Bienenkunde des Altertums"
in the Archiv fiir Bienenkunde (1919-26) was not available to me.
52 Col. III, lines 10-11. A list of those places in Asia Minor which were known for beekeeping
is given by T. R. S. Broughton in Economic Survey, IV, p. 620.
53 Line 12.
'M. I. Finley (Studies in Land and Credit in Ancient Athens, 500-200 B.C., New Brunswick,
1951, p. 54) has shown that there was no word in the Greek language meaning 'real property.'
Note also the remarks of Buck on ' landed property ' in Dictionary, p. 769. The term 'real property'
is here used in its modern content.
2 John V. A. Fine, Horoi, Studies in Mortgage, Real Security and Land Tenure in Ancient
Athens (Hesperia, Supplement IX), Baltimore, 1951, p. 43, states the number is about 214.
3X, 17.
4X, 1.
authors; ' in the meantime, the following remarks are offered concerning the meaning
of the terms occurring in our lists. The specific meanings which these words seem
to bear in the Attic Stelai are given on p. 269.
1. dypoS (VI, 55; VII, 74). This word is frequentlyused in the literaturein
antithesis with o6AtX or a'wrrv. In the Odyssey: "Your father abides here in the
country (aypw') and goes not down to the city." ? Similarly, in Plato, Lg., IX, 881 c:
"--- if the assault occur in the city --- the punishment shall be inflicted by the
astynomoi; and if it occur KMr' aypovS rS Xaopas, by the officers of the agronomoi."
In Lysias, XXXI, Against Philon, 8: " This man was banned from the city - - - and
for a time he lived Ev ayp4." In [Demosthenes], XLVII, Against Euergos and
Mnesiboulos, 63: --- went at once from the city Ebg a'ypov." In several places in
Lysias, I, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, the speaker uses agros in the sense of
'country.' 7
The word seems to be used, however, not only for the general sense of 'country,'
but for a field or farm which was in the country. So [Demosthenes], LIII, Against
Nikostratos, 6: " Three slaves ran away from him from his farm (Ef aypov) ."' In
Isaios, VI, Estate of Philoktemnon,33: "- - - he sold ayp6v at Athmonon for seventy-
five minas to Antiphanes "; and VIII, Estate of Kiron, 35: "the property of Kiron
consisted of ayp6v at Phyla easily worth a talent --- "; and in XI, Estate of Hagnias,
42, the speaker states that the real property of Stratokles was divided into houses and
O ayp6S worth 12 minae. In Thucydides,II, 13, 1: Pericles- - - conceiveda sus-
picion that perhaps Archidamos might pass by rovi aypovS avrov and not lay them
waste." 8 Buck classifies dyp6S under the general heading of ' agriculture' and under
the sub-heading of ' field for cultivation.'
In our list, it is to be noted that a house may be situated on an agros," and the
agros, in turn, may be describedas containing so many plethra of land.1' The meaning
of the word, then, would here seem to be ' farm ' or a ' field for cultivation ' in the
country."2
Op. cit., p. 246, note 9.
6 XI, 187-188: mrarrqp
8E Uos'; aVro0L 11wtvet
ayp,W oOVO 7AWOXVf KaTrpXrTat.
I
11, 13, 20, 22, 39.
8
J. E. Powell in his Lexicon to Herodotus, Cambridge, 1938, p. 3, defines &ypoc in I, 172, as the
cultivated land of a city, but the reference is clearly to country dwellings in the Milesian territory.
9 Op. cit., p. 489. Buck notes that Greek agros like Latin ager is often used in a wider sense
for 'open country' vs. 'town.' On page 1304, Buck indicates that it is the plural aypot (but also
singular in Homer) which is particularly used in the sense of 'country.'
10VII, 73, 77.
"VII, 74.
12 The word occurs in an Ionian inscription of Erythrai (Athena, XX, 1908, pp. 167-169) where
Van Herwerden (Lexicon Graecum, Leyden, 1910, s.v.) translates it as 'cultus,' and Liddell-Scott-
Jones as 'tilled land.'
2. y- titX'4(VII, 72, 74). Cultivated land was divided into two types: rtX4and
veorEv1tL7).13 Psile land was that which was withouttrees.14The Et. Mag. contains
the definition: )tfX'v acpovpav T?1v a8EVOpOV Xwpav, T)1v v7pog TO crMTEtpeo-Oat Kat apovoGOat
Einrtre&av; Liddell-Scott-Jones defines as follows: 'the tillage of land for corn

15
and the like, opp. y. 'WE4VrEV,UE'V7(the tillage of it for vines, olives, etc.).' The term
psile has generally been understood as applying solely to land cultivated for cereals, or
cornland.16The text of Stele VII, 72 (y-g +trXE 'OAspa . a.. TE'Xcov)shows, how-
ever, that the tillage of land for vines was called ge psile; so current definitions must
be corrected to read 'the tillage of land for cereals and vines'; " whereas land
meansthe tillageof it for fruit and olive trees."8
wTE4VTEV1.tEV-7
3. yqpTE8ov(IV, 8; VII, 23, 25). Gepedon is not a common word. It does not
occur in the various indices of the Attic Orators. The Ionic form YEC0lTE8Ov occurs in
Herodotos, VII, 28, where Liddell-Scott-Jones gives it the meaning 'portion or plot
of ground, garden, esp. within a town.' The passage in Herodotos contains a speech of
Pythios wherein he explains his offer of wealth to Xerxes and concludes, "there is
sufficient livelihood to nmefrom my slaves and land (geopeda)." The geopeda were,
then, cultivated lands in Lydia; 19 there is no connotation of land within towns. The
definition in Liddell-Scott-Jones possibly arises from passages in Phrynichos and
EustathiuswhereY7R'TE8a is definedas land,such as gardens,adjacentto city houses.20
But in our list, the word clearly refers to land in an inland trittys.21 Gepedon occurs
in one passage each in Plato and Aristotle.22 In the former 23 the word refers to the
home lot which one son of each of the 5,040 landholders of the state was to inherit.
13
Aristotle, Pol., 1258b, 18, and Demosthenes, XX, Against Leptines, 115. For yr), the root
meaning of which seems to have been 'earth's surface, ground,' see Buck, op. cit., pp. 15-17. Cf. also
Kent's note on the meaning of this word in Delian accounts (Hesperia, XVII, 1948, p. 257, note 38).
14
Herodotos, IV, 19 and 21.
15818, 38.
16 See Caillemer in Daremberg-Saglio, Diction aire, I, 720 b, and E. Barker, Politics of Aristotle,
Oxford, 1948, p. 30. We may note that in M. Fraenkel, Inschriften von Pergamon, I, Berlin, 1890,
no. 158, a vineyard and a designated number of plethra of ge psile are listed separately. For
similar examples, see A. Wilhelm, "Neue Beitrage III " in Sitzungsber. der k. Akad. der Wissen-
schaften in Wien, Phil.-hist. KI., 175, 1 Abh., 1913, pp. 6-7. Such examples may have given rise to
the common definition of ge psile as ' grain land.' Ge psile would seem, however, to be a more
general term for land lacking trees, which might or might not be a vineyard.
17 The stone is uninscribed after aArE'Xwv. In the Delian accounts of the second and third
centuries B.C., the exact number of vines was recorded; see I.G., XI, 2, 287 A, lines 155, 157;
Insc. De'los, 356 bis, B, lines 27-29; etc.
18
See Lysias, VII, On the Sacred Olive, 7.
19Cf. Powell, Lexicon to Herodotus, s.v.
20 Eustathius: roi Ev xro'Xe irpoKeqLEV oV daK otov
cVKq7rl8tOV.Cf. Bekker, I, p. 32, 1.
21
VII, 23-24.
2
See also I.G., IV, 823, line 58.
23 Lg., V, 741c.
These lots were to remain inalienable. In Aristotle, the passage containing the word
reads: "we may have a system under which plots-of-ground (gepeda) are owned in
severalty, but the crops are brought into a common stock for the purpose of con-
sumption."24 In both cases, the word refers to division of the cultivated land of the
state, and the Kmti&ov of Eustathius seems hardly an appropriate synonym. In our
lists, it is to be noted that the gepeda are located in town and inland demes and that a
gepedon may be divided into halves. The meaning seems to be 'plot of ground' or
' lot,' but on the basis of the limited evidence, the exact nature and limits of the term
are not determinable.
4 and 9. 8pvtvwcvand wtrvtvW'v.These words make their sole appearance in the
Greek language in our Stele X (line 1). In the case of the second word three letters
are restored, but the ending is clear and this or some analogous word seems required.25
For the word-formation, reference may be made to Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., I, p. 488,
section 5. Dryinon is defined by Liddell-Scott-Jones as ' oak-coppice'; pityinon would
be ' pine-coppice.' The words 8pvk,' oak,' and wiirvg,' pine,' were commonly paired.26
For the extensive use of both types of wood in antiquity, reference may be made to
Bliimner, Technologie, II, pp. 260-261 and 283-285.
5. K^7TOs(X, 17). P. Roussel inferred from the use of the word at Delos that a
kepos was an enclosed field which contained no buildings.27J. H. Kent in his admirable
work on the Delian temple estates restudied the evidence and concluded that kepos
referred to a 'plot of land under cultivation,' since the revenues from the kepoi-estates
were derived from vines, grain, and fruit trees (arable land).28 Non-epigraphical
evidence shows that trees 29 and vegetables (6xaava)30 were grown in kepoi. The word
corresponds, therefore, to English ' garden' and ' orchard.' Buck has written of
kepos and its Indo-European cognates, " there may be specialization of 'garden' to
'flower garden,' ' vegetable garden,' or 'tree garden, orchard.' " "
24
Pol., 1263 a (Barker's translation).
25See Hesperia, XXII, 1953, pp. 290-291.
26
See Od., IX, 186; II., XIII, 389-390.
27
De'los, Colonie athenienne, Bibliotheque des P-coles Frangaises d'Athenes et de Rome, t. 111,
Paris, 1916, p. 157, note 1.
28
Hesperia, XVII, 1948, p. 318, note 240. In I.G., XI, 2, 287, line 147, it is stated that a brvos
(Kent, op. cit., p. 254, note 25: 'kiln'; Liddell-Scott-Jones: 'kitchen') was situated in a kepos.
29
Plato, Ep., II, 313 A, and Homer, Od., IV, 737. The word kepos occurs only four times in
the Attic Orators: [Demosthenes], XLVII, Against Euergos, 53; L, Against Polykles, 61; Isaios,
V, Estate of Dikaiogenes, 11; and Hyperides, Against Demosthenes, fr. VII (Kenyon). See W. A.
Goligher, Hermathena, LVII, 1941, p. 42.
30 [Demosthenes], L, Against Polykles, 61 and Athenaeus, I 7 c. See also the numerous refer-
ences to Kdprov kXaXavcvojxEvov in papyri (F. Preisigke, Woerterbuch der griechischen Papyruskunden,
I, Heidelberg, 1924, 793).
31 Buck, Dictionary, p. 490.
The word occurs only once in our Stelai (X, 17), where it is the group of letters
which seem to accord best with the traces read by Pittakys.32 It is to be noted, however,
that Pittakys himself restored aypo6 and that the latter word has been coupled with
xcOptov,as is the case in our entry, in Xenophon, H.G., II, 4, 1.
6. OtKLca (IV, 6, 13, 20; VI, 13, 56, 76, 89, 94; VII, 23-24, 25-26, 73, 77; X, 1,
15, 17). Oikia, used in Homer for the nests of birds and bees 3 and occurring in
tragedy only in one papyrus fragment,34is very common in Aristophanes and prose
texts with the meanings of 'building, household, family,' etc.35 In legal contexts, it
seems to refer generally to a 'private residence.' Finley in his section on houses in
the horoi has recently written, " an analysis of the economics of real security will show
that, in all likelihood, it is. the personal residence that is usually meant by the word
'house' in the horoi." 36
7. OtK6ITE8oV (VI, 100). Oikopedon, a rare word, is found in one passage in
Plato in a context which shows that a building is meant.37The word occurs once, too,
in Thucydides, in connection with the fortifications of Delium (IV, 90): " They
threw in grape-vines as well as stones and bricks from the neighboring oikopedawhich
they pulled down." E. Betant translates the word as ' substructio,' 38 which receives
support from the definitions of Phrynichos 3' and Photius, 40 but the use of WXh-'Oov
and KaOactpovIi-Eq indicates that neighboring buildings are meant.4' In Aristotle, Pol.,
1265b, 24, where Liddell-Scott-Jonesincorrectly defines oikopedonas ' site of a house,'
it is clear that buildings are meant.42Aristotle here is criticizing passages in Plato's
32
See Hesperia, XXII, 1953, p. 291.
33 II., XII, 168, 221; XVI, 261.
34 Euripides, Phaethon, 204. It is also found as a variant reading for E'UTta in Medea, 1130.
35 See Liddell-Scott-Jones, s.v. For the most detailed study of the word and its synonyms, see
J. H. H. Schmidt, Synonymik der griechischen Sprache, II, Leipzig, 1878, pp. 508-526. Buck
(Dictionary, p. 458) states concerning OUKOS,OtKta and their Indo-European cognates, " In this group
the notion of ' house' as a building is subordinate to that of 'home, settlement, family '."
36 Op. cit., p. 65. It is to be noted that in Delian inscriptions, oikia is the word used for houses
situated in the city of Delos. In the records of the estates of the Temple of Apollo, only one estate
had an oikia. The principal building on the estates was the kleision, which Kent (op. cit., p. 298),
who has collected the evidence, translates as 'farmhouse.'
37 Lg., V, 741c. See Liddell-Scott-Jones, s.v.; E. des Places' translation in the Bude series,
ad loc.; and Finley, op. cit., p. 253, note 50. The translation in the Loeb text of the Leges ('house-
plot') is here incorrect. Lg., V, 740a shows that Plato is making reference to the apportionment
of land and houses.
38 Lexicon Thucydideum, Geneva, 1843, s.v.
39 See Bekker, Anecd., I, p. 32, 2. Cf. the interesting comments of Andreades, Hist. of Gr. Pub.
Finance, pp. 151-152, note 8.

40 Lexicon, ed. S. A. Naber,II, Leiden, 1865,p. 5, OtKO v
E80V ?
7pOV KaTaLTTw( OLKOV.
41 See Classen-Steup, Thukydides, ad loc.
42
So Barker, op. cit., p. 59.
Leges where two separate houses are allotted to each citizen.43 Aischines, the only
Attic orator in whose writings the word is preserved, writes: " He walled her up in
an empty house - - - and to this day the oikopedaof that house stand in your city, and
that place is called -- -."4 This reference might be to the substructure of the house,
and be in accord with the definition preserved in Bekker and Photius (see above).
There are several non-Attic inscriptions in which oikopeda is used in connection
with allotment or division of land.45 We note one in particular, an inscription of
Sardis,46where an oikopedon is referred to as requiring three artabas of seed. Here
the word clearly refers to a plot of ground, although possibly one designed to be used
for a dwelling.
Oikopeda occurs in several Egyptian papyrological sources in which the editors
feel that the word is used interchangeablywith oikia or oikos. This has been the con-
clusion of Kraemer and Lewis,47Boak,48and Youtie and Pearl.49 Waiving the question
of the significance of Egyptian usage for Attic meaning, it should be noted that pro-
portionately the word here more commonly means ' building-site ' or ' house-lot.'
Thus, in the third volume of the Michigan papyri, where Boak has noted that the
twice-used phrase rO'IrwV has to do with buildings, there are more than twenty
OtKOVE8a
examples of the use of oikopedawhere the respective editors have translated the word
as ' building-site ' or the equivalent.50This includes two examples in Boak's document.
In the Youtie-Pearl document, oikopeda refers to the entire parcel of a half share of
a house with land. It would seem, then, that the specific meaning of the word must
be determined from the context. It might refer to a building-site; at other times the
site seems to have contained a building or at least the substructure of a building.
In our Stele, the word is qualified by two adjectives, EAXand XEppov.5'The latter
means ' without a crop.' 52 Concerning E'Xtwhich occurs only here, Meritt has written,
" the word EXvis known only from Hesychius (where it is written ELXi) and sup-
posedly means the same as ILE'Xav."It may be supposed, on the other hand, that the
word means 'swampy ' and is to be connected with EXogor tA.54 In any case, our
Lg., V, 745 e and VI, 776 a. See Jowett's commentary ad Pol., 1265 b.
43
4I, 182. Cf. I.G., JJ2, 1672, line 75: ra?o'Ko7re8a

Tr?)tLepac
otKLag.
45 See Dittenberger, Syll.3, no. 141, and A. Wilhelm, " Neue Beitrage, III " in Sitzungsber. der
k. Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wein, Phil.-hist. Kl., 175, 1 Abh., 1913, pp. 11-12.
46 W. H. Buckler and D. M. Robinson, Sardis, VII, Part 1, Leyden, 1932, no. 1.
47 T.A.P.A., LXVIII, 1937, p. 380.
48 Michigan Papyri, III (ed. J. G. Winter), Ann Arbor, 1936, p. 215.

49 Michigan Papyri, VI, Ann Arbor, 1944, p. 135.
50 It is perhaps worth noting that the modern meaning of the word is 'building lot.'
51VI, 100.
52 Cf. I.G., II2, 2492, line 16.
53 Hesperia,VIII, 1939, p. 75.
54Cf. Liddell-Scott-Jones, addenda, p. 2068; and Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 747.
two terms can hardly be applied to architecture. The entry in our list, then, would
seem best translated as ' house-site, swampy and without a crop.' 5
8. opyas (VI, 104). The word first appears in Euripides and occurs only once
in the Attic orators.56 It is used most often with hiera to designate 'uncultivated land
sacred to the gods,' and, in particular, a tract of sacred land between Athens and
Megara. In connection with a preserved Athenian decree of the year 352/1, the
lexicographical evidence on orgas, including definitions from Harpokration and Pho-
tius, has been collectedin Dittenberger, Syll.3, no. 204, note 2. Of the four occurrences
of the word in Euripides three probably refer to holy ground 57 and Dodds has sug-
gested that the word be translated ' mountain glades ' rather than ? meadow-lands'
(Liddell-Scott-Jones).58 The fourth passage is in Electra, 1163: " Like as a mountain
lioness, frequenting the thickets of orgades, she (Clytemnestra) wrought these deeds,"
where L. Parmentier translates the word by ' les guerets' ('the fields'); but ? moun-
tamnglades ' would seem more appropriate.59
The word is used, presumably with reference to secular land, in a passage in
Xenophon on hunting: " First go to the orgades and reconnoitre to discover where
deer are most plentiful." 60 Finally, the word in the sixth century (A.D.) epigram-
matist Agathias (Aunth.Pal., VI, 41 ) clearly refers to cultivated land: "His plough
-- - he dedicatedto thee, Demeter, after cutting the ridge of his well-ploughed orgas."
Until the Pythion and Herakleion of the deme Kykala, which were near our
orgas, can be located topographically,the exact meaning of orgas may remain in doubt;
but I would suppose that in all passages from classical authors reference is made to a
'woody, mountainous tract.' 61 Since our orgas was hard-by (aT) the Pythion, the
land may originally have been sacred and retained the name of orgas on transfer to
private ownership.62It is to be noted that in our entry reference is made to half of
an orgas and that half of a conduit or canal (dianomos) was included in the sale."3
55For the most detailed study of the word oikopedon, see J. H. Thiel, Xenophontos Poroi, Diss.
Amsterdam, Vienna, 1922, p. 9.
56 [Demosthenes], XIII, On the Tribute, 32. The reference here is to sacred land.
57 Bacchae, 340, 445; and Rhesus, 282.
58 E. R. Dodds, Euripides Bacchae, Oxford, 1944, pp. 108-109.
59 Euripide, IV, Paris, 1925, p. 237.
60Cyn., 9, 2. Cf. Cyn., 10, 19.
61 Harpokration: opy'as KaXetrat T'a
XoXxWL8r,Kat opEtva xwpta Kat OVK C2rEpyaCo0',Eva. Cf. Chandler,
J.H.S., XLVI, 1926, p. 12; and Kahrstedt, Ath. Mitt., LVII, 1932, p. 9, note 1.
62 Disposal of sacred property was rare but not unheard of; see Paul Guiraud, La Propriete
fonciAre en Grece jusqu' d la conquoeteromaine, Paris, 1893, p. 377. In an Athenian decree of a
much later date (I.G., II2, 1035, lines 8-9), it is specifically enjoined that in the future no sacred
property shall be sold.
63 VI, 104-105. The word dianomos is found elsewhere only in B.C.H., XXXIII, 1909, p. 462
(Argos, Roman period).
10. CrV'OKtEa (IV, 11). The term indicates a tenement house occupied by several
persons. A. Jarde translates it as ' maisons de rapport '; 64 Liddell-Scott-Jones as
'house in which several families live.' The word has frequently been translated as
'apartment-house,' for which Finley has recently suggested the substitute term
'multiple-dwelling,' 65-a term which brings out the functional and, so to speak, non-
architectural connotation of the word. One of the key passages for the meaning is
Aischines (I. 124): " Where several people hire one house and occupy it, dividing it
between them, we call it a synoikia, but where one man dwells, a house." Clearly, the
synoikia was rented. In Aristophanes, Equites, 1001, the sausage-man boasts that he
had a two-storey house and two synoikiai.66 In Athenaeus, XII, 542 f, sudden
prosperity results f-rom owning synoikiai. The Thesaurus Graecae Linguae (s.v.)
reports a Latin gloss on the word as ' insula.' The synoikia, then, is not only a mul-
tiple-dwelling, it is also a tenement; 67 so the translation ' tenement-house' is adopted.68
11. Xcoptov(VI, 80, 94, 96, 98, 102, 133; X, 16, 17, 18). The word does not
occur in Homer or in Tragedy. It is found first in Herodotos. Schmidt, in his study
of Greek synonyms, defines chorion as follows: " Xcoptwov ist unser ' Ort ', bezeichnet
aber allgemeiner jedes bestimmte Grundstiick, z.B. in einer Stadt oder einen Lande,
ebenso eine in ihrer Eigentiimlichkeit hervorspringende Gegend; daher erscheint ein
Xcwptovoft als Teil einer Xcipa, aber auch eines anderen Xwpiov."" In Thucydides
alone, chorion is quaiified by the following adjectives: ajvwEo'v (I, 13, 5), a&iLEVov
(II, 25, 4), aXTE8ov(VII, 78, 4), aavE`s (IV, 29, 3), 8aoiv (IV, 29, 4), E'ITKWKaJOV(VI,
85, 2), E'pqpov(I, 52, 2), C0,u8Eq (VII, 26, 2), pelreT&pOV (IV, 32, 3), TErpWpC.8Eq(IV,
9, 2), vrp6cravrE (IV, 43, 3), cr'ro&ropov (VII, 73, 1), crrEVOV (VII, 79, 1), 4-qXo'v
(III, 97, 2), and XaXEmov(IV, 9, 2).
In epigraphical texts dealing with land, the word has been variously translated:
'
as field ' by Meritt,70as ' ordinary farm land ' by John Day,7"as 'farm ' by Fine.72
Kent, in drawing a distinction between kepos and chorion in the Delian records, wrote
64 Cereales,p. 147.
65 Op. cit., pp. 64-65.
6 For what I believe is the correct interpretation of this line, see R. A. Neil, The Knights of
Aristophcanes,Cambridge, 1901, ad loc. Neil in effect corrects the common interpretation based on
the gloss of the scholiast that synoikia is an apostasis or phanoptes.
67 For a construction excavated at Delos, which M. Holleaux suggests was a synoikia, see the
report in Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr., 1904, p. 737.

68
Cf. W. S. Maguinness, Hermathena, LXIX, 1947, p. 69.
69
J. H. H. Schmidt, op. cit., II, p. 3. Examples are collected on pp. 9-13. Cf. also Liddell-
Scott-Jones, s.v.
70
Hesperia, V, 1936, pp. 393 ff.
7' Ec. Hist. of Athens, p. 231.
72 op. cit., pp. 72, 81, etc.
that choria in addition to arable land contained grazing areas.73 Finley usually trans-
lates the word simply as ' land,' 7 but in one case uses ' property.' 7
Two of our properties which are designated by the term chorion are located in
town demes.76This might seem to weigh against interpreting choria as 'farms,' but
both demes, Bate and Ankyle, which are in the town trittys of the phyle Aigeis, are
located southeast of the city walls in the direction of Mt. Hymettos.77 This area must
have includedsome farms. Another bit of evidence from our lists is the small fee paid
for the chorion in Aphidna-ten drachmas. Even a small tract of agricultural land
would presumablybe worth a higher figure. Moreover, many of the horoi which refer
to choria have been found within the modern city and particularly in the area of the
ancient Agora. It must be granted that the place of discovery may be at some distance
from the original site; yet the percentage of these horoi mentioning choria is so high
that it is difficult to believe some did not refer to urban holdings. I have therefore
used the word 'land' to translated chorion; but 'landed property' or 'estate' would
seem to be equally suitable.78
In summary, the following table presents our interpretationof the meaning which
the words designating real property bear in the poletai lists.
1. Agros Field for cultivation in the country
2. Ge psile Land cultivated for cereals, vines and the like
3. Gepedon Plot of ground (exact meaning uncertain)
4. Dryinon Oak grove
5. Kepos Garden (non-specialized)
6. Oikia Private residence
7. Oikopedon House-site
8. Orgas Woody mountainous tract
9. Pityinon Pine grove
10. Synoikia Tenement-house
11. Chorion Land, Landed property
PRICES
In Table A are listed the prices and locations of the various types of real property
which had been owned by the Hermokopidai and Profaners of the Mysteries. Table
73op. cit., p. 318, note 240.
74 Op. cit., p. 54 and frequentlythereafter.
75 Ibid., p. 238, note 26.
76 80 and 94. Cf. Demosthenes, LV, Against Kallikles, 17.

VI,
77See W. Judeich, Topographie von Athen2, Munich, 1931, pp. 169-172.
78 See Buck, Dictionary, p. 1310. It may be noted that in Byzantine and modern Greek a is
popularly used for ' town,' and Xwpto has the meaning of ' village.' See Buck, Dictionary, pp. 1302 and
1308.
TABLE A: PROPERTY LOCATED IN ATTICA SOLD BY POLETAI 78a
Sales Price Reference in

Type of Property in Drachmas Attic Stelai Location Trittys Owner
1. Oikia - VI, 13-15 Kollytos City Diodoros of
Eitea
2. Oikia .... 1 (at VI, 76 Kydathenaion City Polystratos of
least 450) Ankyle
3. Oikia 1500 VI, 89 - Euphiletos of
Kydathenaion
4. Oikia 105 X, 15 Semachidai Coast Euphiletos of
Kydathenaion
5. Oikia in agros Part of 6100 VII, 77
6. Oikia & >2 gepedon IV, 6-9 Mounychia City Polystratos of
Ankyle
7. Oikia & gepedon - VII, 23-4 Athmonon Inland
8. Oikia & gepedon - VII, 24-6 - - -
9. Oikia, oak grove, 1800 X, 1-2 - Adeimantos of
pine grove, & Skambonidai
pithoi
10. Oikia, chorion & 205 X, 17 Myrrhinoutta Coast? Euphiletos of
kepos Kydathenaion
11. Synoikia - IV, 11 - - Axiochos of
Skambonidai
12. Chorion - VI, 80 Ankyle City Polystratos of
Ankyle
13. Chorion (?) - VII, 71 Emporioi Coast
14. Chorion 105 X, 16 Gargettos Inland Euphiletos of
Kydathenaion
15. Chorion 10 X, 18 Aphidna Inland Euphiletos of
Kydathenaion
16. a. Ge psile
b. Oikia in agros 1900 VII, 72-74
c. Agros
17. a. Oikia & Bate City Pherekles of
chorion Themakos
b. Chorion Lan-
c. Chorion 1200 VI, 94-108 Pythion
d. Oikopedon Pythion
e. Chorion Herakleion
f. Y2 orgas Pythion --
g. Y2 orgas Kykale
B lists property owned abroad. For purposes of comparison, we give in Table C the
prices of similar types of real estate, mentioned in the Attic Orators,"9dating for the
most part from the first half of the fourth century B.C. Only types of property which
78a Unless specified otherwise, property is assumed to be in Attica.
79 For later authors who refer to Athenian prices, cf., for example, Terence, Phormi,o 662, and
Plautus, Mostellaria, 634 and 823.
occur in our poletai lists have been included. This table from the Attic Orators is
presentedhere because no similar detailed compilationoccurs, to our knowledge, in the
bibliography on ancient house- and land-values. Similarly, in Table D is presented
like information about real estate sold by the poletai in the course of the fourth century
B.C., as preserved in epigraphical records, and in Table E similar sales from the so-
called Hekatostai records. Again only types of property are included which are
identical with the types in Table A.80
TABLE B: PROPERTY ABROAD SOLD BY POLETAI
Sales Price Reference in

Type of Property in Drachmas Attic Stelai Location Ownet
Oikia & agros 950 + VI, 55-56 Thasos Adeimantos of Skambonidai
Oikia (with door) in - IV, 20-21 Euboea Nikides of Melite
chorion
? 310 VII, 78 Abydos -
Chorion VI, 133 Thasos
TABLE C: PROPERTY IN ATTIC ORATORS
Sales Price
Type of Property in Drachmas Reference Location Trittys
Oikia 81 300- Isaios, II, 35
Oikia 4000 V, 26 Kerameikos City
Oikia 5000 V, 29 City
Oikia 4400 VI, 33 City
Oikia 2000 VIII, 35 Dionysion in City
Limnais
Oikia 1300 VIII, 35
Oikia 3000 XI, 42 Melite City
Oikia 500 XI, 42 Eleusis Coast
Oikia 2000 XI, 44 City
Oikia 2000 Aischines, I, 98 City
Oikia 3000 Demosthenes, XXVII, 10
Oikia 200 82 XXXI, 1 & 7
Oikia 1000 82 XLI, 6, 16 --
& 19
Oikia 700 82 LIX, 39 Statue of Hermes City
Psithyristes
Oikia & ge 5000+ Lysias, XIX, 42
Synoikia 10000 Demosthenes, XLV, 28
Synoikia 1600 83 LIII, 13
80 Mention may be made of the testimonia selecta in Robinson, Olynthus, XII, pp. 399-452,
which includes many passages referring in a general way to the value of the Greek house.
81
Reference is to an oikidion.
82 Amount of mortgage.
83
Amount of mortgage. Sandys and Paley (Demosthenes, Select Private Orations, I14, Cam-
bridge, 1910) suggest that this synoikia was worth 10,000 drachmas, which seems unduly high.
Sales Price
Agros 7500 Isaios, VI, 33 Athmonon Inland
Agros 6000 VIII, 35 Phlya Inland
Agros 12000 XI, 41 Eleusis Coast
Agros 15000 XI, 42 Thria Coast
Chorion 7000 Isaios, II, 34
Chorion 1000 II, 35
Chorion 5000 XI, 44 Oinoe Coast
Chorion 3000 XI, 44 Prospalta Inland (?)
Chorion 2000 Aischines, I, 99 Alopeke City
Chorion 600082 Demosthenes, XXXI, 1
TABLE D: PROPERTY SOLD BY POLETAI IN FOURTH CENTURY 84
Sales Price
Type of Property in Drachmas Reference Location
1. Oikia 215 Hesperia, XV, no. 31 Agryle City
(pp. 181-184), line 2
2. Oikia 410 Hesperia, XV, no. 31, Salamis
lines 9-10
3. Oikia 145 Hesperia, XV, no. 31,
line 16
4. Oikia 575 Hesperia, X, no. 1 Alopeke City
(pp. 14-17), lines 1-39
5. Oikia -- Hesperia, XV, no. 32
(pp. 185-187), line 14
6. Oikia 483 Pritchett-Meritt, Agryle City
Chronology, p. 89
7. Oikia & kepos - Hesperia, XV, no. 31, Oion Inland
lines 35-36
8. Oikia, chorion Hesperia, XV, no. 32, Melite City
& kleision lines 20-21
9. Oikia & chorion 500 I.G., II2, 1580, line 1
10. Oikia & chorion 2375 I.G., II2, 1580,lAine4 Prasiai Coast
11. Oikia & chorion 2012?12 I.G., II2, 1580, line 8 Prasiai Coast
12. Oikia & chorion 5000 I.G., II2, 1580, line 11
13. Oikia & chorion 400 I.G., II2, 1580, line 14 Paiania Inland
14. Oikia & chorion Hesperia, V, no. 10, line 15 Hagnous Inland?
15. Synoikia 3705% Hesperia, V, no. 10, Peiraeus City
lines 117-153
16. Chorion 9050 I.G., II2, 1580, line 24 Teithras Inland
17. Chorion 680 Hesperia, V, no. 10, Aphidna Inland
lines 153-185
18. ? 3250 Hesperia, XV, no. 31, line 22
19. 150-199 85 Hesperia, V, no. 9, line 3 -
20. ? 86 610 Hesperia, V, no. 9, line 6 Thria Coast
21. 750( ?) Hesperia, V, no. 9, line 16 -
TABLE E: PROPERTY SOLD IN HEKATOSTAI RECORDS
Sales Price I.G., ff2

1. Chorion 500 1594, 48-50 Aphidna Inland
2. Chorion Part of 1596, 8-9 Alopeke City
81,300
3. Chorion 2005+ 1596, 14-16 Salamis
4. Chorion 50 1596, 23-24 Pallene Inland
5. Chorion 800 1596, 27-28 Anaphystos Coast
6. Chorion 1000 1597, 5-6 Kydantidai Inland
7. Chorion 1375 1597, 7-8 Kydantidai Inland
8. Chorion 100 1597, 17-18 Kothokidai Coast
9. Chorion 250 1597, 21-22 Kothokidai Coast
10. Chorion 100+ 1598, 4-5 Phaleron City
11. Chorion 700+ 1598, 6-7 Phaleron City
12. Chorion 440 1598, 15-16 Phaleron City
13. Choria (2) 24,000 1598, 39-41 Halai Coast
14. Chorion & 11,600 1598, 12-14 -
oikopedon
15. [Oiko]peda of 550 1594, 52-53 Oinoe Coast
the chorion
16. Kepos 250 1596, 18-20 Pallene Inland
For the prices of Athenian real estate recorded in horoi assigned to dates
between the fourth and second centuries B.C., reference may be made to the four
valuable tables presented by M. I. Finley, op. cit., pp. 172-175. These tables are par-
ticularly estimable because of the distinction drawn between the different types of
horoi.87 In the case of dotal obligations a precise value of the property was fixed at
the time the agreement on the dowry was reached. We would conjecture that the
value indicatedon these horoi would closely approximate the real value of the property,
for presumablythe father would have demandedfrom the husband adequate security.88
In the case of hypotheke and prasis epi lysei transactions, the two other types of
84
The inscription published as Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 127, and lines 20-100 of the inscription
published as Hesperia, V, 1936, pp. 397-404, were considered too fragmentary to include.
85 Determined from the sales tax.
86 Meritt restores in this stoichedon inscription: [vVOtKtdav Kaia ox aTta'v]. For eschatia see ad
I.G., II2, 2498; and Pritchett, Class. Phil., LI, 1956, p. 102, note 9.
87
Unfortunately, Finley's tables do not include the evidence from the new Agora horoi, pub-
lished by J. V. A. Fine in Hesperia, Suppl. IX, 1951. In an added appendix (pp. 182-193) Finley
does, however, list the new horoi according to the various types.
88 Finley (op. cit., p. 30) notes that values in dotal horoi run into substantially larger sums
than values in two other groups. He concludes that only wealthy Athenian fathers requested
guaranties in the form of real security. This comparison would imply that values in all types of
horoi were equal, and the conclusion seems hardly justified.
obligations for which values of real property are given on horoi, we have one example
from the year 367/6 B.C. where a house, ultimately sold for 575 drachmas, had one
hypotheke for only 150 drachmas and two praseis epi lysei for 100 and 24 drachmas,
respectively.89In a speech prepared by Demosthenes for Nikoboulos, defendant in a
suit against Pantainetos, the speaker says, addressing his accuser directly, " And upon
a property on which you have never been able to borrow more than 10,000 drachmas
and which you have sold out and out for 20,000 drachmas - - 90 John Day has
concluded that in the case of loans very substantial security would be required and
that the true value of mortgaged properties may be approximated by multiplying all
sums on the mortgage-horoi by two.9' In the figures presented in Finley's tables, the
median of the sums preserved in dotal obligations averages fairly consistently 50 per
cent higher than the median figures in the hypotheke and prasis epi lysei groups.
Prices of so-called undivided land properties as reported in the Attic orators are
collected by P. Guiraud92 and Day.93 Unfortunately their presentations make no dis-
tinction between the various types of land.
For prices of real estate outside of Attica " some figures have been collected for
Halikarnassos and Iasos by G. Glotz, Le travail dans Ic Grece ancienHe,Paris, 1920,
pp. 297-298.95 For an estimate of the value of houses at Delos during the period of
independence,reference may be made to the special study by Molinier, Les " Maisons
sacrees" de De'los, au temps de l'ind6pendencede l'ile (315-166/5 av. J. C.), Paris,
1914, pp. 86 ff.96 Finally, D. M. Robinson has published Olynthian inscriptions which
record deeds of sale.97 One of these is for the sale of a house for an amount which is
interpreted as 2000 drachmas. Robinson and Graham have identified this particular
house in their report of the excavations.98 The date of the inscription is the first half
of the fourth century B.C. The price of 2000 drachmas is the same as the median
price of houses in our Table C. The house was unpretentious, lacking plastered walls,
89 Hesperia, X, 1941, pp. 14-16, lines 1-39. For the interpretation of
this text, see Finley in
Studi in onore di Vincenzio Aragio-Ruiz, III, Naples, 1952, pp. 473-491.
90 Demosthenes, XXXVII, Against Pantainetos, 50. Demosthenes' figures have been cor-
rected into drachmas. The actual sale price was 20,600 drachmas; see paragraph 31.
91 Ec. Hist. of Athens, pp. 226-227.
92 Op. cit., pp. 392-393.
O3Op. cit., p. 227.
94For prices outside of the Greek area, see the tables in F. Heichelheim, Wirtschaftliche
Schwankungen der Zeit von Alexander bis Augustus, pp. 113 ff.
9No complete documentation of the evidence concerning values of real estate throughout
Greece is here intended; for such evidence is extensive. See, for example, the great catalogue of
the sales of real property at Tenos, I.G., XII, 5, 872.
96 On land values at Delos, see J. A. 0. Larsen, " Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, pp.
402-407.
97 T.A.P.A., LXII, 1931, pp. 42 ff.
98 Olynthus, VIII, p. 83 and plates 21, 91. Cf. also
p. 97.
cement floors, paved courts, and, in all likelihood, a second storey. The ground plan
included two rows of three rooms each and four sheds or the like.9"
A comparison of the prices recorded in our list of 414 B.C. with the values in
fourth century Athens and elsewhere shows clearly that our Stelai give minimum
figures much lower than all other minima. One house in a coastal deme was sold for
105 drachmas; one plot of land in Aphidna brought only 10 drachmas. This compares
with a minimum of 300 drachmas for a house and 2000 drachmas for a chorion in
Table C (Attic Orators). The minimumprices for a house on 19 prasis epi lysei horoi
and 6 dotal horoi were 200 and 300 drachmas respectively.100The highest preserved
price for real estate in our list in Table A, 1900 drachmas,was for three items, a house
in cagros and two plots of land under cultivation. The minimum value for an agros
alone in Table C, on the other hand, is 6000 drachmas. Whether the explanation for
our low prices lies in very small plots or in the general economic picture of the war year
414 B.C. cannot be determinedon the evidence of real estate alone.
Although our evidence is admittedly very limited, one or two generalizations may
be proffered. Of the seven houses sold by the poletai in Tables A and D, the median
value is 410 drachmas. This is in striking contrast with a median value of 2000
drachmas for fourteen houses reported from the Attic Orators, whereas the median
value of 19 houses in the prasis epi lysei horoi and of six houses in the dotal apotimenc
horoi are 700 and 750 drachmas, respectively. Clearly, the values of real estate men-
tioned in the Attic Orators must not be taken as indicating the average wealth of
Athenians. Indeed, the values of real estate in Table C run considerably higher than
the values on dotal apotimenahoroi, which Finley has taken to mark the propertyof the
very wealthiest Athenians."1'Such land values as occur in the orators were far beyond
the reach of the poorer Athenians, who might readily, on the other hand, have rented
such properties as were sold in our Stelai.
There remains to be said a word about the evidence from our Stelai that successful
Athenians would buy land in several parts of Attica. Euphiletos of Kydathenaion,
for example, owned land on the coast in the demes of Semachidai and Myrrhinoutta,
which were in the widely separated phylai of Aigeis and Antiochis, and inland in the
demes of Gargettos and Aphidna, which were in the phylai of Aigeis and Aiantis.
Polystratos of Ankyle owned property in his own deme, located east of the city walls,
as well as in Mounychia. This is in accord with other evidence that rich Athenians
99See Robinson and Graham, op. cit., pp. 83-84. It should be noted, however, that Robinson
himself later (Olynthus, XII, pp. 72-73) argued that the price of 2000 drachmas was for half a
house. In collecting figures for the prices of Olynthian houses he observed that other houses,
apparently three in number, in the same section brought 4000, 4500, and 5300 drachmas, respectively.
There is nothing in the text of the inscription, a deed of sale, to suggest that this was only half a
house: reference is made simply to an oikia.
100 See Finley, op. cit., pp. 173, 175.
101 Op. cit., pp. 79 ff. But see note 88 above.
usually became large land-holderswithout forming large estates, and that Attica was
almost unacquaintedwith the agrarian system which consists in the formation of vast
continuous domains organized for cultivation.102
On the extent of holdings in non-Attic territory, more will be said elsewhere,
since the main evidence in our Stelai comes from the summaries which included the
totals for all types of possessions. It may be noted here, however, that line 15 of Stele
IV, which contained the word lrEpopfta, ' foreign land,' seems to be the heading for a
list of real property owned abroad. Whereas the real property listed above line 15
was located in Attica, the first item beneath the heading was in Euboea. The property
was owned by Nikides of Melite, and included a house. The remainder of the stele
is fragmentary. In Stele VI, lines 55-56, the property of Adeimantos of Skambonidai
included a house and agros on the island of Thasos. The real estate, including pithoi,
was sold for a price which contained six numerals. Only the last three figures are
preserved, but the sum could not have been less than 950 drachmas and may well have
been much more. Finally, in Stele VII, line 78, there is clear reference to property at
Abydos, which I take to be the city of that name on the Hellespont.
VI. SLAVES
With regard to slave problems in Greece, Zimmern wrote over twenty-five years
ago: " the same authors are ransacked; the same evidence is marshalled; the same
references and footnotes are transferred, like stale tea leaves, from one learned
receptableto another." 1 Our inscriptions, if preservedcomplete,would have shed much
new light on the whole problem of slavery. But even in their fragmentary condition,
the Agora pieces do contribute some measure of new information about prices and
nationalities, in particular.2
PRICES
The average price for the twenty-five slaves whose sales prices are complete is
approximately 174 drachmas. One of our slaves was described as a young child
(Oaat&ov) and sold for 72 drachmas, another as a child (7raZS) and sold for 174 drach-
mas, the average fee for an adult. The average price for the five women was 178
drachmas; for the seventeen men, 179 drachmas.3 The sex of the Cappadocian is
uncertain.
102
See, for example, Glotz, op. cit., pp. 299-300; and Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece, pp. 43-44.
' Solon and Croesus, London, 1928, p. 106. Quoted by W. L. Westermann in Athenian
Studies Presented to W. S. Ferguson (= Harv. Stud. Class. Phil., Suppl. Vol. I, 1940), p. 452.
2 The slaves listed in Stele XI have not been considered in this section because of the uncertain
nature of the list.
3 I find no basis for Andreades' statement (Hist. of Gr. Pub. Finance, I, p. 283) that in the
fifth century the average price of women slaves was somewhat higher than that of men. Andreades
himself notes that this was not the case at Delphi during the second century.
For purposesof comparison,the following evidencefrom fourth-century Athenian

writers is presented.4 The table is based in part on Westermann, R.E., Supplement
VI, 1935, s.v. Sklaverei, 915-916.
TABLE: PRICES OF SLAVES IN FOURTH-CENTURY AUTHORS
Reference Price
Xenophon Mem., II, 5, 2 Prices varied 50-1000 dr. per slave
Vect., IV, 23 180 dr. (average price for slaves working in
silver mines. Computed).6
Demosthenes XXVII, 9 200 dr. apiece (20 pawned in lieu of a debt
and 18 of 4000 dr.).7
XXVII, 9 300-600 dr. (32-33 slaves in sword-factory
worth 500-600 dr. each; none less than
300 dr.).
XXVII, 18 200 dr.
XLI, 8 200 dr.
[Demosthenes] LIII, 1 125 dr.
LIX, 29 3000 dr. (for a courtesan)
Hyperides III (V), 2 300 dr. (for a courtesan)
The average price in 414 B.C. is seen to be somewhat lower than the prices of the
fourth century, but it must be borne in mind that most of the fourth-century literary
references are to skilled artisans who naturally brought a large sum. The effect which
the skill of a slave had on his value comes out clearly from a passage in Aischines
which gives the profit of a shoemaker as two obols a day, and of an overseer three
obols; 8 whereas Xenophon had computedthe profit of a slave in the mines as an obol
a head.9
The following table shows the nationalities of all slaves for whom the sales price
is completely preserved in our inscriptions:
4For slave prices in Greece after 200 B.C., see J. A. 0. Larsen, " Roman Greece," Economic
Survey, IV, p. 414. The majority of prices in this period range from 300 to 500 drachmas.
5 Of the prices of slaves recorded in W. L. Westermann's important presentation in R.E., s.v.
Sklaverei, 915, eight will be found to be different from the prices given in our tables. Westermann's
reference to the editio minor is erroneous, and it is possible that he was working from an incorrect
copy. These same errors are perpetuated in his The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity,
Philadelphia, 1955, p. 14. Moreover, Westermann did not utilize the new evidence of our document.
6 See F. Oertel, Rh. Mus., LXXIX, 1930, pp. 236-237. Cf. J. H. Thiel, Xenophontos Poroi,
Diss. Amsterdam, 1922, pp. 52-54.
7 The slaves were presumably worth more on the open market.
8 I, Against Timarchos, 97.
9 Vect., IV, 23.

Country Pri'ce of slaves in dratchmcasReferences in A tti'cStelict

East Cappaclocia10 151 I, 48
Caria 72. 105. 174. 360 I, 46; I, 38; I, 45;
IL, 77-78
Colchis 153 L,44
Lydia 60 1,49
Syri'a 240. 301 I, 37; I,47
North Illyria 121. 161 I, 43; I, 39
Macedonia 310 II, 79-80
Scythia 144 1L42
Thrace 115. 135. 165. 170. 195.220 l,41;I,5;I,34
L,36; X, 7; I, 40
Greece MVessene 130 X, 9
In addition, the following nati'onalitiescan be identified, although the sales price

is not preserved:
Country Number of Slaves References i'nA tti'cStelict

Caria 3 I, 9; VI, 20; VIIy 8-9
Phrygia I VI, 18
Scythia 1 VII, 7-8
Thrace 3 II, 70; VIIy 3-4, 12-13
Of the twenty-eight slaves, sixteen, or 57%, came from the two countries Caria
and Thrace."1
The hi'ghestprices were paid for the Carian goldsmith (360 drachmas) and the
Macedonian woman (310 drachmas). Next came the two Syrian men (301 and 240
drachmas). The six Thracians averaged 166 drachmas, the four Carians 177 drach-
mas, and the two Illyrians 143 drachmas each. The Greek from Messene, who had
fallen into slavery,12brought only 130 drachmas.
The average price of slaves from the east (179'2 drachmas) i's almost identical
with that (173 drachmnas)for northern slaves. It appears that differences in price
must be attributed to other factors than nationality.
10The slave was a native of Melitene, which I take to be that in Cappadocia. Tod (Gr. Hist.
Inscr., 12, p. 199) notes that the slave may have come from the Illyrian island of Melite in the
Adriatic sea, or from Malta. G. Glotz (Le travail dans la Grece ancienne, p. 233) regards him as a
Maltese.
Cf. Schol. to Plato, Laches, 187 b: ev Tc KKapt . . . aVTt TOVi EV TrO 8oV'X- Kact y/ap ot iraXato TWAV
'EXKivwv a7r'oKapxv KaC eOpaKXV Tov ov'Xovs broC0vrVo. Ehrenberg (People of Aristophanes2, p. 171)
states that Lydians and Phrygians were the slaves most common in Athens. His references are to
comedy, and hardly justify this conclusion.
12 See U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und A then, Berlin, 1893, II, p. 179.
OCCUPATION
Three of the slaves of Adeimantos (VI, 20-22) and three others named in the
first column of Stele II (lines 73, 76 and 78) are described by their occupations. Five
different occupationsare designated: oBEXUt-K0o'WtO6, 6vAXa6r/s, D-KVcTOTO'LLO%
TcpaTE4oToto6
and Xpvo-oXoVD. The fees for the goldsmith (360 drachmas) and the trapezopoios (215
drachmas) were much above average, that for the donkey driver (140 drachmas)
much below.
The word 0,8EXUt0Ko1ot6s is new. Obeliskos is the term generally applied to iron
spits or skewers,13or to objects, such as nails,'4 shaped like a spit. For the industrial
specialization concerned in the manufacture of this one particular iron object, com-
parison may be made with other types of smiths: nailsmith (rXoGrot6s), sicklesmith
(8pewavoirot6'), locksmith (KXEt807oTtoU), cutlerysmith (FaxatpoW-ot6o'), spear-maker
(XoyXo,wot6s), etc."5
Liddell-Scott-Jones defines the trapezopoios as 'a slave who sets out the table,'
but the suggestion has more recently been made that he was a carpenter who made
tables.'6 The lexicographers, interested in the similarity of rpa 4E,orot-ouand rpa'WE-o-
K6OO%, defined the trapezopoios as the slave who had charge of the servants, of the
utensils, and of entertainments,17a sort of manager of the table. Athenaeus (IV, 170 d
and e, translation of C. B. Gulickwith slight modification) quotes two fragments from
the fourth-century comic poets, Philemon and Antiphanes, respectively: " You have
no oversight in the kitchen; a trapezopoios is appointed to serve; " and " I went and
hired in addition this trapezopoios,who will wash the dishes, get the lamps ready, pre-
pare the libations, and do everything.else which it is his business to do."
Athenaeus defines the trapezopoios as: T'v Tpa1TE4,v T1 E-JT,usEXr/r)vKca aXX7))
EvK0ocrptas.18 Pollux states that he is o a'vrcov trJv 1TEpFn)7v E&rtao-tvw,' and elsewhere
enumerates the members of his long retinue.20The trapezopoios, then, was a manager
of all services related to the table.
The skytotomos is defined by Liddell-Scott-Jones as 'leather-cutter, worker in
leather; esp. shoemaker, cobbler.' Earlier, Tod had rendered the word as 'saddler'
which allowed him to distinguish it from the term hypodematopoios.2"While Pollux
13
See below, pp. 312-313. For bibliography, see Reinach in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
Veru, and Deonna, Delos, XVIII, p. 227.
14
See I.G., XI, 2, 178, line 70. Cf. I.G., J2, 313, line 141.
15 For references for these
terms, see Bliimner, Technologie, IV, pp. 360-363.
D. Hereward, B.S.A., XLVII, 1952, p. 114. There is no evidence to corroborate this.
17
Cf. Hug in R.E., s.v. Structor, 383.
18 IV,
170 e.
19III, 41. Similar definitions may be found in Hesychius, Photius and Et. Mag.
20IV, 13.
21
B.S.A., VIII, 1901-1902,p. 204.
lists the word among those which concern shoemaking22 and elsewhere enumerates
the tools of the skytotomos as including the shoemaker's last, the awl, and the shoe-
maker's knife,23Hesychius gives the word a wider definition and includes tent-making.
In Aristophanes the word is definitely connectedwith shoemaking,24but in Homer the
skytotomos was a maker of shields,25and in Xenophon the word seems to apply to
more than shoemaking.26The term seems to have had its origin in the first activity of
the leatherworker,the cutting of the leather,27and is sometimes used for the fabrica-
tion of all leather goods, but far more frequently in the special sense of shoemaker.
For the goldsmith, reference may be made to I.G., 12, 374, line 103; 12, 1558 B,
line 56; 1559 A, line 23; and to line 19 of D. Hereward's new fragments of I.G., IIT2
10; 28 and for the donkeydriverto I.G., 12, 1558 A, line 20; and 1559 B, line 97.29
SOURCES OF SLAVES
Three of the slaves in our lists are characterized as 'born in the house.' 3 This
compares with ten slaves who are designated by foreign ethnics (e.g., - - - r0 YE'vos
Opae) ," and eighteen whose names are formed from such ethnics (e. g., epqa-ra
KaptK6v)."2 Of these eighteen, one was a Greek from Messene.33 In addition, Olas
of X, 7 was presumably a Thracian." There remain eight slaves who have Greek
names, or names which in other contexts are attributed to Greeks.35
If we accept the names as an indication of place of origin-and this assumption
seems safe, since the majority of slaves came from war 36-twenty-eight slaves were
22
VII, 80.
141. These tools nmaybe well seen on vases illustrating the shoemaker at work, as e.g.,
23 X,
Cloche, Classes, etc., pl. XXX.

24
Equites,. 740; Lys., 414. Cf. Eccl., 432; Plutus, 162, 514.
25 11., VII, 221.
2" Cyr., VI, 2, 37.
27
German " Reimer." See Bliimner, Technologie, 12, pp. 273 ff., where complete testimonia for
skytotomos have been collected.
28
B.S.A., XLVII, 1952, p. 108.
29
Also see Bliimner, Technologie, IV, p. 303 for many references to the goldsmith.
30 II, 72; 75, and VI, 23: oTKoyEv7VS. In Plato, Men., 82 B, Sokrates asks concerning a slave:
""?EOXyv juevlor KacL iXXAvtet;" to which question, Meno answers: " 7raW 7E -obp, OtKOyEV7 yE." It
may be noted that the late Greek OIKOye'VEa, which means 'the status of an oikogenes,' is the modern
Greek word for 'family'; see Buck, Dictionary, p. 133.
31 I, 9; II, 70, 77, 80; VII, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13.
32 I, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; VI,
18; X, 9.
33 X, 9.
See Hiller ad I.G., I2, 328, line 7.
84
35Apollophanes (VI, 19), Aristarchos (VI, 21), Aristomachos (VI, 54), Kydimachos (X,
3), Pistos (I, 28), Satyros (VI 22, and X, 25), and Charias (VI, 20). Only one of these names
(Pistos) is not found in Kirchner, P.A.
36 See Glotz,op. cit., p. 230.
foreign-born, three were homebred,and nine others may have been Greeks or born in
Greece. The ratio of foreigners to Greeks, then, was at least as high as 28:12, or 70%0,
and only 7127% of the slaves were homebred. For purposes of comparison, Glotz's
figures from the inscriptional deeds of manumission found at Delphi show that of 841
slaves freed, 217, or roughly 25%, were 'born in the house.' 3 One would expect a
percentage higher than normal from the Delphic manumissionsbecause a master would
be more willing to free servants whom he had known since their childhood.
POSSESSIONS
Our lists preserve only the partial record of the sale of the property of one slave.
This slave, Aristarchos, had been owned by Adeimantos of Skambonidai, and is
described as a skytotomos. His possessions are itemized in VI, lines 33-46. No prices
are preserved. His property, insofar as the items can be restored, included beds and
tables, possessions of no high value. In the fourth century, according to Isaios, II,
Estate of Menekles, 29 and 35, a certain slave Menekles had goods to the value of
7000 drachmas, and in Isaios, XI, Estate of Hagnios, 42, it is stated that the value of
the private property of the slave Stratokles after his death amounted to 5 talents
3000 drachmas.38
VII. TILES AND BRICKS

I. TILES
In Stelai II and VII, we have preserved four terms meaning 'tile.' They are as
follows:
KaXvTr-71P
KEpac.K
.
1*
KEpauom ar-eya-rrY)p
According to Bluimner,1the general terms for roof tile are keramis and keramos.2
The convex cover tile (Latin: imbrex) is kalypter. The concave bottom tile, flat in
the middle with flanged edges, is the keramos or the keramos stegaster (Latin:
37 Ibid., p. 230.
88
On the general subject of the possessions of slaves, see W. L. Westermann, R.E., s.v.
Sklaverei, 911 if.
1 Technologie, II, pp. 30-31. Cf. A. Jarde in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.vv.
Tectum
and Tegula; and F. Ebert in R.E., s.v. Tegula.
2Thus, Thucydides (II, 4, 2; III, 22, 4 and 74, 1; IV, 48, 2) seems to use the two words
synonymously. Starkie (ad Aristophanes, Nubes, 1127) incorrectly defines keramos as 'unbaked
tile.'
tegula).' There are today various terms for this tile: ' flat tile,' 'lower tile,' 'rain tile,'
and ' pan tile.' There were variations, however, and one type has been recovered in
which flat tile and cover tile were made in one piece. For a detailed description of
various types of Greek tiles, see A. Andren, " Architectural Terracottas from
Etrusco-Italic Temples," Skrift. Sven. Inst., VI, 1940, pp. lxxxviii if.
For convenient descriptions of how roof tiles were laid, see J. Durm, Die Bau-
kunst der Griechen3,Leipzig, 1910, pp. 197-206 (useful for its clear sketches); E. D.
Van Buren, Archaic Fictile Revetments in Sicily and Magna Gratecica, London, 1923,
pp. xviii-xix; H. A. Thompson, Tholos of Athens (Hesperia, Suppl. IV), 1940, pp.
66-73 (for the roof of the tholos); and G. P. Stevens, Hesperia, XIX, 1950, pp.
181-184.
One modificationmust probablybe made to Bliimner's terminology. The keramis,
just as the keramos, could be used for the lower tile. In Insc. De'los, 440 A, lines 79-
89, keramis and kalypter are listed side by side as the tiles for various buildings in
accounts dated between 190-180 B.C. The distinction is maintained throughout, and it
seems necessary to interpret the keramis here as different from the kalypter, and hence
as the lower tile.
PRICES. Relatively full information is available for the price of roof tiles from
Delos in the third century B.C. It is much less complete for other places. The table
below gives in graphic form such prices as are known to me from epigraphical sources.
The figures from Delos are based in part on those of Glotz and Larsen.4 It is to be
noted that prices were considerablyhigher in the fourth century than in the fifth and
by 246 B.C.had fallen to about one-half of what they had been.5
For prices in Economic Survey, other than those from Delos, I have noted only
one quotation from Ephesos in Asia Minor (Vol. IV, p. 838) where 300 roof tiles
cost 50 drachmas. Finally, it may be of interest to note that we know that one man
3 I. Thallon-Hill and L. S. King (Corinth, Vol. IV, part 1, Decorated Architectural Terracottas,
Cambridge, 1929, p. 39) call the flat tiles by the term qyEoOves,a word which is applied to tiles only
in inscriptions. In I.G., II2, 1627, lines 303 and 305, hegernones is modified by leontokephaloi, 'lion-
headed'; they seem to have been the lowest row of pan tiles turned up to form a sima and accordingly
provided with lion heads. Cf. I.G., IV2, 102, line 100, where the word is coupled with paraietis.
See, also, Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 466; and H. Lattermann, Griechische Bauinschriften, Strass-
burg, 1908, p. 34. In the Eleusis inscriptions the front tile of each row of convex tiles was called
the 'hegemon with flower patterns.' See K. A. Rhomaios, Kepa'ou ris KaXv8&vos,Athens, 1951, pp.
24 ff. This hegemon, or eaves cover tile with antefix, is described with illustrations by F. Noack,
Eleusis, Berlin and Leipzig, 1927, pp. 66-68. In either case, the hegemon tile belongs at the edge of
the roof.
4 G. Glotz, Journal des Savants, XI, 1913, p. 19; and J. A. 0. Larsen, "Roman Greece,"
Economic Survey, IV, pp. 397-398. See also Larsen, " The Price of Tiles at Delos from 210 to
180 B.C.," Class. Phil., XXXVI, 1941, pp. 156-166.
r See Larsen, Economic Survey, IV, pp. 397-398.
PRICES OF ROOF TILES

Place
and
Date Type of Tile Single Pair Reference
ELEUSIS
329/8 B.C. Corinthian keramis I dr.Y I.G., II2, 1672, line 72
Corinthian keramis 5 ob.6 II2, 1672, line 72
Laconian keramos 4 ob. II2, 1672, line 188
Agelaia keramis 1 dr. 1 ob.6 II2, 1672, line 209
EPIDAUROS
IV/III keramis 3 dr.7 1V2 108, line 147
init. III keramis 1 dr. 3 ob. IV2, 109, II, line 98
keramos 32 ob. IV2, 109, II, line 143
Corinthian keramos 1 ob. IV2, 109 II, line 149
DELOS
303 keramos 1 dr. 2 ob. XI, 2, 144 A, line 63
282 [keramis] 4Y' ob. XI, 2, 158 A, line 85
279 keramos 5 ob. XI, 2, 161 A, lines 73-74
274 keramnos 1 dr. 1% ob.8 XI, 2, 199 A, line 109
269 [keramis] 1 dr. XI, 2,203 B, line 3
250 keramis 4 ob. 4-5 ob. xI, 2, 287 A, lines 85,
113-114
246 keramos 4 ob. Insc. Delos, 290, line 161
246 keramis 4 ob. 290, line 165
208 keramis 9 3 ob. 365, lines 46, 52
207 keramis 52 ob. 366 A, line 22
207 keramis S ob. 366 A, line 24
190-180 keramis 252 ob. 440 A, line 79
kalypter 2%2 ob.10 440 A, line 79
keramis 252 ob. 440 A, lines 85, 89
169 [keramos] ca. 1 dr. 1 ob. 461 Ab, lines 52-54
at Rome could make 220 bricks per day,1"and T. Frank has estimated that tiles would
be twice as expensive as bricks.12
1. KaXV -p (VII, 97). Cover tile. Stele VII contains the entry for 210 cover
cover tiles,
tiles in line 97. In the following line, there is an entry for KoptvOtovpyEZs
which presumably were distinct from those in line 97. Of the numerals for these
6 Transportation charges to Eleusis are listed separately and are not included in this price.
7Lattermann (B.C.H., XXXII, 1908, p. 298) believes the price included transportation charges.
8
Beginning with 274 B.C., the price given is for tiles delivered at the required site. In 282 and
279, the tiles were purchased at Syros.
9 Larsen (Class. Phil., XXXVI, 1941, p. 163) believes that in this document keram6isrefers to
the lower tile.
10 The prices are those of Larsen, as computed in ibid., pp. 160-161.
11H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, Vol. 2: 2, Berlin, 1906, 8675.
Corinthian cover tiles, only an upright stroke is preserved, but it is reasonable to

conclude in the light of the figures in the three lines above that the first numeral was
the sign for 100.
In 1882, E. Fabricius defined the Corinthian tile of inscriptions as one made in
Corinth and thence exported.'3 He asserted that it was not, like the later Corinthian
column, a specific type. In the following year, W. Dorpfeld denied this, and suggested
that Corinthiantiles were an angular variety,14 a view which has found wide acceptance
and has no evidence against it. Rounded tiles he regarded as Laconian. Lattermann,
in turn, advanced a different explanation,"5and he was followed only by H. Koch.'6
They postulated that Corinthian tiles were made in one piece (imbrex and tegula).
This view has now been criticized by L. D. Caskey,`7 Thallon-Hill and King,"
Rhomaios,'9Robinson and Graham,20and others; and on the basis of abundant archae-
ological evidence, which to my knowledge has been most completely assembled in
Andren, op. cit., pp. lxxxviii-c, D6rpfeld's position would seem to have been sustained.21
In my reading on tiles, I have failed to find any description of the term KE'papao
'ATTtKO6.This occurs in Pollux, X, 182, and is specifically attributed to our stelai.
The Corinthian, Sicilian 22 and Laconian tiles have been defined according to type,
and we know that Laconian tiles were far more common in Athenian buildings than
the Corinthian type. Moreover, a tile standard for the measurement of curved
Laconian tiles has been found in the Athenian Agora.23 But for a specific Attic tile
we have no information at all. We would conjecture that it was a rare type which
was used in the fifth century and subsequentlydisappeared from use.
2. KEpaqt. (VII, 96). Roof tile. The word is used in the general sense of roof
tile in Aristophanes, Vespae, 206; Thucydides, III, 22; and Xenophon, H.G., VI, 5, 9.
13 Hermes, XVII, 1882, p. 582.
14Ath. Mitt., VIII, 1883, p. 162: "die grossen viereckigen, plattenartigen KEpaup-Se mit dach-
formigen KaXv7rTTVpes. . ."
15 B.C.H., XXXII, 1908, pp. 298 ff.; cf. B. Keil, Hermes, XIX, 1884, p. 154, note 1. It may
be noted that in I.G., 112, 1672, lines 71-72, Corinthian tiles were purchased both in Athens and from
Corinth. Those bought in Athens were more expensive.
'6Rbm. Mitt., XXX, 1915, p. 111.
17
A.J.A., XIV, 1910, p. 308, note 2.
18 Corinth IV, 1, pp. 39-42.
1' Gnomon, VII, 1931, pp. 650-651.

20 Olynthus, VIII, p. 234.
21 in Insc. Delos, 456

Attentionshouldbe drawnto the single mentionof KaXv7rTrtpas puvXwOptatovs
A, line 4, which Durrbach defines as 'noues,' or 'gutter tiles.' Cf. Deonna, Delos, XVIII, p. 124.
22
W. Darsow, Sizilische Dachterrakotten, Berlin, 1938.
23
This standard was published in detail by G. P. Stevens in Hesperia, XIX, 1950, pp. 174-188.
It was found in front of a small building in the southwest corner of the Agora which has been
designated as the Civic Offices (Hesperia, XVI, 1947, p. 200, pl. XLII, 2). The building dates
from the early Roman period. Stevens claims that the dimensions of the standard were given in
Attic feet.
In Insc. Delos, 366 A, lines 21 and 23, the keramides are purchased by the pair. The
word is here modifiedby E'1T4vyo&. This is the only occurrence in Greek of this adjec-
tive.24 Liddell-Scott-Jones, marking the word as " dub. sens.," offer no definition.
Since the tiles were purchased in pairs, it would seem natural to consider a pair as
consisting of two unlike tiles, the cover tile and flat tile. Epizygos might indicate that
they were joined together. This is the interpretation for epizygos offered by Latter-
mann, who bases his argument in part on prices for tiles.2" But more recently Larsen
has stated that the original tiles, which have been recovered from the Delian stoa to
which the inscription refers, prove that the pairs were not combined.26He therefore
interprets epizygos as synonymous with zeuge. In the majority of these passages,
keramides means 'roof tile ' without distinction of cover tile or pan tile. In Stele VII,
the entry states that 221 keramides were sold.
3. KE'pcioq (II, 122; VII, 94, 99). Tile or rain tile. Keramos sometimes means
'the potter's clay,' but usually the product, as 'pottery, earthen vessel, tile.' 27 In
Stele VII, the word occurs in a list of roof tiles. In both lines 94 and 97 keramos is in
the singular number and is modifiedby palcaios,' old.' Unfortunately, the price, which
to judge by all parallels would certainly have been less than a drachma,is not preserved.
4. Kepauog CoTEyacrTi-p (II, 112-123). Lower tile. In Part I, the following text
was offered for lines 122-123 of Stele II:
KEpacXo -rTE'[p]aq !!
O-TEpOS 4EVK[T-E]pt( a)
The surface of the marble is very weathered, as can be seen from the photograph
on plate 70 of Hesperica,XXII, 1953. What I originally read with dots as faint signs
for two units in line 122, consisting of marks in vertical alignment with the numerals
in the line above, cannot be traces from the ancient text. The following reading must
be substituted:
KEpapo CTE[y]a{od}-
O-rEpO 3EV H [** ] I
The Attic form KEpa'lo is not to be takenas a dual, but as the genitive singular.
The stonecutter doubledthe sigma in the middle of the second word.28As was reported
24
It is not clear why Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, p. 631, list this word as 46rltryov,
hence
presumably a substantive.
25
Op. cit., p. 298. Lattermann has been followed by Noack (op. cit., p. 60, note 3). Ebert
(R.E., s.v. Tegula, 122) takes both tivy and elrtgvyotto mean that flat and cover tile were combined
into one.
26 Class. Phil., XXXVI, 1941, p. 158, note 8.
27
28
Cf. otller examples in K. Meisterhans, Grammatik der Attischen Inschriften3, Berlin 1900,
p. 98.
in the commentary on line 123 in Part I, the fourth letter of what is now the third
word cannot be an Attic gamma. This would enable us to read the word 4EiyE. The
base of an upright stroke may, however, be taken as part of the sign for the numeral
one hundred,and the word for 'pairs ' was abbreviated.
Hesychius defines stegaster as a-wXA4v.The critical passage for the definition of
the latter word is Plutarch, Mor., 526 B (De cupid. divit., 7) ,29 where the reference is
to the pan tile, or the lower tile.30
II. BRICKS
rAtXvOog(V, 36). Brick.3' The word was originally applied to a 'slab of stone,' 32
and this meaning must be understood in I.G., I2, 372, lines 10 ff.38 More commonly,
plinthos was used for 'brick.' It was applied to sun-baked as well as fire-bakedbrick.
Ordinary building was carried out with unbaked bricks.34This was certainly true of
private buildings,35and Pausanias, in addition, gives a long list of temples which were
built of such material."0Robinson-Grahamhave reported on the strength and advan-
tages of these common sun-dried bricks, of which most house walls at Olynthos were
constructed."7They correct the impression that such material was primitive and that
houses built of it must have been small and unpretentious. This method of construction
was more durable than that in which soft stones were used, and Demosthenes speaks
of houses of illustrious men which had lasted from an earlier age.38
PRICES OF BRICKS 39
Date Price per

ELEUSIS Thousand Reference
329 B.C. Plinthoi, including trans- 38 dr.
portation within Eleusis I.G., II2, 1672, line 26
Plinthoi, 1k/2 ft. long 36 dr. II2, 1672, line 56
Plinthoi with geonion 40 40 dr. II2, 1672, line 57
29
See Bliimner, Technologie, II, p. 31, note 3.
30
See also Durrbach ad I.G., XI, 2, 203 B, line 97.
31 See Ebert in R.E., s.v. Later.
32
See Buck, Dictionary, p. 603. For a somewhat different etymology ('clod of earth'), see W.
Belardi, Doxa, III, 1950, p. 218.
33 In one inscription, I.G., JV2, 102, plinthos is used for both 'stone slab' and 'clay brick.'
34 See Xenophon, Mem., II, 1, 7; and Vitruvius, II, 8, 16.
3 Plutarch, Demnosthenes,11.
36 II, 27, 6; X, 35, 5.
37 Olynthus, VIII, pp. 224-229. Cf. Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 468.
38 XXIII, Against Aristokrates, 207; cf. III, Third Olynthiac, 25.
39 Pricesdo not include transportation unless so specified.
40This is the only occurrence of the word geonion. It indicates the price at which the clay was
purclased. So C. Tsountas, 'E. 'ApX.,1883, p. 131; Dittenberger (ad Syll.2, 587); Kirchner (ad
I.G., J_ 1672); and Liddell-Scott-Jones. Michell (Ec. of Anc. Greece, p. 130) apparently takes
the woru to mean 'mortar.'
Price per
Date Thousand Reference
DELOS
282 B.C. Plinthoi 65 dr.41 I.G., XI, 2, 158 A, line 58
Plinthoi 71 dr. 2Y2 ob.4' XI, 2, 158 A, lines 58-59
Plinthoi 77 dr. 4% ob.4' XI, 2, 158 A, line 60
ca. 280 Plinthoi 15 dr. XI, 2, 165 A, line 6
ca. 268 Plinthoi 50 dr. XI, 2, 204, line 71
ca. 250 Plinthoi (delivered and 63 dr. 2 ob.
laid) XI, 2, 287 A, lines 99-101
For prices of brick in Rome, see Frank, Economic Survey, I, p. 165.42 Frank
estimates the price at one sesterce for about 70 bricks.
VIII. TOOLS. MISCELLANEOUS OUTDOOR ITEMS

Of the items discussed in this section, the group to which the most study has
been devoted in modern times comprises tools used in Greek sculpture. The entire
second part of S. Casson's Technique of Early GreekSculpture, Oxford, 1933, is given
to a study of such tools from antiquity.' Reference has been made to Bliimel,
Griechische Bildhauer an der Arbeit, fourth edition, 1953, to Bliimner, Technologie,
and to various articles in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire. Bliimner attempts to
associate each tool with its ancient Greek name, and his work has been the most useful
single publication. The articles in Daremberg-Saglio usually contain full illustrations.
W. M. F. Petrie (Tools and Weapons, British School of Archeology in Egypt,
London, 1917), while specificallyreferring to Egypt, has collected numerous compari-
sons from all other countries.
For prices, the author has systematically consulted the various indexes of Eco-
nomic Survey, vols. I-V. These volumes contain only one table for prices of tools,
that from Egypt in the second and third centuries after Christ (vol. II, p. 471).
Reference has also been made to entries for tools in the Edict of Diocletian (A.D. 301).
The evidence for prices in Greek building inscriptions, inventories and financial ac-
counts has never been completely collected, but the author has, whenever possible,
reported parallels in Athenian and Delian records. On the whole, the picture obtained
is that tools and weapons were not cheap. One bit of almost contemporary evidence
about the price of tools comes from the Pax of Aristophanes, 421 B.C. The sickle-
maker, after the conclusion of peace, describes his blessings as follows (1198-1206):
41 Computed from sales of 290, 70 and 60 plinthoi, respectively.
Cf. Economic Survey, V, p. 209. For prices of transporting and laying brick in Egypt, see
42
A. C. Johnson in vol. II, p. 472.

1 Pp. 169-234. A much more abbreviated discussion, containing no reference to Greek words,
may be found in G. M. A. Richter, The Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, rev. ed., New Haven,
1950, pp. 143 ff.
3 -A~
ov8ELt & piarp a E
lp&ravov oV"8 KOXXv/,0V,
VVVL ITE7V)qKOV7T 8PaXP8 V EpXTL@.
68 rpt8PaXI.Lov9 TOvN KaoovS ES rovg aypovs.
XXw'
Cc)TpvycJe rcv 8peIrTL'v TEXcy43cwE
Kac Ircv8' 'rt ITpOLKa Kat ravri &*Ov.
OV'XIEL
a+' ayp a4rE8opzEOa KaKEp&,q7vaqEV
Ta &opa Tayr o0-o cfepoEz0
1eVsoO ToVcya4ovs.
During the war the craftsmen could not get the smallest coin (chalkous: 1/8 obol) in
exchange for agricultural tools. After the peasants returned to their farms with the
coming of peace, the sickle became worth 50 drachmas and the kados 3. This price
of 50 drachmas is the one given in all manuscripts and is adopted by many editors.2
Apart from the metrical considerations of the quantity of the alpha in drachmon, it
seems difficultto reconcile the 50 drachmas for the sickle with the 3 drachmas for the
kados. The latter was a large jar often used for storage purposes, although smaller
than the pithos.3 In I.G., XI, 2, 203, line 44, and 219, A, line 39, two kadoi were
repaired for 2 and 1/' drachmas, respectively.4 The two prices in the passage in the
Pax can more easily be reconciled by adopting the emendation of five drachmas for
the sickle.5
The impression given in our stelai is that after the resumption of the Pelopon-
nesian War tools were not cheap in wartime. This appears, for example, from the
price of a hoe, or mattock (sminye) which was sold for 3 drachmas 2 obols.i This
cannot have been far from the price in normal times.
1. ac/aXXf?ov (V, 8) . Band for binding sheaves. The word is defined in the
lexicographers as o-Xolviov, Ev coT&agapaAaa 8EcPEvoV-L.8 Synonyms are given as ov)Xo-
8Erov and cOpo8ECr-o0. Previously, the earliest occurrence of our word was in Kallias,
writer of old comedies.9
Photius states that the sheaf-band was made of straw, but our price (one drachma
one obol) indicates that the material was expensive. Ropes were made out of esparto
2
Also Ehrenberg, People of Aristophanes2, p. 224, note 8.
3 Aristophanes, Eccl., 1004; Hesychius, s.v.
4 These may well have been of metal.
5 So Van Herwerden, Van Leeuwen, Sharpley, and Coulon in their texts of the play,
following
Elmsley and Meineke.
6 III, 12.
7In our list, the aspirate was added. For other examples of the addition of the spiritus asper,
particularly from the later part of the fifth century, see K. Meisterhans, Grammatik der attischen
Inschriften,3 p. 85.
8 See Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v. altutXXtov, and references there cited.
9Demianczuk, Supplementum Comicum, Krakov, 1912, p. 28: oT' A,uaAAX 4 ira-v wv e&8eGrv.
grass,'0 papyrus,11hemp,12ox-hide 13 and hair. The price of hair twisted into rope is
given in the Edict of Diocletian as 10 denarii per pound.14Hemp was priced at 4-6
denarii per pound.'5
2. aQcwv(II, 127). Axle.'6 Various types of axles, including those rigidly
attached to the framework of the wagon and those which revolved with the wheels,
are discussed by Miss H. L. Lorimer in her illustrated article, " The Country Cart of
Ancient Greece."1 More recently, the word has been studied by Thiel in connection
with the axon mentioned in Hesiod, Erga 424.18 He discusses the possibility that the
word refers to the pivot or the axis of a pounding-machine,'9to which Polybios in I,
22, 5-7, compares a boarding-bridge (corvus).`2 Since Hesiod refers to a cart in line
426, it seems difficultto interpret the axon of line 424 as anything other than a cart-
axle. It is true that the enumerationof parts of the wagon is interruptedby mention of
a mallet in line 425, and the length of the axle is given as seven feet. Hesiod, however,
is referring to the season for cutting wood, and the mallet is to be made from the
timber hewn at the same time as that for the axle. The width of the cart is explained
by the fact that the wagon had to be low and of broad axle to prevent its over-
turning.2' The Hesiodic wagon was doubtless a one-axle vehicle.2"
We have preserved at least one Athenian price for axles. The epistatai of Eleusis
in recording the building account for the temple of Demeter and Persephone in the
year 327/6 B.C. listed the price of 5 drachmas apiece for 17 new axles. The total was
10
Pliny, H.NT.,XIX, 29-30. The plant spartum was found in Spain and Africa. Pliny com-
ments on the costliness of this type of rope.
11See, for example, Theophrastos, H.P., IV, 8, 4.
12 Theophrastos, H.P., IX, 2, 1. The hemp-ropes of Syria and Babylonia were well known at
least in Roman times. See F. M. Heichelheim, " Roman Syria," Economic Survey, IV, p. 131.
130 d., II, 426.
14
Col. XI, 3.
15 Col. XXXII, 16-17.
16
For other meanings of axon, see, for example, Robinson, Olynthus, X, p. 295.
17
J.H.S., XXIII, 1903, pp. 132-151. Cf. E. Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
Currus, p. 1635; and F. Studniczka, " Der Rennwagen im syrisch-ph6nikischen Gebiet," Jahrbuch,
XXII, 1907, pp. 147-196.
18History of Roman Sea-Power before the Second Punic War, A msterdam, 1954, pp. 107 if.
19For axon meaning 'door-pivot' see Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 455 and the references there
given. Cf. also the study of the Solonian axones in A.J.A., XLV, 1941, especially pp. 354-355.
20 Op. cit., p. 110.
21 Paley in his edition of Hesiod (ad line 424) quotes Tzetzes' observation: " Hesiod calls
the seven-feet axle very convenient in size: I should call it very inconvenient, though no great
farmer myself." Thiel (op. cit., p. 108) wrote as follows: " Personally I have never seen a cart with
an axle of seven feet in my life and, though it is a rather rash supposition, it is tempting to suppose
that such a cart has never existed anywhere, certainly not in ancient Greece: think of the Greek
roads." But the normal interval between wheel ruts in ancient roads in Greece is ca. 1.50 m., i. e.
presumably five feet. The axle, of course, would have to be considerably longer.
22
Cf. A. W. Mair, Hesiod, Oxford, 1908, pp. 155-158.
85 drachmas.23In the Edict of Diocletian (Col. XV, 1-2), the maximum price for
an axle is given as 250 denarii.
3. yaXEaypa (II, 124). Weasel-trap.24 Theophrastos states that the galeagra
was made of elm wood.25 For illustrations of various types of cages, see E. Saglio
in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Cavea, 981; for illustrations of various hunt-
ing nets, including a trap for hares, see E. Pottier in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Rete.
It may be noted that there is another type of galeagra, not defined in Liddell-
Scott-Jones, which would be not unsuited to our word in its present context. This is
a meaning for galeagra in the sense of 'olive press.' The word occurs in the Arabic
text of the Mechcanicaof Hero of Alexander. L. Nix and W. Schmidt in vol. II of
the Teubner edition (Leipzig, 1900) have given a German translation.26Hero in book
III, 16-17, describes two types of galeagra. They are illustrated by Nix and Schmidt
on pp. 236 and 242. Each type was in the shape of a box; so doubtless resembled a
'trap.' The galeagra is studied in detail by A. G. Drachmann, " Ancient Oil Mills and
Presses," Dauske VideuskabernesSelskab, Arch-kunst. Meddelelser, I, 1932, pp. 60-
62, 150.
' Olive press ' has not been offered as the meaning for our galeagra, because Hero,
who is dated in the second or first century B.C., speaks of the press as something new.
Moreover, this agrees with Pliny, who is probably describing the galeagra in the fol-
lowing language: " sive in sportis prematur,sive ut nuper inventum est exilibus regulis
pede incluso." 27 The oil press galeagra was a late development. In addition, Cato,
who died in 149 B.C., in his sections on grape and olive presses in the De agricultcra
did not know of such a press. We cannot, therefore, apply the meaning to a fifth-
century word.
4. 8tKEXXa (II, 131). Two-pronged hoe or mattock.28 For illustration of the
instrument, dating from the Roman period, see Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Diction-
naire, s.v. Bidens; and H. Thedenat, s.v. Raster.29 For a description of the use of the
23I.G., II2, 1673, line 32. Cf. Kirchner ad loc.
24
This is the literal meaning; see Pollux, X, 155. The word is also used for an iron cage for
ferocious beasts; see Diogenes Laertius, V, 5, 216; Athenaeus, XIV, 616 c; and E. Saglio in
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Cavea, 981.
25
H.P., V, 7, 6. Cf. Bliimner, Technologie, II, p. 291, note 5.
26 An earlier publication of Hero's text with French translation is that of D. de Vaux in
Journal
Asiatique, Ninth Series, vols. I and II, 1893. For galeagra, see II, pp. 164 ff.
27 H.N., XV, 5.
28
For the etymology of the word, see Buck, Dictionary, p. 501. Cf. A. Walde, Vergleichendes
Worterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen, ed. J. Pokorny, Berlin and Leipzig, 1927-32, I, p. 436,
II, p. 591; and Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., I:2, p. 475, note 2.
29 Cf. the illustration in R. Billiard, L'agriculture dans l'antiquite' d'apres les Getorgiques de
Vergile, Paris, 1928, p. 58. For two-pronged hoes from Egypt, see Petrie, op. cit., plate XIX.
instrument, see Aeschylus, fragment 196 N. In Aristophanes, Pax, 566-570, the

dikellc is mentionedwith the sphyra and thrinax as a tool of the farm. Its purpose was
to break up the soil.
The price of a dikella in Athens in 327/6 B.C. was two drachmas. This figure
comes from the accounts of the epistatai of Eleusis, who listed twelve dikellai of a
stater and a half each. The stater is given as 8 obols,"0and the total payment, as
restored by Kirchner, was 24 drachmas. In the Edict of Diocletian, the maximumprice
for a dikella is given as 12 denarii (Col. XV, 43: reading of the Geronthrean stone).
The reason for the occurrence of the word dikella in an inscription relating to
building and in particular to stone-quarrying (I.G., 112, 1673) is not entirely clear."'
A hoe is hardly suitable in this context. The two prongs of the dikella were not
always parallel. Like skapane, the word was used as well for an instrument with
transverse hoe-like blades.32 Since the meaning of *KEXXa is to ' cleave ' or ' split ' 3
our instrument may be the 'trimming-hammer' described in Casson, op. cit, pp. 171-
173, as the tool used in the earliest stages of stonework. There is no specific reference
to this tool, and its name is not known. One end was flat, the other pointed, not unlike
the modern geological hammer. Casson has reported the marks of such a tool at an
ancient quarry. Very similar to this tool are the miner's pickaxe, illustrated in Petrie,
op. cit., plate XIV, no. 74, which had a point to split the stone and an axe for trimming,
and the quarryman's pick, illustrated in Petrie, plate XIV, nos. 71-72, in the shape
of a modern stone-pick. The stonecutter's mallet,"4rectangular in shape with flat
heads, which is illustrated in Richter, op. cit., fig. 439, and the similar instrument with
longer handle which is depicted in the quarrying scenes in the Vatican manuscript of
Vergil,35are other quarrying instruments with transverse blades.
5. 8pE'itavov (II, 128). Pruning-hook. Drepcanon is followed in the next line by
the word a,u1rEXopyOv, so spelled in the Attic script. I have interpretedthis latter word,
not as the genitive plural of the noun a4A4rEXovpyyos which means a vineyard worker
(vinitor)36 nor as the new name of a tool, but as an adjective, synonymous in meaning
with d/9EXovpylKV , ' of' or ' for culture of vines,' modifying drepcnon. In the records
of Brauronian Artemis, the two words seem to be similarly joined (I.G., 12, 1526).
For the formation of the adjective, cf. a'V0E'Oovpy0s, -ov and similar adjectives listed in
Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, pp. 629-631. According to Hesiod, Scutum Her-
30 I.G., II2, 1673, line 50. Cf. Kirchner's note ad loc.
3' For bibliography on the tools of the stone worker, see Richter, op. cit., p. 143, note 55.
32 See Buck, loc. cit.
83 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v.
84 For words for hammer, see Bliimner, Technologie, II, pp. 194 ff.
Illustrated in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, I, p. 381, fig. 465; and Bliimner, Tech-

nologie, III, p. 83.
36 See Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Vinitor. The
ampelourgos was usually a slave.
culis, 292, a drepanon was used by vintagers, and in Plato, Republic, 333 d, the dre-
panon is connected with the art of vine-dressing. Homer in Od., XVIII, 368, calls
the sickle EV'KacJTE'S, 'well-curved.' Hesiod applies to a'p7r) (Theog., 175), which is
the same instrument as the drepanon of line 162, the epithet KapXaLPo0ovg; hence the
blade must have had a serrated edge.
Metal pruning-hooksdiscovered in American excavations in Athens are published
by D. B. Thompson in Hesperia, VI, 1937, p. 421, fig. 18; and by 0. Broneer in
Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 210, fig. 44, no. 215. For other examples, reference may be
made to D. M. Robinson, Olynthus, X, p. 340, note 21.
The general meaning of drepanon is 'sickle,' but the word was also used for
the scythes on the Persian chariots.38 According to Reinach,39the shape and size
varied, but the drepanonwas distinguished from an ordinary knife by having a curved
cutting surface. Reinach gives illustrations of the object.40 More recently, H. J. W.
Tillyard has publisheda group of inscriptions from the Spartan Artemision in several
of which a socket in the shape of a sickle was cut into the stone.41 Tillyard states that
an iron drepanonwas the prize for boys' contests and that it was offered to Artemis.42
One of Tillyard's fragments (no. 17) is part of a metrical inscription of Roman
date and the reference to drepanon is plain.
The price of a drepanon is given by Aristophanes (Coulon's text) as five drach-
mas in time of peace.43
6. OEpbLcavo-rLs(I, 97, 98). Kettle for boiling water, tongs. The word is defined
by Liddell-Scott-Jonesas ' tongs ' or ' kettle.' The latter definition comes from Pollux,
X, 66. In listing the pots used for heating water, he gives OepLuavT'4p, OEplav-rpiq, and
follows these with xaXKwa and
OEeppLavrTpta XE'/30rEs. Our word in Stele I immediately
followsthe entryXaXKL'Ov 'ptov of line 96, whichin turn is precededby XE',/3 in
OEplLavr
lines 91-92. This position, then, suggests that the meaning of our word is ' kettle.'
See Amyx in " The Attic Stelai, Part III," to appear subsequently. Pollux gives the
form of our word as 8Epttavo-rpig. For the loss of the liquid, see Schwyzer, Gr. Gram.,
I, p. 260.
For ancient tongs used by metal workers, reference may be made in particular to
Bliimner, Technologie, II, p. 193. For an illustration of iron tongs, see G. R. David-
son, Corinth, XII, no. 1444.
37 See Buck, Dictionary,p. 507.
Xenophon, Anab., I, 7, 10.
38
39 Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Falx.

40
Cf. also Beazley in Caskey-Beazley, Attic Vase Paintings in Boston, Part II, London and
Boston, 1954, p. 72.
41
B.S.A., XII, 1905-1906, pp. 351-393.
42 Ibid., pp. 384-386.
43 Pax, 1201. Cf. above, p. 288.

7. Optvae(II, 119). Three-pronged fork. An old gloss states that this agricul-
tural instrument sometimes had five, not three, prongs.44 Hesychius (s.v.) defines
thrincx as a grain shovel. J. E. Harrison has published an illustration of a modern
Cretan Ovpva6Kt, a winnowing instrument in use today,45which must closely resemble
the ancient instrument. It is a combination of a fork and shovel. The prongs would
help to pick up the mixed mass of stalks and grain, the broad curved surface would be
an excellent shovel. The thrinax was usually of iron, sometimes of wood. In Aristo-
phanes, Pax, 566-570, reference is made to the thrinax together with the sphyra,
v mattock.' These were the two tools used to clear the space between rows of vines and
fruit trees. In addition to the articles of J. E. Harrison, reference may be made to
Bliimner, Technologie, P2, p. 9.
The price of the thrinax in the Edict of Diocletian (Col. XV, 46) is given as 8
denarii.
8. KaAXo (I, 214). Rope, cord.46 Rope-making is discussed by G. Lefaye in
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Restiarius and Restis.47 These articles contain,
however, no reference to kalos. Our entry reads KaWX&17TTEW) 8Vo. It occurs after an
entry for bedstead and is followed in three lines by entries for cushions, pillows and
bedspreads. Moreover, Pollux, in referring to the property of Alkibiades, lists kalos
among the bands and straps which make up the girth of the bedstead.48Our line may
be translated ' two horsehair cords ' of bedsteads.49 For tIT1TEtosin the meaning of
'horsehair,' see Homer, II., XV, 537.
In the fragmentary accounts of the epistatai of Eleusis for the year 327/6 B.C.,
a payment was made to a metic Theokles for kalos for a katagogis, which may have
been a lowering device. The price paid for the kalos is given as 19 drachmas, but the
quantity is not preserved.50The next entry in this inscription was for strophos, or
twisted cord. To the metic Kallianaxis for three talents of strophe the sum of at least
90, but not more than 100 drachmas, was paid. The entry preserves the sum of 90
drachmas, but the figures may have continued onto the left part of the next line which
is lost. The weight of a talent is conventionally given as 36.86 kg.51 Three talents,
then, would equal roughly 244 lbs. The price per pound, depending on whether we
used the price of 90 or 100 drachmas, would be in the neighborhood of 2' 2 drachmas.
44 Cyrilli Glossarium, s.v. (ed. M. Schmidt, Hesychius, vol. IV, Jena, 1862, p. 342).
45 J.H.S., XXIII, 1903, p. 303. Cf. J.H.S., XXIV, 1904, pp. 246-249.
46 See Buck, Dictionary, pp. 548-549. The gradation by size in the English use of ' rope,' 'cord,'
'string,' 'twine' was not distinguished in Greek, which used KaXW%,c7raprov and aXoZvo',the last
for rope made by plaiting rushes together.
47 Cf. Bliimner, Technologie, I2, p. 295.
48 X, 36. See Aristophanes, Aves, 816 and the scholia on this line. For a description of such
bedsteads, see P. Girard in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Lectus, p. 1015 b.

49 Cf. A. Wilhelm, Jahreshefte, VI, 1903, p. 239; C. Ransom, Couches and Beds, p. 109.
50
I.G., II2, 1673, lines 18-19.
51 Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Weights.
In the Edict of Diocletian (Col. XI, 3), the price of hair twisted into rope was
10 denarii per pound. The cost of a piece of rope for hanging a person is known to
have been an obol.52
9. KapKtvo9 (II, 126). Forceps, crane. The etymological meaning of karkinos
is crayfish or crab,3 from which the word has taken on many derivative meanings,54
including a type of women's shoe and a sign in the zodiac. As a tool, at least two
meanings are attested for karkinos: 'compass ' and ' forceps, a pair of tongs.'
Photius defines karkinos as ' forceps' and this meaning of the word occurs in
Euripides, Cyclops, 609; Anth. Pal. 6, 117, and Athenaeus, X, 456 d. This instrument
is illustrated in Bliimner, Technologie, II, pp. 192-193; and by S. Reinach in Darem-
berg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Forceps. The later meaning of compass occurs in
Sextus Empiricus, M., X, 54, for which E. Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire,
s.v. Circinus, has given illustrations.
Pollux, however, refers to a karkinos as listed in the Attic Stelai. He states (X,
148): E' & mag 'ATTtKaig cr7TXavg avayEypa,IT'at rTptc7 v XtOOgTptGTr17sKalI KapK&O9 XVOOV
BekkerE'XKCOV). Pollux clearlyhad in mind the machinefor raising
(v.1. EAXCv;
E'Xcov
weights which is commonly called a crane; for he continues, EtrOts8oLV Ka1l 7-Xav-v
Xdiaywyoyv.It is to be noted, moreover, that Pollux lists karkinos under the heading of
builders' tools (O1KO80wOV OWKEV7-)).Such a machine is described with illustrations in
Bliimner, Technologie, III, pp. 111-131.
It is possible that Pollux or his source had before him some other quotation from
the Attic Stelai which referred more specifically to stonework than our preserved
reference in Stelai II. His meaning, however, is not inappropriate for a word in-
scribed on the same line with toros.
10. KXqLae (II, 27, 28; V, 85) .5 Ladder. The word was used both for staircase
and for ladder.56In some instances the staircase was probablyno more secure than the
ordinary ladder. Lysias tells of the wife who was permitted to sleep on the first floor
with her small child in order to avoid the risk of falling down the staircase when she
went to tend it.57 In I.G., II2, 1668, line 84, reference is clearly made to a wooden
stairway for the arsenal of Philo. The context of our word, however, requires the
52 Lucian,Timon, 131.
53 Boisacq,Dictionnaire4, s.v.
54 See Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v.
55 The form KXiAT[x3]was used in Part I (p. 266), but it may be noted that xXL6a [Ktov] is also a
candidate, particularly since Pollux (X, 178) associates it with our Stelai.
56 In architectural contexts, the word klimax has other meanings. These have not been con-
sidered in this section. In the Erechtheion accounts (I.G., I2, 372, 373) the diminutive means a
coffer or wooden frame with openings for coffers in ceilings. See J. M. Paton, Erechtheum, Cam-
bridge, 1927, pp. 365-66. Cf. Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 462, and I.G., XI, 2, 144 A, line 42. In
building inscriptions from Epidauros klimax means, according to Ebert (Fachausdriicke, pp. 49, 60),
the screen or railing (Gitter). Prices for the latter are contained in I.G., IV2, 102.
'57 Lysias, I, 9.
meaning of 'ladder.' In one case klimax follows the words for millstone and pestle; in
the other, those for millstone and mortar. For illustrations of ancient ladders, see G.
Nicole, Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Scalae.
In Stele II, 27, the price of a klimax is clearly inscribed as 8' drachmas. The
price for the second ladder in line 28 is only partially preserved in the form of the
upper part of two vertical strokes. The sum could not be more than two drachmas.
The markeddifference in price may be explained by the condition of the articles. There
are numerous references to klimakis, ' ship's ladder,' in the Athenian naval inventories
(I.G., 112, 1604 ff.), but the entries do not indicate prices.58For comparativepurposes,
however, reference mnaybe made to prices for other wooden objects. Scantling for
oars (kopeis), for example, is stated by Andokides (II, On his Return, 11) to have
been worth five drachmas apiece at Samos in 411 B.C. The official price for this wood
for making oars was three drachmas apiece in 324 B.C.59 Oars of poor quality, which
had not stood proof, averaged two drachmas apiece in 346/5 B.C.?? The pole for
sounding the bottom of the sea was worth at least seven drachmas in 377/6 B.C.61 In
the Edict of Diocletian (Col. XIV, 6), the price of an ordinary large ladder of 30
rungs is 150 denarii.
11. KpEaypa(II, 133). Meat-hook. The main article on this word in Daremberg-
Saglio, Dictionnaire, is that of Saglio, s.v. Fuscinula; it is also discussed by Blanchet,
s.v. Harpago, and by Reinach, s.v. Veru. Robinson devotes a special section to the
kreagra and gives what appears to be the most completebibliography.62
The kreagra was made of bronze or iron, and had a varying number of prongs.
It is most often grouped with kitchen utensils and is mentioned in connection with
meats.63The scholiast on Aristophanes, Equites, 772, describes it as shaped like a hand
with the fingers slightly curved. As Rogers noted (ad Aristophanes, Eccl., 1002) the
kreagra was strictly speaking a ' flesh-hook,' but the term was applied figuratively to
any grappling-hook for fishing up articles from the depths, as, in the Ecclesiazusace
passage, a bucket from a well. This is another of our items which is mentioned in
Pollux, X (98).
One specimen was found at Olynthos, and Robinson lists similar implements
which have been found throughout the ancient world. There are several representa-
tions on vases. The inventories of the Treasure of Athena include two kreagrai.64
58
It may be mentioned that in the Delian accounts of the hieropoioi of the period 314-250 B.C.
prices for making or repairing klimakes, but along with other objects, are contained in I.G., XI, 2,
144, line 42; 165, line 9; and 287 A, line 97.
59I.G., II2, 1631, line 372; A. Bockh, Urkunden jiber das Seewesen, Berlin, 1840, p. 114.
60 IG., II2, 1622, lines 390-397.
61I.G., II2, 1604, line 29. See Bockh, op. cit., p. 126.
62
Olynthus, X, pp. 198-199.
63 Cf. Blanchet in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Harpago, 12a.
64 I.G. II2, 1425, line 416.
12. (vXa KaVo01L(a (V, 7). Firewood. Xylon is used for cut wood in the sense of
'firewood,' 'timber,' and is possibly derived from , ' scrape.' 65 The word occurs
in numerous places in the Delian accounts of the hieropoioi.66 It is usually side by side
with klematides, 'brushwood,' and rhymos, ' log.' 67 Such firewood was commonly
used in sacrifices.68
Many prices of xyla are preserved from the records of Delos, where of course
the wood had to be imported. Indeed, the scarcity of wood on Delos is attested by a
Delian law from the last part of the third century which regulated the sale of wood
and charcoal.6 The weight of the wood in talents is frequently given as well as the
price. A talent represented a man's load and weighed over 80 pounds avoirdupois."
The Delian evidence for a period of 80 years is presented in the following table, based
in part on that of G. Glotz in Journal des Savants, XI, 1913, p. 23.
PRICE OF FIREWOOD AT DELOS
Date Price per Taleint Maximum Minimum Inscription
ca. 310 1 dr. 2 ob. 1 dr. 1X2 ob. I.G., XI, 2, 142, lines 60-61
ca. 305 1 dr. lk2 ob. XI, 2 144 A, line 29
300 1 dr. 1 2 ob. 147 A, line 12
279 1 dr. 2 ob. 161 A, line 108
274 1 dr. 2 ob. 199 A, line 49
269 1 dr. 1 ob. 203 A, lines 58,7159
268 1 dr. '/8 ob. 1 dr. 204, lines 46, 49, 63
267 1 dr. 2 ob. 205 Bd, line 14
ca. 265 1 dr. 1 ob. 1 dr. 219 A, lines 15, 49, 55
258 1 dr. '4 ob. 4 ob. 224A, lines 30, 31
250 1 dr. 1 ob. 4 ob. 287 A, lines 45, 50, 52,
61, 65, 67, 73, 80, 81, 82
ca. 245 1 dr. 2'4 ob. 1 dr. 134 ob. Insc. De'los,290, lines 48, 73, 82, 85, 94, 99
After 248 1 dr. 1 ob. 291, line 29
231 1 dr. 1 ob. 1 dr. 316, lines 100, 104, 110
66 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire,4 s.v. Xylon for this and other possibilities. Cf. Buck, Dictionary,
pp. 49-50. In the Erechtheion building inscriptions, the word sometimes means 'beam,' and it is
so translated in G. P. Stevens, Erechtheum, p. 329. Elsewhere in the same inscription (VII, line 7:
p. 320), it is applied to the moulding. In Jahreshefte, VIII, 1905, p. 11, Wilhelm has defined xyla
(" das frische Holz der Stamme ") in distinction to various other words referring to wood.
66 of equal frequency is the use of the word xyla in the sense of
' timber ' or ' lumber.' The
type of lumber (oak, pine, etc.) is usually specified. It should be noted that under the general
heading of wood, Pollux (VII, 109) makes the subdivisions of kausima and ergasima, ' wood that
can be worked.'
67
See, in particular, E. Schulhof and P. Huvelin, B.C.H., XXXI, 1907, pp. 53 ff.
68
See Kirchner ad I.G., 12, 1672, line 124.
6 Insc. De'los, 509. See J. A. 0. Larsen, " Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV, pp.
352-354.
70 In the Attic-Euboic standard, a talent was 36.86 kg. A kilogram is equal to 2.2046+
pounds. It is more probable, however, that a market talent of 39.25 kilograms was used; see Larsen,
op. cit., p. 295. This equals a little over 86'2 pounds.
71 The rate is given as 1 drachma 1 obol per talent. The actual price paid for 50 talents was
60
drachmas 4 obols which would be at the rate of 1 drachma 1Y4+ obols per talent.
In later Delian accounts, prices seem to amount consistently to slightly more than
one drachma per talent.72 In 173 B.C., however, there was a rise to 2 drachmas 1X2
obols.73A survey of the price of wood after 250 B.C. may be found in Larsen, op. cit.,
p. 395.
One would judge from the Acharnenses of Aristophanes that there was a good
supply of wood for fuel in Attica in the fifth century. A. B6ckh has concluded that
this was beechwood.74Men and asses carried wood and faggots into the city.75 At
the beginning of the fourth century, firewood for a small sacrifice was purchased
according to the fixed tariff for two obols.76 According to [Demosthenes], XLII,
Against Phainippos, 7, Phainippos daily sent six asses laden with firewood from his
place on Kytheros into Athens. Phainippos received more than twelve drachmas per
day; so the burden of wood for an ass was worth two drachmas. The maximum of
firewood an ass could carry on its back has been estimated at 70 pounds.77This might
be a maximum for long distances; on a short haul a donkey could certainly carry more.
In 329/8 B.C., a year which was inflationary for foodstuffs, one sale of wood is
recordedat the price of 1 drachma 3 obols per talent.78
13. evXa rETpa6yova (VI, 39). Wood of squared deal. This combination of
words occurs in Pollux, IV, 163; Theophrastos, H.P., V, 1, 1; Polybios, V, 89, 1; and
Plutarch, Mor., 210 E. In building inscriptions the combination is very common:
Attica, I.G., I2, 313, lines 99-101; Epidauros, I.G., IV2, 108, line 162; 109, II, lines 21,
99, 143, 159, etc.; 115, line 23; Chalkis, I.G., XII, 9, 907, line 26. Similarly, wood
was sometimes sold as strongylos, or unsquared.79In most of these entries the wood
was sold by the wagonload.
With regard to lumber, it may be noted that large timber for building had to
be imported into Athens from great distances.80 Even beams and smaller wood were
brought in by sea.8'
14. OKrOTtov (II, 120). Harrow. This word, otherwise unknown in Greek,
occurs in our list after words for the farm implements, shovel and fork; so it was
72 For prices of firewood in Egypt, see the table of A. Segre, Circolazione monetaria, pp. 156-157.
73 Insc. Delos, 456 B, lines 11-12.
74 Staatshaushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 126.
75 Pollux, VII, 109.
76 I.G., II2, 1356, lines 3 and 18. For other prices of wood for sacrifices, see Hesperia, VII,
1938, p. 5, lines 87-93 (3-10 drachmas).
77 Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece, p. 72.
78 I.G., II2, 1672, lines 124-125.

79 I.G., IV2, 109, II, line 135.
80 Thucydides, IV, 108; Xenophon, H.G., VI, 1, 11. Cf. E. C. Semple, The Geography of the
Mediterranean Region, London, 1932, Chap. XI, especially p. 276.
81
Demosthenes, XXI, Against Meidias, 167.
suggested in Part I that it might be cognate with Latin occa,82hence derived from IE
*ak (meaning'sharp, pointed ).8" Our word would then mean 'harrow.' It would
also be cognate with oetva,known only from Hesychius,84which is given by Liddell-
Scott-Jones as being probably a Doric feminine. The description of the process of
harrowing, drawn from Roman sources, is given in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire
s.v. Rustica res, p. 923 b, and in R. Billiard, L'agriculture dacls l'antiquite d'apres les
Georgiques de Virgile, pp. 69-70. The instrument is discussed, but without illustra-
tions, in the same dictionary s.vv. Irpex and Crates.
15. o'vosaAsTcov (II, 24, 238, 239; V, 83). Upper millstone.85 The earliest use
of this combination of words occurs in a fragment of the Gortynian laws (ca. 450
B.C.).86 In a literary context, they are first found in Xenophon, Antab., I, 5, 5. The
lexicographers, including Pollux,87 Hesychius,88 and Suidas,89 define the words as
indicating the grinding stone which turned around.
The evolution of the grain mill is given in Bliimner, Technologic, I2 pp. 20-49,9?and
a rough chronology for the Greek mill has been worked out by Robinson and Graham,
Olynthus, VIII, pp. 331-332. The earliest example of the revolving ass-driaventype
cited by Robinson and Graham was found in the ruins of Motya in Sicily, a city
destroyed ca. 397 B.C. Only one example of the revolving type is represented at Olyn-
thos, although numerous examples of the hand type of grain mill were discovered.
Our inscription would seem to confirm the conjecture of Robinson and Graham that
the ass-driven type was as early as the fifth century. A third-century Megarian bowl
found at Thebes shows the hand type and the ass-driven type side by side.9" For
numerous illustrations of the revolving mill, see W. Deonna, Delos, XVIII, pp. 131-
135 and plates LI-LII.
Strabo has recorded that millstones were made in abundance on the island of
Nisyros in the Sporades.92 Robinson and Graham have reported that stones from
various sites in Greece were made of hard black porous lava, and they conjecture
these were manufacturedat Thera and shippedin trade all over Greece.93
82
Hesperia, XXII, 1953, p. 258.
83 See Buck, Dictionary, p. 504.
84
Hesychius'definitionis: spyaEtoZvt 7yEpytKOV, atSvpOV y 'Eov 6'EXicOe
X vro Wo6v.
85For the most complete documentation for this meaning, see Bliumner, Technalogie, I2, p. 30,
note 1. For a recent study, see Robinson, Olynthus, XII, p. 453.
86 M. Guarducci, Inscriptiones Creticae, IV, Rome, 1950, 75 B, line 7.
87VII, 19.
88 S.VV. IVAX and OVOS
89 S.vv.
/AVbX and W3vEvov.
90Cf. A. Hug, R.E., s.v. Mv'X, cols. 1064-1065.
91M. Rostovtzeff, A.J.A., XLI, 1937, p. 88, fig. 1. This bowl is also illustrated in Rostovtzeff,
Soc. and Ec. Hist. of Hell. World, I, plate xxv.
92 X, 488.
93 Op. cit., p. 330. Similarly, T. Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene, p. 394, note 1. Millstones
of granite and other igneous stone existed.
The price of the upper millstone of Stele II, 239 is recordedas 7 drachmas 1 obol.
In II, 24, the first numeral of the price is missing. Figures for 4 drachmas 2 obols are
preserved, at least in part. The missing numeral is almost certainly the sign for five
drachmas, which would give a total of 9 drachmas 2 obols. The price of the millstone
in II, 238 is only partially preserved. The sum contained two numerals followed by
the preserved signs of two obols. The two most likely restorations, approximating
the other two totals, would yield sums of 6 drachmas 2 obols, or 10 drachmas 3 obols.
16. VE'8 (II, 127). Brake. This word has previously been defined.as ' fetter';
in plural, ' shackles.' " Most uses in the literature are metaphorical. In Stele II, the
word is combinedwith a'ecov, 'axle.'
Earlier, I suggested that the meaning here was 'brake.' The compound word
rpoXorE'8r, denoting a block of wood thrust between the spokes of a wheel, is known
from Athenaeus, II, 99 c, and from Herodian, 467.96 Drags in the form of oblong
slabs of metal are also depicted in two bas-reliefs illustrated in Daremberg-Saglio,
Dictionnaire, s.v. Sufflarnen. These were clamped on the rim of the wheel.97
17. 1TE(XKV9 (I, 109). Axe.98 The most completebibliographyis given by Reinach
in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Securis, to which may be added that contained
in Robinson, Olynthus, X, p. 342, note 29. Many iron axe-heads have been found in
Greece. Illustrations of numerous types of axes from reliefs and vase-paintings are
given by Bliimner, Technologie, II, pp. 202-203. He notes that the pelekys was used
mostly in woodwork, particularly by carpenters and shipbuilders. Pelekys indicated
the two-edge axe; for the single-edge, the words 1TEAXKV9 or -q(tLLTEXEKKOV
4TEPOOpTO,.oo
might be used.
18. TrrEov (II, 119)99 Winnowing-shovel."'0 The instrument is described by A.
Jarde in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Ventilabrum; by E. Saglio, ibid., s.v.
Pala; and in greater detail in Bliimner, Technologie, I2, pp. 7-9. Special articles of
Jane E. Harrison, " Mystica Vannus Iacchi," 101 include a study of the pt5yon. She
cites several examples on vases to which may be added those cited by Ure, J.H.S.,
LXIX, 1949, pp. 18-24.
94 See Liddell-Scott-Jones, s.v., and Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v. For a description of such
fetters, see Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Compes.

95 Hesperia, XXII, 1953, p. 259. Further study, however, has revealed no evidence to uphold
the suggestion that this brake operated by friction against the axle.
96 Ed. S. Pierson in Moeris, Lexicon, Leipzig, 1831, p. 345.
97 For such a clamp found in Italy, see L. A. Milani, Studi e materiali, I, 1899, p. 138, fig. 42.
98 Buck,Dictionary,p. 561.
9 For the Attic form pteon, instead of the dialectical ptyon, see Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., I, p. 183.
100 Buck, Dictionary, p. 500; Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, p. 824; modern Greek uses eTrvapt for
'shovel.' Buck (p. 499) notes the difficulty of distinguishing among the ancient names of Greek
digging implements.
101J.H.S., XXIII, 1903, pp. 292-324; and XXIV, 1904, pp. 241-254.
Eustathius describedHomer's dO-qp-qXotyos,'consumer of chaff,' as a ptyon which

he said was in shape like a hand.'02The shovel was used to toss up the grain against
the wind. The wind carries the chaff to a distance and the heavier grain falls short
in a mounting heap. The process is wholly unlike that described in relation to the
winnow-basket, liknon."0
The price of the ptyon in the Edict of Diocletian (Col. XV, 44) is given as 12
denarii.
19. pv/i6os(V, 11). Log.'04 The word has, among others, three meanings which
might be appropriate in our inscription: the shaft of the plow, the pole of a chariot,
and logs of wood for fuel. The rhymos, as the shaft of a plow, was composed of two
parts, the beam, or curved piece (gyes), and the shaft attached to it (histoboeus). A
description is given by E. Saglio in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionatire, s.V. Aratrum, p.
354 b. For illustrations, see Cloche, Classes, etc., p. 12 and plate VIII. Pollux,"05
Hesychius and Suidas 106 define the word as the pole of the chariot or cart, which
went between the horses and by which the cart was pulled. This use is derived from
the etymological meaning of the word. It is attested from Homer and Herodotos and
is illustrated by A. Baudrillart in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictiounaire, s.v. Jugum, p.
665. 107
For the third meaning of rhymos, which is attested only in the inscriptions, the
exact sense is not certain. This use is discussed by Schulhof and Huvelin (B.C.H.,
XXXI, 1907, pp. 53-56); by Larsen (op. cit., p. 354); and by Kirchner (ad I.G., I2,
1672, lines 124 and 307) who refers to Harzbecker's unpublishedLeipzig dissertation,
which is not available to me.108The word seems to be used for firewood and refers
to larger pieces of wood than xyla. Since our word occurs only four lines below the
entryev'XcKav'o-qka (V, 7), the third meaning would seem likeliest in this context.
Numerous prices for rhymos are preserved in the Delian accounts of the hiero-
poioi.&09The word usually occurs side by side with xyla, lacmpacs,'torch' or 'faggot,'
and klemcatides,'brushwood.' Schulhof and Huvelin have noted that in the accounts
of the archonship of Sosisthenes (250 B.C.)1"0 the price of rhymos in the singular was
one obol; in the plural, two obols.1"'This rule cannot be applied strictly in this or in
102
Ad Od., XI, 128 (p. 1675, 54-57) and ad. II., XIII, 588.
103
See J. E. Harrison, op. cit., p. 302.
104
For the etymology, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v. ('that which is drawn'). For the meaning
of rhymos in inventories, see above, p. 224, note 85.
105 I, 146.
106 s.v. Rhymos.
107
Cf. LUibker,Reallexikon8, p. 1126a. In architectural contexts the word has sometimes been
interpreted as meaning ' unsquared log.' See G. P. Stevens, Erechtheum, p. 354.
108 Cf. also Diirrbach ad I.G., XI, 2, 154, line 18.
109 In the Delian inventories, on the other
hand, rhymos regularly means 'row' or 'shelf.'
110I.G., XI, 2, 287.
111 Op. cit., p. 56.
other years. In line 57 of the accounts of Sosisthenes, the singular form is followed
by the one obol sign and in line 48 the plural form by the signs for two obols. But
in the present text of line 69, the plural form is followed by the signs for at least three
obols. In the accounts of the year 279 (I.G., XI, 2, 161) the singular rhymos cost
1X2 obols (A, line 112) and 2 obols (A, lines 89 and 100), the plural rhymoi 4X2 obols
(A, line 94). In the accounts of a year shortly after 246 B.C., 112 rhymos in the singular
number is worth one obol in line 71, two obols in line 83. In the accounts of 231 B.C.,1"3
rhymos cost 6 obols (line 76) and 3 obols (line 77). The plural brought 6 obols (line
80) and 9 obols (line 87) in this same year.
In Stele V, the form is singular. From the position of the one preserved obol
sign in the sales price column, it can be determined by comparison with the numerals
in line 8 that the price for this log for firewood-if this description is correct-was at
least two obols.
For at least one inscription which carefully regulated the sale of fuel (charcoal
and wood), see Insc. De'los, 509. In Delos of course the wood had to be imported.
20. o-avi (II, 228). Board or plank. Our sanis in the singular number is listed
in a miscellaneous group of tools and furniture items in Stele II. The meanings of
this word often overlap those of pinax,"' and are fully as various; a sanis could be
a picture,"' a public notice,"' or a chopping board; 117 in Euripides, Alcestis, 967, it
is the term used for the tables on which Orphic wisdom was preserved. Another
meaning is 'bench or seat,' and since our sanis comes immediately after a diphros.
this at first seems an interesting possibility. However, this usage can only be found in
an inscription from Delphi from the fourth century B.C., where the sanis was a plank
used for a bench,118and in the seventh Mime of Herodas; 119 so that we have no evi-
dence of its existence in the fifth century. In Homer sanides are frequently double
doors,'20but the basic meaning in the singular is 'plank,' as distinct from 'beam,'
which was usually called Xa."21 Sanides were the boards used in doors,'22gates,123
112 Insc. De'los, 290.
11
"31sc. De'los, 316.
114 See above, pp. 250-253.
5 Dittenberger, Syll.3, 977a, line 10 (=- Insc. De'los, 2085); Herodas, IV, 36.
116 Aristophanes, Vespae, 349, 848;
[Demosthenes], XXV, Against Aristogeiton, 70; Lysias,
XXVI, Against Euandros, 10; Pollux, III, 85; I.G., 12, 313, line 168; 374, line 190.
117 Diodorus, XII, 24.
118
Delphes, III, 5, no. 23, col. 1, line 62 (= Dittenberger, Syll.3, 244 B, line 62). Pomtow ad
Dittenberger, Syll.3 takes the sanides to be a kind of triclinium; Bourguet describes them as: " trois
planches servent de bancs."
119 See Headlam ad VII, 5; however, this term has also been taken to mean a board on which
shoes were displayed.
120 J.1 IX, 583; XII, 453, 461; Od., II, 344; XII, 121; XXII, 128; cf. Euripides, Ores.,
1221; Pollux, I, 76; IX, 35; X, 29.
121
See L. B. Holland, A.J.A., XLV, 1941, p. 354.
or in a ship's deck,124the walls of a house,125a table top,'26or a ceiling.'27 Since the

item sanis stands in our list without description it should probablybe given its simplest
meaning of board or plank.
The price of the sanis was 2 drachmas 1 obol, 6 drachmas 1 obol, or 11 drachmas
1 obol. We have two comparative prices from nearly the same period in the Erech-
theion accounts of 407/6 B.C.:in both the price of sanides (totalling six) is given as
1 drachma each.128In the former entry, the text includes the specification that the
accounts were to be inscribed on the tablets. From the fourth century there is detailed
information in the records of the temple at Eleusis: 129 an elm sanis 10 feet by 10
fingers by 3 fingers cost 14 drachmas; another 10 feet by '2 foot by one palm cost 13
drachmas 3 obols; one 16 feet by 3 palms by 6 fingers cost 20 drachmas 2 obols; one
9 feet by '2 foot by 1 palm cost 9 drachmas, and so on. In the Delian records of the
hieropoioi of the period 314-250 B.C., the purchase of sanides for tables, stands, etc.,
is several times mentioned. Sanides of lime wood sold at 5, 8, and 8' 2 drachmas
each,130those of elm at 11X2 drachmas.13'Another entry refers simply to a plural
number of sanides at 12 drachmas.'32Since the epigraphical evidence clearly shows
that the price of the sanis depended on the size and type of wood, the price in our
entry, where the word lacks a descriptive adjective, cannot be determined.
21. crKaXiL (II, 125). Hoe.133 This instrument is described by S. Dorigny in
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. skapheion. Reference to skalis occurs in I.G.,
IIJ2 1424a, line 391; and 1548. For illustrations of ancient hoes, see Robinson, Olyn-
thus, X, pp. 343-344 and plate CVII.
22. cryltvtn (II, 130; III, 12). Hoe or mattock.'34The instrument is described
with illustrations by E. Saglio, in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Bidens.135For
references to more recent published illustrations of ancient hoes, see Robinson, Olyn-
122 Olynthus, VIII, p. 252.
123J.H.S., XLVI, 1926, p. 181.
124
Euripides, Helen, 1556; Polybios, I, 22, 9; II, 5, 5.
125 Blumner, Technologie,IV, p. 437.
126 Insc. De'los, 1416 A, col.
I, line 77.
127
Jnsc. Delos, 1417 A, col. I, line 73.
128
I.G., 12, 374, lines 190 and 281 (= Erechtheum, pp. 390 and 394; XVI, col. 1, lines 30-33
and XVII, col. II, lines 33-34).
129 I.G., II2, 1672, lines 151 ff.
130
I.G., XI, 2, 165, lines 4 and 32; 161 A, line 96.
131 I.G., XI, 2, 165, line 5.
132
I.G., XI, 2, 144 A, line 67. Cf. also 199 A, line 63 (40 drachmas), where, however, the entry
is incomplete.
133
See Buck, Dictionary, p. 501. Modern Greek ,aktSa, owaxtaT' p is a small weeding hoe.
134 See Buck, Dictionary, p. 501.
1 Cf. s.v. Sarculum, p. 1076.

thus, X, pp. 343-344. In Aristophanes, Nubes, 1486-1500, the sminye was to be used
for chopping up the roof of the phrontisterion.188
We cannot be sure of the number of our word; if the form is correctly restored
in Stele III, 12, as singular, the price of the sminye was three drachmas one obol.
The only other price from antiquity known to me is given in the Edict of Diocletian,
where the maximum figure is 12 denarii (Col. XV, 44: reading of the Geronthrean
Stone).
23. 0-rEXE'a(VI, 29). Haft, handle. It is now suggested that line 29 of Stele VI,
which was left unrestored in Part I, be completedto read as follows: [0-EXE] ai &o Uo
Topov. In the Eleusinian building records for the year 327/6 B.C., steleioi were pur-
chased for six new toroi, 'drills.' 1' In Hesychius a toros is defined, in part, as the
instrument into which the steleos was inserted.138In both cases the gender is masculine,
but the feminine form occurs in Homer, Od. XXI, 422; Aeneas Tacitus, 18, 10, and
Hesychius, s.v. -TrGELXav.`39
The price of the stelea for toroi in 327/6 B.C. is given as 3 drachmas 3 obols each.
24. orpcr4p (II, 121). Beam, rafter. From Harpokration and Suidas have
come definitions of the stroter as the rafter or crossbeam laid upon the dokos or
bearing-beam. In an architectural context the word, translated ' Sparren,' is dis-
cussed by F. Noack, Eleusis, p. 209, by L. D. Caskey, A.J.A., XIV, 1910, pp. 303-306,
and by F. Ebert, Fachausdriicke, pp. 38-40, 47.
Two prices for stroteres are contained in the Attic building inscription, I.G.,
II2, 1672, dated in the year 329/8 B.C. In line 63, the price is given as 1 drachma 4
obols; in line 85, as 2 drachmas 3 obols. In the former case 93 stroteres were pur-
chased; in the latter, some figure of 15 or more. The dokos, or bearing-beam, cost 17
drachnmas(line 66) and the smaller himcas,plank laid upon the stroter, 1 drachma
(line 64). These prices give some idea of the relative size of these roof timbers.
25. ro6pos (II, 126).140 Drill, borer.141 Eustathius defines a toros as a well-
digging instrument or a tool for stone-cutting.142Earlier Hesychius had defined it
simply as a stone-cutting instrument.148Various types of chisels are illustrated by E.
136
Cf. Pax, 546; Aves, 602.
187 I.G., II2, 1673, lines 55-56.
188 S.VV. roposand 'ro'pov.
139 See Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v. -retkXta'.
140
Cf. VI, 29, where the restoration [TrcX] a't Svo Svo ropwv, 'two handles of two drills,' is now
proposed.
141 For the etymology, see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.vv. TCEpO and Topo%, 'piercing.'
142
Ad Od., V, 249 (p. 1533, 10-11).
143
S. v. ropov. Pollux (VII, 192, and X, 149) and Photius limited their definition to 'an instru-
ment for digging wells,' as does Bliimner, Technologie, II, p. 214, note 2.
Saglio, Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnatire, s.v. Caelum."' Saglio equates the Latin

caelum, 'chisel,' with 0opos. In an Eleusinian building inscription and in a section
relating to the quarrying of stone, mention is made of toroi which were supplied with
handles.'45The word is not of common occurrence,but it seems not unlikely in view of
the definitions of Hesychius and Eustathius and the context of the word in the
building inscription that the instrument is the 'ppiercing' or pointed drill described
in books relating to the technique of sculpture as the ' running drill.' 146
In the Eleusinian building accounts for the year 327/6 B.C., one lengthy item
refers to the making of six new toroi.'47The weight of the new instrument is given as
38 staters. The price of new iron was 4 obols per stater which makes the total 152
obols, or 25 drachmas 2 obols. The price of the metal per instrument, when made of
kainos sideros, was 25% obols, or slightly more than 4 drachmas 1 obol. In addition,
the payment to the craftsman for making the tools was 6 drachmas. The cost of each
toros, then, was approximately 5 drachmas 1 obol, which was two and a half times the
price of a dikella, as recorded in the same inscription.
26. TpoXtXLXa(V, 4). Pulley, block-and-tackleequipment.'48The word usually
seems to refer to the pulley of a hoisting machine; 149sometimes it is taken to mean the
entire block-and-tackleequipment.'50In Athenaeus, V, 208 e, reference is made to
the use of the trochileia for lifting stones and missiles. In Aristophanes, Lys., 722, a
woman had tried to let herself down from the Acropolis by the rope of the pulley. The
building accounts of the Erechtheion for the year 408/7 B.C. recorded a payment to
laborers working by the day on the trochileia."5'In I.G., I2, 313, line 112, and 314,
line 123, there is mention of large and small trochileiai in the accounts of the epistatai
of Eleusis in 408/7 B.c.5' Numerous epigraphical references from Delos, Epidauros,
Eleusis, and Athens are collected in van Herwerden, Lexicon2, s.v. Bliimner, Tech-
nologie, III, pp. 112 ff., discusses this pulley instrument in detail.
The cost of ra TpoXAXEZa is given in I.G., IV', 1, 102, lines 49-50, as 260 drachmas.
The word is in the plural, but Hiller (ad. loc.) equates the form with Attic X' TpoXLtXEa.
144
For references to chisels found in more recent excavations, see Robinson, Olynthus,X, pp.
344 ff.
145 I.G., II2, 1673, line 55.
146 See Casson, op. cit., pp. 202 ff.; and Richter, op. cit., pp. 144-145.
147
I.G., I12, 1673, lines 53-55.
148
Definitions from Liddell-Scott-Jones.
149
See Aristotle, Mech., 853 a, 32; Polybios, I, 22, 5; and VIII, 4, 5. So Lucretius, IV, 905;
and Vitruvius, X, 2, 1. The Latin word is trochlea. For well-side scenes on vases, in one of which
at least a rope is strung on a pulley, see the references in Amyx, A.J.A., XLIX, 1945, pp. 514-515.
150 Cf. I.G., XI, 2, 161 A, line 69. This ,.IzxavYis identified by Kirchner (ad I.G., II2, 1672, line
156) as a trochileia.
151
I.G., 12, 374 K, lines 142-143 (= L. D. Caskey, Erechtheum, p. 386).
162 See also I.G., I12, 1672, lines 156, 205, and 309.
This Epidaurian inscription is dated in the early part of the fourth century and
records the accounts of the building of the temple of Asklepios. In the accounts of
the epistatai of Eleusis of the year 329/8 B.C., there is a record in lines 205-206 of a
sum due to a certain Sosidemos for the iron-work of the trochileia. The weight of
the iron is given as 83 talents 23 staters, and the sum of money is 1569 drachmas.153
27. rpv'iravov (II, 131). Auger."54 The word is derived from *ter- meaning
'bore.' Buck and others define it as 'auger,' a more or less generic word for a boring
instrument. Casson believes that the word should be restricted to the 'bow-drill,'
which is certainly one meaning.155Clear reference to such a drill occurs as early as
Homer, Od., IX, 385. The spinning motion of the trypanon is mentioned in Euripides,
Cyclops, 461. The instrument was used in gem-cutting as well as by the sculptor and
the carpenter.156A clear illustration of a bow-drill, reproduced from a hydria of the
fifth century in the Boston Museum, appears in Cloche, Classes, etc., plate 26. Try-
pana are described in detail by Bliimner, Technologie, II, pp. 222-226; and by de
Villefosse in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Terebra.
28. viav (V, 39). Pigpen. This word has occurred before only in a small and
fragmentary papyrus: C. C. Edgar, Zenon Papyri, III, Cairo, 1928, 59468, line 2.
The word was apparently first defined in Liddell-Scott-Jones, Greek-English Lexicon,
revised edition, 1940. See Buck and Peterson, Reverse Index, p. 259, for this and
similar formations in -on.
29. ,pviyavov (IX, 9-10). Brushwood. Phryganon, derived from bpvyw,
'roast or parch,' 157 is a term appliedto small dead wood or brushwood. Theophrastos,
H.P., I, 3, 1 made four genera of plants: tree (dendra), shrub (thamnos), herb
(poa), and undershrub (phryganon). In Syll.3, 1027, lines 14-15, the word is dis-
tinguished from ev'Xa;in Plutarch, Fab., 6, 4, it is made synonymous with lygos,
'twig' or ' withe.'
I have discovered no prices for phryganon in sacred inscriptions where xyla and
rhymnosseem to be the usual words for firewood for sacrifices.
30. x6pa4 (Il, 254, 259; V, 25). Vine-prop, pointed stake. The word, derived
153
I.G., II2, 1672, lines 205-206. Through the kindness of the Ephor, M. Mitsos, I was able
to examine this stone in the Epigraphical Museum, which at the time of this writing is closed for
repairs. Kirchner had read the figures for the weight of the iron in talents as 5033. The first char-
acter which he read as the numeral for 5000 is the sign for fifty talents (i. e. 10 x 5 talents).
Kirchner's H: is actually a T. This corrected reading accords with the earlier text of Koehler in
I.G., II, 834b, II, line 70.
154
155 Op. cit., p. 208. Cf. Richter, op. cit., p. 144.
156 See Babelon in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Gemmae, p. 1469a.

157 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, p. 1040.
from xap6or&o-, 'sharpen,' ' make pointed,'" can be used for any pointed stake. In
Stele V, the modifying phrase V7T'O a?TrE'Xotg makes clear that our reference is to
Tats
vine-props. In Aristophanes, Ach., 986, the reference, too, is clearly to vine-props.
The use of such props, usually of oak or olive wood, for grapevines is discussed, with
references to ancient literature, by Jarde in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
Vinum, p. 918 a.
Most vines neededprops, as may be concludedfrom numerousreferences: Homer,
Il., XVIII, 563; Hesiod, Scutum, 298; Aristophanes, Ach., 986; Theokritos 3, 70;
Varro, I, 8. Some species remained on the ground, but the grapes were liable to be
eaten by mice and foxes. Some grew on trees, but this was not approvedof by the best
authorities."59The need for vine-props, then, in a country which specialized in vines,
was extensive.
Although it is well known that large timber, particularly for naval purposes, had
to be imported into Athens, a passage in Demosthenes, XXI, AgacinstMeidias, 167,
indicates that in the fourth century even small charakes were brought in by sea. At
the end of the Archidamian War we learn from the Pax of Aristophanes that the
price of a hundred vine-poles was not more than one drachma.'60Stele II, line 254,
contains the entry 10200 vine-poles. The sale price is given as 59 drachmas. For each
hundred stakes the price was roughly 312 obols. These stakes were hardly new, for
they are described as being in a chorion at Phaleron. Similarly, in Stele V, lines 24-
25, the stakes were described as under the vines in a field at Athmonon (modern
Amaroussi). In the case of the entry in II, 254, the sale price is given to the left of the
entry for charakes, but it must include the price of the stone lenos in the line below,
the two entries being sold together.
In the Edict of Diocletian, Col. XIV, line 7 (A.D. 301), the maximum price for
charakes is given as 10 denarii per bundle of 100.
IX. WEAPONS
The Greek names for the various weapons used in their armies are collected by
P. Monceaux in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. Exercitus. Only the spear and
the short spear occur in our lists. The present author is unaware of any definitive
treatment of individual Greek weapons corresponding to the study of the Roman
pilum by Schulten in the R.E. Petrie's 1917 study of weapons (Tools and Weapons)
is based on Egyptian material. Interest in Greek weapons seems to have been chiefly
in those of the Homeric period, for which Miss Lorimer's brilliant article in B.S.A.,
158 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.v.

'9 See Michell, Ec. of Anc. Greece, pp. 79-80.
160 Line 1263. Columella (XI, 2, 12) states that one man could
cut 110 vine-props in a day.
XLII, 1947, pp. 76-138, is basic,' although weapons have been ardently collected and
reported from numerous excavations. Lammert has sketched the history of the bow
in R.E., s.v. Pfeil; H. Weber's chapter "Angriffswaffen" in Olympische For-
schungen, I, Berlin, 1944, pp. 146-165, seems to be the most detailed study of the
archaeological evidence. There is a useful illustrated study of arms and armour in
the British Museum, Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life',
London, 1920, pp. 74-109. Robinson has published a chapter on arrowheads, spear-
heads, slingbullets, and shields in Olynthus, X, pp. 378-446.
I know of no study on the cost of ancient weapons. Stele II contains the price of
the short hurling spear and a spear without butt-spike as 2 drachmas and 1 drachma
4 obols, respectively.
In a scene near the close of the Pax of Aristophanes, various traders come upon
the scene and interview Trygaios. The prices for their wares include 1000 drachmas
for a breastplate (thorax), 60 for a trumpet (salpinx) and 50 for a helmet (kranos).2
These are regarded as high, if not fictitious, prices.3 In I.G., 112, 1126, lines 29-30, a
law of the Delphic Amphictyonic League dated in 380/79 B.C., the shield is priced at
200 Aeginetan staters and the crest (lophos) at 15 staters. This amounts to 600
drachmas for the former, 45 for the latter. But these were apparently adornments for
a colossal statue and hardly typical prices. The price of the 8$pv,which would complete
the panopliaand provide a basis for comparison,is unfortunately lost.
One other inscription is known to me which contains prices for some weapons.
This is from Koresia on the island of Keos and is dated at the beginning of the third
century B.c. The weapons mentioned were given as prizes of victory, so were pre-
sumably of good quality. The following prices are girven:
VALUE OF WEAPONS IN I.G., XII, 5, 6474

Weapon Price Line No.
Bow (toxon) 7 dr. 28
Bow and quiver (pharetra) 15 dr. 28
Spearhead (loche)5 3'/3 ob. 30
Staff pole (kontos) 2 dr. 31
Shield 20 dr. 31
Our evidence is scattered, but we can safely concludethat weapons were not cheap.
1
D. H. F. Gray's recent article " Metal-Working in Homer " (J.H.S., LXXIV, 1954, pp. 1-15)
includes references to early weapons discovered in excavations.
2Lines 1224, 1240, 1251.
3A. Bdckh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 138; Ehrenberg, People of Aristophanes2,
p. 224.
4 Syll.3, 958.
5 Or, possibly,spear.
8opa&nov(II, 226). Short spear. Hesychius defines doration as the short lance or
javelin (tuKpdAOyX-q or aKovrtov).6 It was cast by hand and used for striking from
afar. In the fighting at Pylos the doration is mentioned by Thucydides as a weapon
of the Athenian light-armed troops which along with stones inflicted injury on the
Spartans! It is described by De Ridder in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.V.
Jaculum, p. 594 b.
opv a6vEv o-rvpaKos (II, 225). Spear without the butt-spike. 86pv, a common word
in Homer, was originally the ' tree-trunk ' or ' beam,' whence it came to mnean' spear-
shaft ' and eventually, sometimes, ' spear.' It is connected with Greek apvii ' tree, oak'
and Avestan daru-' tree-trunk. 8 Cuq in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictiounaire, s.v. Hasta,
p. 33 b, states &0pv "signifie proprement le bois (Homer, II. XVI, 814); aussi les
po'tes l'emploient-ils pour d'signer d'autres bois que celui de la lance, mais dans les
auteurs de prose il designe toujours la lance." In our entry the qualifying phrase
'without the butt-spike ' makes clear that 80pvhas its customary prose meaning.
The word styrax is known from Xenophon, H.G., VI, 2, 19, and Plato, Laches,
184 a.9 In the former passage the Spartan commander at Korkyra is described as
using his baton to strike one of his captains, his styrax to strike another. If the
styrax were the spear-point, the commanderwould have killed instead of flogged the
man. It must, then, be the butt end of the lance. In the Plato passage, the mariner is
said to have let the spear slip through his hand until he retained only the end of the
styrax. The word is derived from o-Tavp0sand is the Attic form for the more common
cavpcv4p.10 Both words, then, refer to the caps fastened on to the end of the shaft
at the opposite end from the spear-head.1"The spear could then be stuck upright in
the ground.12 Many of these butt-spikes have survived. Several are described by
Robinson (Olynthus, X, pp. 416-418, plates 127-128) who gives references in his
notes to those from other excavations than Olynthos.
X. MISCELLANEOUS
Included under the title of 'Miscellaneous ' are twelve items which do not fall
easily under any of the nine preceding headings. They are listed in alphabeticalorder
by the Greek names.
1. apyiptov apyo,v (VII, 93). Unwrought silver. The item in Stele VII, line 93
6S.V. aKovTtov.
7 IV, 34, 3.
8 See, in particular, Buck, Dictionary, p. 1390.
9 For the most complete documentation of this word, see Thesaurus Graecae Linguae.
10 See Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, pp. 902 and 922.

1 See Harpokration, s.v. aavpwr4p.
12
See, for example, Homer, II., III, 135.
was earlier restored in the editio princeps as [dpyvi]ptov apyoV K - -],1 and this
reading was retained in our Part I 2 The second thought of the present writer, how-
ever, is that he would hesitate to accept the restoration.
Meritt noted as a parallel for his restoration that in Pausanias III, 12, 3, a'pyvpos
was modified by argos. Similarly, one might have cited passages in which argos is
used with the same meaning and is applied to lead, bronze, and iron.3 But our entry
occurs following a series of pithaknai and preceding a rather lengtlhylist of roof tiles.
A reference to uncoined silver seems out of place.
The adjective argos can be appliedto certain types of manufactured objects which
are left ' unfinished ' or to certain objects or tools which are ' idle.' In architecture,
the word means 'blank.' For example, the uncarved moulding or the block without
anathyrosis is so termed in the Erechtheion building inscriptions.4 Liddell-Scott-Jones
lists examples of the ' undressed ' hide, wheat ' unprepared for eating,' the ' un-
polished ' stone, land 'lying fallow,' and Xpw4,uara'yielding no return.' In Josephus
the stone which is ' unwrought ' is argos.5 Since our inscription is not stoichedon
(although 3T2-4 letters seem likely for the lacuna before the rho), and nouns in
-ptov are numerous (see Buck and Petersen, Reverse Index, pp. 94-108), the author
is not preparedto offer a substitute restoration. In keeping with the sequence of jars,
one might suggest aJp,6pwov, XEKaptov,6 or possibly Xovr'ptov. On the whole, however,
the item seems too elusive.
2. /3aOp0'vtka(V, 33). Base of a thymiaterion or censer. All the letters of this
word, which is new in Greek lexicography, are preserved with the exception of the
first. In Part I no effort was made to identify the object which it names. It may now
be suggested that the word is compoundedfrom f3a(pov, 'base, pedestal,' and Ovio,g,
'thyme' or Ovik6s,7 and refers to the base of a thymiaterion. For the formation of the
word, comparison may be made, for example, with E61Tv,uov. K. Wigand in his ap-
parently exhaustive study of the thymiaterion in Bonner Jahrbilcher, CXXII, 1912,
pp. 1-97, gives illustrations of terracotta bases from Greek sources (pp. 41-42). Since
our item follows a terracotta object and is in turn followed by a vase, it is reasonable
to infer that it too was of terracotta.
3. 8E&-pq(II, 151). Bundle, package. For the etymology cf. Boisacq, Dic-
tionnaire4, s.v. 8E'w I.
Athenaeus quotes a fragment from Semos of Delos to the
'B. D. Meritt, Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 81.
2 Hesperia, XXII, 1953, p. 282.
3 See the references in Thesaurus Graecae Linguae.

4 See G. P. Stevens, Erechtheum, pp. 315 and 316 with references.
5Ap., I, 198.
6 Pollux (X, 87) specifically associates lekos with our Stelai, and the item lekarion (X, 86) is
mentioned in the sentence which follows a reference to confiscated lists.
' For the derivation of OvAuaJ, etc., from Ovjuo's,
see Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, s.vv. Ov/o"s and Ov4Los.
effect that several handfuls of barley (-sheaves) were bound together into a single
desme.8 Similarly, Athenaeus elsewhere refers to a desme of split wood;' Alexis
refers to 'bundles' of thyme;'10 and Dionysios of Halikarnassos (III, 61) to a
'bundle' of rods. Hesychius defines d7KaAX8Es, 'armfuls,' as desmai of firewood."
The word was widely used in Egypt for 'bundles' of hay and straw; see the papyro-
logical references in A. C. Johnson,, "Roman Egypt," Economic Survey, II, pp.
470-471.
In II, 151, the word desme is followed by a sigma. The remaining letters of the
word are lost, and the item was left uncompletedin Part I. Since there are references
to desmai of coriander, of wheat, of barley,'2one likely restoration would be the word
o-['iyrao6ov]. The entry would presumablyrefer to sesame-sheaves. Another possibility
might be the word a-[aKKiV]. [Demosthenes] XXXV, Against Lakritos, 34, contains
a reference to desmai of skins, and by analogy desme of sakkoi would refer to a bundle
of cloth bags or sacks.
4. EKXaXK&jta (VI, 86). Bronze objects. The word occurs only in our inscrip-
tion. The first five letters are preserved; the remainder has been completed according
to the suggestion of Tod in Hermcathena,LIX, 1942, p. 82. The simplex is used for
any bronze vessel or instrument, including bronze tablets for treaties 13 and a metal
breastplate."4The diminutive of the simplex, chalkomation, is used in Insc. Delos,
1417, A, col. I, line 104, for ten objects which were contained in a small box. The
reference in our inscription may well be to similar small objects, for the price is given
as 52 drachmas, approximatelyone fourth of the value of the bronze obelos of I, 95.
5. EITLKapMatJ (I, 20, 22, 29; II, 81, 97, 178; VIII, 5; X, 11, 31[?]). Crop. A
precise definition of this word in our context is difficult. It first occurs in the Gortyniani
Laws (ca. 450 B.C.)"5 in connection with the rights of heiresses and bears the general
meaning of ' revenue ' or ' income ' of all the property. This seems to be the meaning
also in its earliest literary use, in 'Andokides I, 92. However, Holleaux, in publishing
an inscription from Thespiai, noted that the meaning of epikarpia was there " recolte
sur pied dans le moment oiu la vente a lieu."'y He gave references to the Attic
Stelai for a similar meaning. The definition of 'crops not yet reaped' has subse-
quently been accepted for epikarpia in our inscriptions, for example, by Kirchner,"
8 XIV, 618d (== F.H.G., IV, 495).
9XV, 700 b.
10Frag. 117: Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 339.
11Cf. Pollux, II, 139.
12
See Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v.
'3 Polybios, III, 26, 1.
14
Polybios, VI, 23, 14.
15 InscriPtiones Creticae, IV, Rome, 1950, 70, col. VII, line 33.
"6R.E.G., X, 1897,p. 36. Cf. also Ziebarth,Wochenschr.klass. Phil., XIV, 1897, 1026.
17 AdSyll.3,96, note.
Daux,"8Tod,19and the present writer.20 Simultaneously, however, Liddell-Scott-Jones

has defined the word here simply as 'produce, crop.' The crux passage would seem to
be our Stele X, line 11, which reads: E.rKapirta 7Er yes Ev 'O4pvvE'ot EKEKO'[y-7ro].
Clearly, the epikarpiahere has been harvested. Pollux in Book T, 237, in a paragraph
which enumerates the parts of a tree, gives a list of words meaning 'produce' or
'crop.' Epikarpicaoccurs between EK4OOpLOV, 'that which the earth produces,' and
KaflTOa ELK1La')vw, 'a ripe crop.' The word would seem, then, to have some general
meaning of the crop in fruit,21whether or not it had been picked.
6. KT)pCOTf (I, 163). Salve, cosmetic. All the letters of this word except the last
are restored. Such extensive restoration may seem very bold, and none was attempted
in the previous edition, which was the editio princeps. Nevertheless, the present editor
has proposedthis text in Part I on the evidence of a sentence in Pollux, X, 150, which
reads: E' 8E rots A-yutoirpa'prot Kat paKta Kat K1IpCOTlq yEypamiat. The sentence occurs in
a section which has the heading iarpov OKEV)g. Since rakia is inscribed on the same line
as our word, and the restoration of kerote meets the stoichedon requirements, it seems
reasonable to associate the two in our stele.
There are numerous references in medical writers, particularly Dioskorides, to
various kerotai made from myrtle (3, 45), iris (3, 84), Dropwort ( 1, 148), roses, etc.
Starkie (ad Aristophanes, Ach., 1176) collects similar passages in Hippokrates.22
Hug's article in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v. unguentum, contains the prices
of various ointments. See also the prices of various ingredients in Col. XXXII of the
Edict of Diocletian.
7. Xtrpov (II, 135). Carbonate of soda. For the Ionic-Attic form Xtrpov, see
Schwyzer, Gr. Gram., I, pp. 259 and 532.23 For the derivation, see Boisacq, Diction-
naire4, s.v. vz'rpov. The earliest occurrence of the word is in Herodotos.24
Nitre, often mixed with castor oil, was used as a soap by fullers and washers.25
The word is treated at length by Schramm (in R.E., s.v. nitrum), who discusses the
source and use of the substance which, he says, is variously translated as soda, salt-
18 B.C.H., L, 1926, p. 217.
19 Gr. Hist. Inscr., J2, p. 199.
20Hesperia, XXII, 1953, p. 233.
21
Thus the later adjective E7rKap7roS means 'fruit-bearing.'
22
In Aristophanes, frag. 320, line 1, quoted in Pollux, VII, 95, kerote means 'cosmetic,' a
meaning which Dindorf in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae attributes also to the passage in Pollux,
X, 150. For the use of salves in the toilette, see Hug, in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
unguentum, 1856.
23
Moeris, Photius, and Phrynichos all testify to the form Xtpov in Attic writers of an early date.
24 So Buck and Petersen, Reverse
Index, p. 338.
25 Pollux, X, 135. Cf. Bliimner,
Technologie, I2, p. 175.
peter, and potash.26 Schramm's discussion, however, is almost entirely restricted to

the evidence from Pliny's Natural History. One detailed chemical study of nitron is
not mentioned by Schramm, that of K. C. Bailey (The Elder Pliny's Chapters on
Chemical Subjects, I, London, 1929, pp. 169-171) who concludes that the nitron or
litron of the ancients was not always the same, but that in most cases it was a carbonate
or bicarbonateof sodium or potassium.
The use of litron (in composition) in Athens as a soap can safely be inferred
from Aristophanes, Ranae, 711, and Plato, Tim., 60 d.27 Athenaeus quotes fragments
which indicate its use as an antidote to poisoning (II, 61 d); in cooking (II, 68 a:
Antiphanes, Kock, C.A.F., II, p. 69); and for cleansing (XV, 665 b: Plato, Kock,
C.A.F., I, p. 620). Anaxippos (Kock, C.A.F., III, p. 300) uses nitron, 'the soda-
shop,' as the place in the market where groceries were sold; cf. Gulick ad Athenaeus,
IV, 169 c. Herodotos (II, 86, 87) describes its use in embalming. The careless hus-
band in Theokritos (XV, 16) forgot to bring home nitron, no doubt for use as a soap.
For the price of a form of sodium carbonate, see T. Frank, Economic Survey, V,
p. 417 (Col. XXXII, line 34 of the Edict of Diocletian: 250 denarii a pound).
8. 6,8EXL'o-Kao(I, 93-94; II, 132). Small skewer, spit. Since our word occurs in
I, 93-94 in the company of kitchen utensils, it seems reasonable to assume that the
specific meaning is here ' skewer ' or ' spit.' The word in this meaning is studied by
Reinach in Darermberg-Saglio,Dictionnaire, s.v. Veru. His fig. 7406 shows illu-
strations of spits for roasting. At Delos, obeliskoi were frequently dedicated, and
Deonna has collected numerous references in De'los, XVIII, p. 227.28 The inventories
of the Treasurers of Athena mention 42 votive obeliskoi.29The most detailed study of
the meaningof the word is in W. Petersen," GreekDiminutiveSuffix -tWKO- -LOW-,"
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, XVIII, 1913, pp.
165 and 181. Petersen states that when obeliskos means ' spit' there is no clear refer-
ence to small size, and suggests that its identity with obelos is due to prehistoric
syncretism. He notes one inscription in which the word is qualified by the adjective
mikros30 and lists five other meanings for the word, to which now may be added
'drainpipe' and 'bar.' " On the other hand, the juxtaposition of obelos and obeliskos-
26 For the Asia Minor sources of soda, see T. R. S. Broughton in Economic Survey, IV, p. 624
The best, however, came from Calastra on the Theramic Gulf, and a coarse variety was plentifully
produced in Egypt (Pliny, H.N., XXXI, 106; Strabo, XVII, 803).
27 Bliimner, R.E., s.v. Seife. Plutarch, Demetr., 27, contains the amusing story of Demetrios
spending 250 drachmas, which the Athenians had levied on themselves, for soap (smegma) for
Lamia and her fellow courtesans.
28
See also I.G., 112, 1638, line 67, and 1640, line 30 (tabulae amphictyonum Deliacorum).
29
I.G., 112, 1425, line 407.
30
This inscription has more recently been published as I.G., XI, 2, 161, B (line 128).
31 For references, see Liddell-Scott-Jones and cf. Tod, Num. Chron., 6th Ser., VII, 1947, p. 1.
For the meaning ' obelisk,' see, in particular, J. Friedrich, Deminutivbildung, p. 20.
in consecutive lines of Stele I raises the question of what distinction is intended. The
present writer finds it hard to believe that the two words are identical and would
guess that the difference is one of size.
Price. In I, 93, eight obeliskoi were sold for 17 drachrnas, or slightly more
than 2 drachmas apiece. In I, 94, six obeliskoi brought 14 drachmas 2 obols. The
average price of fourteen was slightly less than 2 drachmas 1X2 obols.
Most obeliskoi were doubtless of iron. In two Delian accounts, where the mean-
ing of the word is 'bars' or 'rails ' of a balcony, Glotz has stated: " Des barreaux
qui valaient 7 ob. en 298 valent le meme prix en 250 pour une quantite plus que
double."32 Glotz lists other prices from Delos. It should be noted, however, that
some of the Delian obeliskoi were made of oak-wood.33
Prices of iron objects in general are given in A. C. Johnson, " Roman Egypt,"
Economic Survey, II, p. 471.34 Nails, for example, varied in price between 2 and 8
drachmas per mina of weight.
9. o,/EXo6 (I, 95). Skewer, spit. The meaning and use of the word obelos have
been made the subject of a special and thorough study by M. N. Tod (Num. Chron.,
6th Ser., VII, 1947, pp. 1-27). Tod notes that obelos was the spelling for the word in
the sense of 'spit ' and that after 485 B.C. all Attic inscriptions use obolos for the coin
or sum of money.
Price. Whereas most skewers or spits were doubtless of iron, our object in I,
95 is specified as being of copper: " the single skewer brought the price of 200 drach-
mas. Unfortunately, the weight is not given. In Insc. Delos, 313, frag. i, line 15
twelve copper obeliskoi averaged one mina apiece; so there is no reason to associate
the obelos or obeliskos with the standard obol of the Aeginetic and Attic-Euboic
weight standards.
10. vrapac-ro1uto (II, 198). The word is unknown elsewhere in Greek. It occurs
only here in the form 7rapao-ropta. It is preceded on the same line by a word of five
letters, of which only the final one, a sigma, is preserved. Presumably we have a
feminine adjective modifying a noun in the singular number.
32
Journal des savants, XI, 1913, p. 27. The references are to I.G., XI, 2, 148, line 70, and 287,
A, line 101.
33I.G., XI, 2, 199, A line 62 (6 drachmas apiece); 203, A, line 50 (also 6 drachmas apiece).
34 No prices of iron are given in Heichelheim, Wirtschaftliche Schwankungen, or in
Larsen's
Roman Greece," Economic Survey, IV. For a succinct account of the economic importance of
iron, see Rostovtzeff, Soc. and Ec. Ilist. of Hell. World, II, p. 1217.
35 The word xaAKro covered both 'copper' and its alloy with tin, 'bronze.' Buck (Dictionary,
p. 611) notes that the actual reference in the majority of cases would be to bronze, since this was so
much more extensively employed than pure copper. Cf. Bliimner, Technologie, IV, pp. 38-66. An
analysis of numerous specimens is summarized in K. C. Bailey, The Elder Pliny's Chapters on
Chemical Subjects, II, pp. 159-161.
The simplex crro-htovin the sense of 'that which belongs to the mouth,' ' bit,' has
been studied by W. Petersen (Greek Diminutives in -ov, p. 53), who gives ancient
references for this meaning.36Lafaye, too, has discussed the word, with illustrations,
in his article on Frenum in Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionlcaire, 1337 a. But the most
detailed study of the bit seems to be that of E. Pernice, " GriechischesPferdegeschier "
in Berliner WinckelncannsProgrammne,no. 56, Berlin, 1896. Pernice publishes two
bronze bits belonging to the fourth century B.C. which were found with muzzle and
part of headstall in a grave in Boeotia.
Prepositions other than vapa are compoundedwith stomion to designate parts of
the bridle. We know from Pollux that upostorniais an iron part of the bridle; 3 the
peristomnionmay be the part which goes over the nose and attaches to the ends of the
bit.38 But not all of the words for the parts of the bridle are known. Marchant has
observed in a note on Chapter X of Xenophon's masterly treatise on Horsemanship, a
chapter in which the bit is described in some detail, that we do not know the Greek
terms for " the pendantsto which the reins were attached " or " the curved or S-shaped
branches with eyes to which the bridle was fastened." 3 Either of these pieces might
well be described as parcastomia. Since our adjective is modifying a feminine noun
ending in sigma," some such word as labis, which can mean a clasp or buckle and has
the sense of something that one can take hold of, may be suggested.4' This would
admirably suit Marchant's second missing term, the piece to which the bridle is
fastened. The fact that a modifier parastomia was needed shows that the word was
one with a general meaning, not always associated with the bit. Moreover, the piece
was very small and might reasonably be sold for the price given on our stone, 2 obols.
The complete entry in Stele II, line 198, may now be tentatively corrected to [XaIa3il
vrapacnropFa.
11. paKta(I, 163). Bandages, rags. The word rcakoscan designate a rag of any
kind, not only a ragged garment.42 Petersen has concluded, on the other hand, that
36Herodotos, I, 215; IV, 72; Aeschylus, Prom., 1009; Sophocles, El., 1462. For other mean-
ings of stomion, see Petersen, op. cit., pp. 50, 103, and 113.
37 I, 184; II, 100; and X, 56.
38 Cf. Hesychius s.v. rt(Kadtov.
39 Xenophon, Scriptora Minora, Loeb Classical Library, pp. 350-351. Cf. Pernice, op. cit., p. 23.
40 Although most of the compounds in -7r4/o,3 make adjectives of two terminations, Liddell-
Scott-Jones lists daaTOtLLoSas one of three terminations. But the evidence there cited is not conclusive.
Buck and Petersen (Reverse Index, p. 43), however, have shown that no fixed rules are possible:
" The fem. of -loS is sometimes the same as the masc., sometimes it is -ta, Ion. -mq.The familiar rule
according to which compounds do not change, but simple words form a distinct feminine, has
many exceptions."
41 Cf. cheirolabis, the part of a plow which one takes hold of (Pollux, I, 252).
42 In the accounts of Artemis Brauronia, I.G., I12, 1514 ff., rakos has a special meaning as
determined in A. Mommsen's article on this word in Philologus, LVIII, 1899, pp. 343-347. Kirchner
(ad I.G., II2, 1524, line 177) has summarized Mommsen's conclusions as follows: " baKog hic et
rakion " is always a ragged or tattered garment in the Attic." 4 He finds the word a
deteriorative rather than a diminutive in origin.44 Nevertheless, Pollux (X, 149-150)
has listed the word under the general heading of medicalequipmentand has specifically
noted that rakia was joined with the word for 'salve' or 'cosmetic' in the records
of the sale of confiscatedproperty. The reference seems to be to our line. Rakia, then,
seems here to refer to bandages made of rags.
12. T-Xta (II, 143). A kind of board or tablet. The definition is that of Buck,
Dictionary, p. 601. This item, of which eighteen were sold, occurs just after the
entry for two jars (kadoi) and preceding a list of articles of furniture. The word is
discussed at some length in Boisacq,45who lists two etymologies of unrelatedmeanings.
The rare Attic telia means the 'hoop of a sieve.'46 The more common meaning is re-
lated to Sanskrit tala-, 'plane surface,' and Latin tellus, 'board.' Boisacq's first defi-
nition is ' table de boulanger,'which accords with the definitions given by the Scholiast
to Aristophanes, Plutus, 1037, by the Venetus Scholiast to Vespae, 147, and by
Bekker, Anecd., 275, 15. Architecturally, the word has sometimes been defined as
' trap-door.' " This meaning derives from the description of the house of Philoktemon
in Aristophanes, Vespac, 139-148, where a telia was clapped over the opening of the
flue in the kitchen when the old jurist attempted to escape. It is clear, however, that
this telia was movable, for it required a log to keep it down. All that is meant by
telia in this passage is 'board.' In Aischines, I, Against Timarchos, 53, the reference
is to a gaming board for cock-fighting. As the description in the Scholiast to Aristo-
phanes, Vespae, 147, states, the telia was a type of thick cavws,or board, but just what
type would have been accumulatedto the number of eighteen is problematical.
deinceps non pannum significare sed particulam vestimenti muliebris menstruis imbutam probat Mom.
Inde natam esse vim vocabuli in hoc recensu obviam, ut scilicet usurpetur pro donario a puellis
virginitatem adeptis Dianae oblato."
43Op. Cit., p. 129.
44 Ibid., pp. 95-96. It may be noted that in I.G., XI, 2, 147 B, line 13, where furnishings were
characterized as ' ragged,' the adjective baKim2 was used.
45Dictionnaire4, pp. 966-967.
46 For objects illustrating this meaning, cf. Bliimner, Technologie, I2, p. 51; and Saglio in
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionaire, s.v. Cribrum.
47 See, for example, Robinson and Graham,
Olynthus, VIII, p. 195; Robinson, Olynthus, XII,
p. 471; and Liddell-Scott-Jones.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA TO PART I

Listed below are all changes which have been made in the text of the Attic Stelai
as publishedin Part I. Several of the corrections I owe to the kindness of a communi-
cation from Marcus N. Tod. For the most part, the addenda result from the restudy
of the items in Parts II and III.
Line Nos. Stele I
175 For r6rtq readoair's
229 Enter the tax as [I-]
230 " " " " [111]
231 cc cc " c"
[111]
232 " " " " [111]
232 read [.?.]ov
For [XAT]O'v
Stele II
13 Read [111] [AA]IIII
21 For X[a] va0EvaF K (ot') read [a] va0EvaFK ((6)
32 [cra0%owv] read V7TO
For V71TO [o-ra0uov]
35 For virooTraOuo'v read vii6o-,ra0Oov

116 For [....7 read [...o]
]v VXKOS V XEKOT
122/3 Read KEpac4wo0-TE[y]a{o-}-
-TEpo0 EV H I... I
135 For o-apyacva read o-apya6va[ ]
151 For c-[- - -] reado EO-cwa/,Ov]
192 For Kp [arEpe read Kp [awrpE
198 For [.... ] sraparo-r4a read [Xaa ( ?) ] s iTapac-rop4a

201 For [X]o'vatread [X]ovat and delete 1F-F
in the price column
222 For I read F (sales price)
227 For-- .11read [1] [F]II
245 Change to: [11]1 [AA]AAFF KXWva[t]hI11
247, 253, Correct IaXE'poLto DaXEpoZ
and 256
Stele III
6 For KXL[Vi&ov] read KXL[VE]
13 For Ka6[&o] read Ka[8o0 - - -]
14 For mr[acvos] read o-r[ 4wvot---]
Stele V
14 For ('nK[XtVTpo] read EIfTK[XtvrpoV]
15 For KXtvat read KXcvat
22 Amyx reads 'TEpa Al Eqw-E{f}a.
24 For 'A0fLov[evio-] read 'AOuov [oz]
28 For KEpau[EvEo-]read KEpau [E'ov]
32 For [rp] rrE<p>E read [rTp] TE<p>E
33 Read [r8]a9poSvua
34 Read 4t8aaKVE<K>crr4,ua
36 Amyx prefers the removal of the mark of punctuation.
Stele VI
29 For [. at6.. ] cu read [o-rEXE]aF
35 Changeto [rparf] 4ov
38 Change to [ O-Kqx] 1T?8E9
68 Read the tax and sales price as [FI] [H]
69 Readthe tax and sales priceas: [ F ' ]AA
70 At the end of the line add: roVrov]
73 For- .. .A read [rF] [MAA]A
86 For EKXacXKWO,uaITa]read EKXaX [KOuicrLaT
Stele VII
46 For 'AXO-XLoXoread 'AXo{[X1Iu?Xo
93 For [acpyv]pLovread V ]pLov
98 Read [Kopt]v6hopyEsH - -
106 The word should be shifted two letter spaces to the left.
In Plate 71 the photograph was printed upside down.
W. KENDRICKPRITCHETT
UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA
318 ANNE PIPPIN
THE DEMIOPRATA OF POLLUX X

After having made a number of references in the early chapters of Book X to an
unidentified Demioprata, Pollux at last (X, 96) observes in his disjointed way that
this word in its general meaning was used in comedy and by Lysias, and then adds:
" On the Attic Stelai, located at Eleusis, is inscribed the property of those who dis-
honored the gods, which was sold by the state." ' His usual introduction to a citation
from this source is Ev8E roTsArqutoirparTot, but once (X, 148) he begins Ev8E sat
'ATTLKaZg -rT4Xatg,once (X, 40) EVroZs 'AXKL/3ua8OV, and once (X, 38) Ka'L 'AXKLW/3a80V
8E KTX. In all there are thirty-four such citations: twelve of these can be immediately
recognized as belonging to the Attic Stelai as we have them, and most of the rest
are so clearly offered by Pollux as items from the same list that we can safely assume
that when he refers to the Demioprata he always means the Attic Stelai. Pollux
supplies us with a number of items of furniture and equipment which apparently
appeared in sections of the Stelai now lost; these are collected below in Table A. In
Table B are parallels between Onomasticon X and the present text of the Attic Stelai.
TABLE A. ADDITIONAL crKEv'7 FROM THE Demioprcata OF POLLUX X

ITEM POLLUX X
aAxc'V
Tpia eb,u0o`p/ua one and a half phormnoiof salt 169
apT7)L a of3EXt0-KIV cord for hangingup spits 96
yaGrTp07TrTrj utensil used in stuffing sausage 105
8EVT7p utensil for mixing dry and wet parts 105
of dough, or for basting
EKITLET077pLOV press (see Stele V, 10 for =nEo-rptov) 135
4q,.,uox0Xa o-t&8qpa bolts for locking a door 23
7)OIL,O
E'TtKp17T77p&&8tO strainer which fits on top of a krater 108
Kava-crTpov an alternate spelling for KavaV'Cr-pov 86
KaXv7rE7)pES KKpluT7)pES uprighttiles 157
KaPKlVao Xovs('xxV v tongs for use in stonework 148
KEpa/Ov 'AT'lKO'V Kat Attic and Corinthiantiles 182
KEpa,uov Kop'VOuov
KXALUaKLOV small ladder 171
1a /ev ovaV),/u6o7rpara ov ,uovov ro'vo/a Irap' 'Aptarofavet 'v ro's '17r7rev't Ev(TV
Ei7rTivaTaActEXOv o paaxavos
O?MtO67rpatl
'a'Aa Katrapa rolts a)XXotqKxwo8o8taKaXotq- 7rpog 8e cat Ava'a Xo'yosEOTLv v7rCp Tr(v S)/xto7rpa-rwv7rpog Et6t'av.
raZ~'ArrucaZ~rrats
ev8? at Kverrat ev aEXEvWvt ra rwv &we/3)vYavrwv7rept rO & )/ofta 7rpaOEVTa ay&
ypavrrat. All references are to the text of E. Bethe, Pollucis Onomasticon, Teubner, Leibzig, 1900
and 1931. On 'EXevOtvtsee below, p. 324.
ITEM POLLUX X
Kat
KVE'baXXoVKatvOlV new and old pillows 39
KvEaXXovl raXat'o (see I, 217-18 for K. ITX'OV)
KOCOKlVOV KpOlOTOloV sieve for barley 114
(see V, 81 for K'OlK'VOV)
KV/1lOGV007cK cumminbox 93
XoVT7)puV Kat washing tub and stand (see II, 233-4 46
viTocrra,Tov for XovrTvpLovAXWOvov)
,yaXatpla E'XESabvTUJva knives of ivory and horn 90
Kat 1LaxapLa KEpaKLTva
/JoXvXJ8oKparEvTaL lead frame on which a spit turns 96
(two mss. read gowX,38ovKpaTl-cau;
poXi,/3ov KpacTevTra maybe
the correct reading)
irapwAevti8a an armful or bundle 170
17tvaKES uaqpot trenchers for barley cakes 83
irpwwV XtlAo7pUtTir-q saw for stonework (cf. I.G., 2, 313, 148
line 129)
Xtvovv
7rpouCKEbaXatov linen and woolen cushions 40
Kal EpEOVV
K
pLatKa XE'K'TOV
2 wicker fan for blowing up a fire 175
,rpaw7rEa tkovoKVKX0o round table with top made of one piece 81
Kaslq gaKpa Kat oblong tub for kitchen use, and a 103
o-KaS) orpoyPyT X'q round tub
vIroX4vtov stand for a wine vat 130
SbEvaKVJ3a alternatespellingfor 74
0f8aKvL8a (see V, 21)
TABLE B. Demnioprata PARALLELSIN THE ATTIC STELAI
(All the identifiable references in Pollux are to Attic Stelai I, II, V, VI, and VII.)
POLLUX X ATTIC STELAT
a,lTarr1TT 38 I, 164; 172
OVpa Wa'7ptc-TOq 24 II, 13-14
Ovpa crvv8poga'8&9 24 II, 15-16
KacXv7TvTTpE9
KOpLV0tGVpyEL 157 VII, 98
2 Bethe reads 't7raLK"a7rayK'rov. Alternate manuscriptreadings are
Plural Ka4 irayoiyov, lrayOTOv.
Whatever the correct form of ALpratKa, its meaningis clear from the context, and 7rXkTov, an easy
emendationfrom the meaninglessirayirov, is perfectlysuitableto the passage, which moves on to
mentionsimilarwicker (ort'o-vos)equipment.
320 ANNE PIPPIN
POLLUX X ATTIC STELAI
KavavoTrpov 86 1,237
KXpWT 150 I, 63
KC/%YTO9 OVPL8&rc 137 V, 16
KXW7) a+L46&K7/E4baXXOS
3 36 I, 233
X6KO 87 I 116
AX-qvos 130 VI, 137
Vtvat 7TOKMXO ..X KaC 83 VII, 59 ff.
Vrwvaf ErEpog yEypaJ.LJ.Evog
1TpooKEoaXatov OKVTLVO1 40 II, 216-17
paKta (Ka't K1qpw7) 150 I, 163
7crap,uv /LtcraKtOV 169 II, 136-7
XacJEVVq a7TpaKOXXAO 36 I, 231
An interest in epigraphy is a surprising quality to find in a second-century
lexicographer, even one who lived at Athens. We who have only fragments of the
inscription would like to discover where Pollux found his text of the Attic Stelai, and
whether it was full and accurate.
In the first nine books of the Onomnasticon there are only nine scattered passages
which could suggest that Pollux might have made use of a non-literary source. In III,
39, at the word protoposis, is the statement: " This term is written in the laws of the
king archon." The marker which indicates mortgage of land is defined as a sanis or
stele in III, 85, but the fact that the nmortgage-pillarswere inscribed is not mentioned.
In VII, 61, there is an allusion to the statues of Kleobis and Biton in Argos; they are
not mentioned,however, because there was an inscribed base, but because the sculpture
illustrated a certain type of clothing. The custom of dedicating calathematais treated
briefly in I, 11, and in V, 149, terms for writing upon stelai are listed, but Pollux
appears to be quite unaware that dedicatory inscriptions had been gathered and pub-
lished by Polemon. In V, 166, there is a discussion of the proper terms used to de-
scribe legal and public inscriptions, and again, in speaking of Athenian political pro-
cesses in Book VIII, Pollux several times (c. 46, c. 128) indicates that inscriptions
would be made at certain points, yet with all his pedantry he makes no reference to the
collections of epigraphical texts which could have provided him with a wealth of
citations.5
3 On the stone it is xXWAt'1 a/L4uKE4aXoq.
MtX-rtovpyn13
4 Cf.Polemon ap. Athenaeus, VI, 234 f.
5 Philochoros' collection of epigraphical texts, the 'Exrtypa,aura 'Arrau, was made probably in
the early-years of the 3rd century B.c. No portions of it remain, but the title has led Bockh and
others to assume that the inscriptions included were exclusively metrical. Jacoby, however, believes
that the Epigrarnmata may have been selected from various types of inscriptions, and concludes:
It has been argued, however, that Pollux knew and used Krateros' Tfqt-drwov
crvvaycoy?5,a work which offered texts of a large number of Athenian inscriptions,
mostly from the fifth and fourth centuries, with full commentaries.6 Once, indeed,
Krateros is explicitly cited (VIII, 126); the word nautodikai is under discussion, and
Pollux adds to his very brief definition the statement: " If one may trust Krateros,
who collected the Psephismata, those who are unwilling to open proceedings are called
hubristodikai-this word was current in Sicily." It happens that Harpokration (s.v.
vacvro&Kat) has preserved a fragment of the very Krateros commentary to which Pol-
lux must refer, and the first thing one notices is that Pollux, in defining his major
heading (nautodikai), has made use of none of the many details which Krateros pro-
vided. It is thus more probablethat the exotic term hubristodikai comes from a pre-
decessor in the lexicographic tradition than that Pollux himself found it in the
Psephismatat. This leaves us in some doubt as to the origin of his reference to Sicilian
usage; it may belong to Krateros, or it may have been addedby Pollux's lexicographer.7
A second passage in which a reference to Krateros may exist is VII, 15. Here
Pollux is discussing buying and selling, and he says, " In the Attic psephismcatawhich
grant privileges to foreigners, one can find Etvat aVcLTOOcKEtav cvrcrtv." The troublesome
thing here is that it is not possible to find such a phrase among surviving inscriptions.
For some reason the word cWv7)o-tshas been restored in C.I.G., 3597b, an inscription
from Ilium, but actually it occurs only in this chapter of the Onomasticon. The
formula to which Pollux seems to refer uses the word E7KT'1c0tS with the genitive, as in
I.G., 112, 360, line 20: Etvat 8-aViroZ KaU y7lS Kat OLKLacl EYKTrqcV.8 It seems likely that
Pollux's hapax sprang from an erroneous reading, and that his use of OtKEi'av is also
a mistake.9He has takenthe word in good faith as a derivativeof dovE'opat,but if the
"This may, incidentally, be the first collection of its kind and would in that case be the genuine
predecessor of Krateros' Psephismata" (F.G.H., III B, Supp. I, p. 228). Krateros' fuller collection
was made only a decade or so later, and was given considerable use during the first five centuries
after Christ, as is proved by the list of works in which fragments have been found (see F.G.H., III
B, 342; P. Krech, De Crateri *rqcrpoa'Twv cwaywyf, diss. Greifswald, 1938, pp. 94 ff.). Polemon's
publications of dedicatory inscriptions and antiquarian curiosities were made in the first decades
of the second century B.C. and were used by Athenaeus (VI, 234 f; X, 436 d; 442 e; XI, 472 b;
486 d; XIII, 587 c); the collection of Menetor, llEpt ava6rqAa'TWV, was probably similar, although we
cannot be sure that it contained Attic texts (Athenaeus, VIII, 594 d; F.H.G., IV, p. 452). Other
ancient epigraphers who worked with non-Attic inscriptions are listed by B6ckh in the preface to
C.I.G., I.
6 Plutarch, Arist., 26, 1-2. See Krech, op. cit., passim and Jacoby, R.E., s.v. Krateros.
7Krech, op. cit., p. 22, takes these words too as a part of the Krateros commentary, and then
must argue that this is not evidence of the inclusion of non-Attic texts in the Psephismata.
8 The same formula appears in I.G., II2, 8, line 17; 351, line 29; 505, line 53; 554, line 30.
With slight variations it is used in I.G., II2, 237, line 25; 884, line 5, and I.G., I2, 110, line 30.
See also R.E., V, 2584, and A. Billheimer, Naturalization in Athenian Law and Practice, Princeton
diss., 1922, pp. 21-22.
9 Dittenberger in his index lists only four uses of OiKElOs, none of which suggests this context.
322 ANNE PIPPIN
source in which he found it had been the full collection of Krateros' Psephismata, the
formula granting the right to buy property would have appeared again and again,
surely not each time with the same error. Once more, the conjecture which best fits
the facts is that Pollux did not know the epigraphical texts of Krateros at first-hand,
but had instead come upon an isolated (and inaccurate) reference to them in the work
of some Alexandrian word-collector.
Thus there is no evidence in the first nine books of the Onomasticon to convince
us that Pollux had ever consulted the text of a single inscription. The effect of Book
X, however, is wholly different. There the Demioprata is cited more often than any
other individual source and only less frequently than all of Attic comedy together.
This is true despite the fact that when the word demiopratacame up originally in VII,
13, Pollux apparently did not know of its application to the forced sale of Alkibiades'
property. Of course, the final book of the Onomasticon sets out to be different from
the others, for it was written to refute the criticisms which Phrynichos had made of
the earlier books.10 Apparently the treatment of tools, implements, and household
equipment had suffered most at Phrynichos' hands, for this is what Pollux chose to
review. Words already treated are brought up again in Book X, and there is every-
where fuller documentation. It is possible that as a part of this tightening of defenses
and search for reinforcements Pollux at last sought out a collection of inscriptions and
studied the text of the Attic Stelai in quest of genuine fifth-century terminology.
B6ckh believed that Pollux used a collection entitled Demiopratta,which included
lists of confiscated property and also some temple records." This conclusion is a by-
product of his interpretationof Athenaeus, XI, 476 e, where he would read, " One can
find in the Collection of Dernioprata this inscription from a stele on the Acropolis
which includes votive objects: ' silver drinking horn, etc.' 12 Bockh's conjecture is on
the whole unacceptable;he cannot explain why, with a whole collection of inscriptions,
all related to moveable property, Pollux should have chosen to use only material from
the Attic Stelai. It is extremely unlikely that such a specialized collection was made in
ancient times, but had it been done, it is quite certain, as K6hler pointed out,13that the
blunder of calling temple records demiopratawould never have been committed. It is
much more reasonable to give up trying to make sense of the Athenaeus passage as
it stands, and to follow Kaibel in marking a lacuna after ovrcog,on the assumption that
the item cited as demiopratahas been lost, and that the silver drinking cup belongs to
another inscription."4There is no way of knowing whether the lost item came from
10 M. Naechster, De Pollucis et Phrynichi Controversiis, diss. Leipzig, 1908, pp. 29, 34; Bethe,
s.v. fulius (Pollux), 777, 778.
11Staatshaushaltung der Athener3, I, p. 252; IT, pp. 248-249.
1UTtV OVVTOVTO EVp'tV(V TOt' lAto7rpa'Tov avaye"ypaevov OVT (T'qXq dKporoA"t,
e"
avaKGMVx q
V
Ta avaOiffwbaTa7rEptPXEL KepaS CK7rWj/a apyvpovV, KTX.
13 Hermes, XXIII, 1888, p. 399.
14
See I.G., II2, 1407, line 38; 1408, line 17.
the Attic Stelai or from the records of some other confiscation; finally the Athenaeus
passage offers no hint whatsoever as to the epigraphical source which Pollux was
using in his Book X.
K6hler 15 assumed that Poiltlx found his text of the Attic Stelai in the Psephis-
mata of Krateros, and offered as 'proof ' the assertion that the description of the
Stelai in X, 96, contains echoes of the accusation of Alkibiades as we find it in
Plutarch (Alkibiades, 22). It is indeed quite certain that Plutarch made use of
Krateros when he wrote this section of the Life of Alkibiades,'6but the only phrase
of his which might be heard as similar to Pollux occurs not in the text taken from
the Psephismctca,where the verb is a&8KEwV(Alkibicades,22), but in the preliminary
summary of the charge (ao-LE/3,E&vEpL r Co OE:E Alkibiades, 19), which was Plutarch's
own.
If Pollux was using a full collection of texts, like the Psephismcataof Krateros, it
is very curious that he chose to cite only the Attic Stelai, and yet failed to use the
Stelai time and again in his treatment of terms which we know appeared in the Attic
Stelai lists.'7 The impression left by Boox X is that Pollux thought of the Demioprata
as listing only furniture and household equipment, and that he could forget that the
property listed had not all belonged to Alkibiades. Surely these misconceptions would
not have persisted in the mind of one who knew Krateros' extensive explanations and
commentaries. Altogether, it is hard to believe that a man who had not tried to use
such a source when dealing with the workings of the Athenian state would now think
of looking through a cumbersome corpus of public inscriptions to find information
about furniture and kitchen implements.'8 And there is no reason to assume anything
so uncharacteristic; as a matter of fact, Pollux tells us at the outset, though with
singular lack of grace, where his new material came from. Having heard, he says, of
Eratosthenes' KEVoypatKOiv, he made a great search for it, but when he finally got hold
of a copy it proved disappointing, and he was forced after all to find for himself the
solution to many problems (X, 1-2). We may doubt, however, that he found his
Dermiopratareferences for himself, since their appearance in Book X is exactly
simultaneous with Pollux's supposedly fruitless perusal of the Skeuogrcaphikon.
The Skeuographikon, which in Pollux's time was circulated as an independent
work, was actually an extract, made by some later writer, from Eratosthenes' essay
On Attic Comedy."9It is certain that here, as in his historical investigations, Eratos-
15 Op. cit., p. 398.
16 Krech, op. cit., pp. 30 f.
17
In Book X Pollux cites the Demioprata for 42 items, but he treats 65 others which appear in
our text of the Stelai without referring to the Demioprata.
18 See Jacoby, R.E., s.v. Krrateros: " Die Zuriickfiuhrungenaus Pollux, der K. nur einmal
(VIII, 26) aus lexikographischer Tradition zitiert, namentlich die der yrtto'7rpara im 10. Buche
gerade auf K., sind sehr zweifelhaft."
'19 Knaack, R.E., s.v. Eratosthenes: Naechster, op. cit.
324 ANNE PIPPIN
thenes made use of epigraphical material, for one fragment 20 contains a discussion of
the pyramids on which the Solonic laws were inscribed, and we know from Harpo-
kration (s.v. a'eovt) that this was one of the points on which Polemon, the old ' stone-
picker,' criticized Eratosthenes as an inaccurate epigraphist.2" Inaccurate he may
have been, but he was conversant with Attic inscriptions, and it would have been
natural for him to make use of the Attic Stelai when he was dealing with the household
terminology of Old Comedy. Even he probably did not take his text from the face of
the stone; it is he who must have consulted the collection of inscriptions made by
Krateros."2Only in this indirect way do the Demioprcatca references of Pollux derive
from the Psephismatca.
If Pollux owed his Attic Stelai citations to the Skeuographikon, we can under-
stand why he seems to have so inadequatean idea of what the inscription was, and why
he is not always able to make use of it. It is clear too why fifteen references are
made to the Demioprata, with no explanation of what this term may mean until we
reach chapter 96, where it is identified as the list from the Attic Stelai. Evidently the
first use of the Dernioprata in the Skeuographikon was in connection with the word
jUoXv,88o0KparEvrat,and not until Pollux, treating items in his own order, reaches this
word does he repeat Eratosthenes' introductory definition, and his description of the
physical aspect and location of the stelai which were his source. The special use of
the term Demioprata and also the identifying phrase 'Attic Stelai' were evidently
taken from the Alexandrian scholar; one or both may have originated with Krateros.
Thus Pollux, far from having a complete and accurate text of the Attic Stelai
before him, had only the scattered citations which had been taken from Krateros by
Eratosthenes, and from Eratosthenes by the man who had extracted the Skeuo-
graphikon from the Peri komodias. This means that Pollux's citations may well show
a fair rate of error, and that care must be exercised in making use of them. To begin
with, in the passage already quoted (X, 96), in which Pollux identifies his Demioprata
as the Attic Stelai, there is a question as to whether the word 'EXEvLrtvt should be
honored, or whether it should be altered with Bergk to read 'EXEVO-LPVt.". If the text of
Pollux is accepted unchanged, then we must accept too something like K6hler's con-
jecture that there were two nearly identical inscriptions, one in Athens and one at
Eleusis, and that Krateros had taken his text from the latter.24 Doubling of inscrip-
tions was not a usual Attic practice, and this theory further forces one to argue that
20
Frag. 37: F.G.H., II, p. 1019.
21
Schol. Aristophanes, Aves, 11; Harpokration, s.v. 3eovt; Strabo, I, 15. We may note that
Pollux, VIII, 28, in discussing iv'p/letg, follows Eratosthenes, not Polemon. See L. B. Holland,
A.J.A., XLV, 1941, pp. 346ff.
22 Presumably not that of Philochoros, if B6ckh, Krech, and others are right in thinking that it
assembled only verse inscriptions.

23
See Pritchett, Hesperia, XXII, 1953, pp. 234-235.
24 Op. cit., p. 400.
it is only coincidencewhich has caused all trace of the Eleusis inscription to disappear,
while a major part of that at Athens has been recovered. Surely it is much easier to
suppose that Krateros' original description of the Stelai as standing in the Eleusinion
('EXEvo-tviw) was misunderstoodat one of the stages in the transmission of this infor-
mation to Pollux, and that Pollux, who seems to have had little curiosity about such
matters, never bothered to check the location of the inscription.
Three times Pollux uses the name Alkibiades when he mentions an item from the
Demioprata, and it is tempting to try, with his help, to assign specific pieces of property
in the lists to Alkibiades' household. In X, 38, while discussing rugs and blankets,
Pollux remarks that " a certain amphitapes of Alkibiades was sold," and here his
information about the owner of the rug is presumablybased on an identification made
by Eratosthenes, who could consult a full text of the Stelai, where the confiscated
properties were listed in groups under headings naming the dispossessed owner, and
who consequentlyknew to whom each item had belonged. In the incompletetext which
we have of the inscription, the word amphitapesappears in just one place, near the end
of Stele I, where nine rugs of different sorts are listed. Since the rug noted by Eratos-
thenes need not have been from this group at all but could instead have appeared in
some other section of the Stelai now unreadable,this one Pollux citation would not by
itself give sufficient ground for assuming that the last section of Stele I lists Alki-
biades' personal possessions. However, Pollux identifies as Alkibiades' two more items
which occur in the same part of Stele I; the inlaid couch and the bed with two head-
rests of Onomasticon,X, 35-36, can be found listed at I, 231 and 233, and the appear-
ance in the lexicon of the special descriptive adjectives, parakollos and amphikephalos,
makes it quite certain that Pollux's terms derived from this exact location in the Stelai.
It is safe, then, to assume that somewhere between line 49 of Stele I, where the last
item which certainly belonged to Kephisodoros is listed, and line 157, where the group
containing the amphitapetes begins, came two lines stating that the property next
listed had belonged to Alkibiades (cf. I, 12-13). This means that the ample supply
of rugs, curtains, pillows and coverlets, the expensive beds, the chests, and the fop-
pishly long list of himatia may all be thought of as the personal possessions of
Alkibiades. Apparently the beginning of Stele II, which seems to follow immediately
upon Stele I, continues the same list of properties at least through line 60.
A second case where Pollux may help to identify certain items as the property of
Alkibiades is less clear. Meritt has supposed25 that the proskephalaiaskutina of Stele
II, 216, were the originals of the leather pillow in Pollux X, 40, where the lexi-
cographer writes: ". . . clearly they (pillows) were also made of leather and wool,
since among the confiscated properties of Alkibiades were a proskephalaionskutinon,
one of linen, and one of wool." If Meritt is right, then somewhere between line 206
25 Hesperia,V, 1936,p. 384.
326 ANNE PIPPIN
and line 216 there once stood a notice that the property following had belonged to
Alkibiades, ending the thus very short listing for Phaidros, which begins at line 188.
We might also expect, between the announcement of Alkibiades' ownership and line
214, listings of linen and woolen pillows, each occupying two lines, for terms coupled
by Pollux are usually found in close conjunction on the stone (see for instance, in
Table B, rakia and kerote, chameune parakollos and kline amphikephalos, thyra dia-
pristos and thyra syndromade). Lines 214 and 215 must then have contained an item
or items interrupting the listing of pillows, for whatever word stood in line 214 was
shorter than proskephalaiaby at least four letters; it may be noticed that one item also
separates the pair of terms in Pollux, X, 36, which appear as Stele I, 231 and 233.
If all of these suppositions were correct, we would thus lack but one line of completely
filling the space between line 206 and line 214 of Stele II, as it has been restored, and
we would consider everything listed from line 216 to line 246 as having come from
the household of Alkibiades. However, these conclusions are at best only tentative,
for we know from vase-paintings that any Athenian house would contain a quantity
of pillows of all sorts; they might be expected to turn up among the furnishings of
all the condemnedmen. There is no way to be sure that the one leather pillow which
happened to have been inscribed on a portion of stone destined to survive was the
same leather pillow which, listed with others as the property of Alkibiades, caught the
eye of Eratosthenes and was reported by Pollux. The household equipment listed at
Stele II, 216 ff., may have belonged to another of the men, most probably Phaidros,
and the proskephalaia skutina which Pollux mentions as Alkibiades' may have been
listed somewhere else entirely-in Stele I, for instance, along with the pillows and
coverlets of lines 217 ff.
The question of Pollux's accuracy has some importance,too, in a consideration of
the relationship between Onomasticon, X, 83, and the pinax items found in Stele VII,
59 ff. Pollux first considers pinakes as plates for food, but he adds that there are also
pinakes which are pictures, cx Kat EV rots A7{ou1Tparo3 E'o-rtv EvpEtv Kat vtvaf TOIKtXOs
aCT opoTqq Kat ivTaW ETepog yEypacqLEvo3. On the stone we find
1Tv[ aKEf yEypaVV1E/]E'[vot --
i.t4v aE TEp1P o0J,&KpOS
[paM&vo]
IE7 X
[irtvag 'IOLKL] os~.
Bethe has surroundedeverything in the Pollux text after eipeTvwith quotation marks,
as though these words were a direct quotation from the Attic Stelai. If this were
precisely accurate, we would have to conclude either that there were two places in the
Stelai (VII, 59, and another which has vanished) where nearly the same groupings of
pinax items were made, or, with K6hler, that there were two slightly varying versions
(Attic and Eleusinian) of the inscription, and that Pollux's quotation came from the
stelai which have disappeared. However, closer inspection will show that neither of
these conclusions is necessary, for we can after all identify Pollux's fragment with
these lines from Stele VII, and account for his variations quite simply. It is immedi-
ately evident that Pollux's citation has been somewhat altered, for the two Kcat 's
would not have appeared on the stone. In addition, Pollux's items seem to have got
out of order; in the listing as he gives it there is no reason for the word E&epog,since
two distinct types of pinakes are being dealt with. Actually, E'pOg would only be
used in a grouping like that of Stele VII, where one item is to be distinguished from
preceding items of exactly the same sort-one small pinax with a drawing on it was
sold separately from an unknown number of others which differed only in size.2" It is
so unlikely that just these same circumstances prevailed in the sale of some other
group of pinakes, listed in some other part of the Stelai, that we can here use the text
transmitted by Pollux to restore the words missing on the stone. Eratosthenes was
apparentlymost interested in the pinax poikilos, which he believed to have been of the
special sort used in decorated ceilings (acr' opofbiri), and so he put it first among the
plaques which he had found in the Attic Stelai.27
I have argued that the Demioprata references were taken from the Skeuographi-
kon, and not from the Stelai or from an epigraphical collection, but before we can
finally conclude that Pollux made no direct use of inscriptions or their texts in pre-
paring Book X, there are three more passages which must be examined, for at three
points in Book X Pollux presents other bits of epigraphical evidence which have
nothing to do with the Attic Stelai. In X, 60, Pollux reports on an anathema, set up
in Athens by a certain Diogenes, which was called an analogeion. In this case, he says,
one can't turn to the work of Eratosthenes for an explanation of the term, for it is
there treated as something related to the preparation of books. Here is an explicit
statement of independencefrom Eratosthenes, but it does not mean that Pollux had
himself been poking about among the antiquities of the city; it is the strange term
applied to it, and not the fountain itself or any inscription it may have borne, that
interests him, and the word would come from a word-book, not from an inspection of
the monument. In X, 146 reference is made to the text of an unknown stele: E'V 8Erjj
EV'OXv,urtra cr74XWabvayiypainratrpvirava rpvi7ravtaqEXova. Pollux's failure to identify
this inscription any more accurately suggests that its source was not an annotated
epigraphical collection; the phrasing is much the same as that used to introduce an
Attic Stelai citation and it is easy to believe that this reference was also culled from
26 Compare the use of ZTepos in I.G., I12, 1672, lines 152 ff.
27 There are a few other variants in Pollux's citations: in X, 35, he writes xa-,evE'v for Attic
in X, 36, a/ cKV'aAXkOS for Attic Stelai, I, 233, 4ALKa(Xao,;
Stelai, I, 231 xaMtcrva; and in X, 79, he
states that a stand or base for a piece of furniture in the Attic Stelai is always 6ro'TaTov, while we
on the stone (Stele II, 32-34).
find v7rocr7aOfov
328 ANNE PIPPIN
the Skeiographikon. However, in X, 126, there is a reference to certain uracdda

xaXKalisted among the ancathemataon the Acropolis during the archonship of Alki-
biades. The inscription is as usual badly identified,but if this is the archon Alkibiades
of I.G., IJ2, 776,28 then the list must have been inscribed around 250 B.C., and we cannot
very well attribute it to Eratosthenes, who was by that time at Alexandria. Kohler
believed that Pollux at this point was using Polemon's IlEpt rnq 'AO4rv-q-vaKpor'nXEqo,
a collection of Acropolis dedications,29but nowhere else in the Oomcasticou does
Pollux show any acquaintancewith Polemon's work. A more realistic supposition is
that, pursuing his ordinary methods of composition, Pollux was here borrowing from
another lexicographer, an earlier grammarian who may also have supplied to Book
III, 39, its citation from the king archon's list. It was natural to him to accept occa-
sional descriptions of ancient monuments from the pens of his predecessors, never
allowing his eye to wander from the book in search of the relic itself. Pollux was
interested in words because he wished to use them successfully among men who con-
sidered themselves learned, but he had no wish to study the past that had produced
the language he sought to restore.
ANNE PIPPIN
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
28 See
Meritt, Hesperia, VII, 1938, p. 135. B6ckh, op. cit., I, p. 252, note f, has argued that
Pollux's inscription, like the one listing the silver drinking horn in Athenaeus, XI, 476 e, was included
in a specialized collection called Demioprata. He did not know of the later archon, and so assumed
that Pollux had mistakenly referred to the archonship of Alkibiades when the inscription named
him rather as treasurer. Thus B6ckh would see here a reference to the fifth-century Alkibiades.
29
op. cit., p. 398.

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Tp HE Attic Stelai comprise a group of inscriptions recording the sale of items of

American School of Classical Studies at Athens

of the Hellenistic World, Oxford, 1941.

sented on vases or found in excavations. Where objects had previously been so

articles in Pauly-Wissowa, R.E., see F. M. Heichelheim, Wirtschaftsgeschichte des

Greek Liquid Measures

Greek Dry Measures

DESCRIPTION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

1. auvyoacX-(Stele II, line 140). Almond, Prunus Amygdalus. The word is of

Boisacq, Dictionnaire4, p. 56.

5. i1ta (II, 85). Husks, chaff. Eratosthenes, according to Eustathius, defined

50 See also below, p. 199.

53 XLII, 20 and 31.

vinegar, which was regarded by Attic writers as a condiment par excellence,74are

85 See W. R. Halliday, Greek Questions of Plutarch, Oxford, 1928, pp. 189-190.

For the prices of orobos, see below, p. 199.

107 Economic Survey, I, p. 404.

108 For the derivation of the word, see

123 Economic Survey, I, p. 404.

129 Anab., I, 2, 22.

Italian millet,130but Galen comments on the superiority of kenchros.'3' Athenaeus

n?7/OaKTLoV.There is insufficientevidence to determine the size of this measure, if

Wissensch., Phil.-hist. Ki., XXXIV, no. 3, Leipzig, 1917.

the phormos can reasonably be connected. We have, therefore, followed B6ckh in

measure,' according to Pollux, X, 71.

Price Entry Reference

nial Publications, V, Chicago, 1904, p. 33.

[ . ]AA/\ ot'vo alioop[E]s 'ATIt*[KO] VI, 64-65

Hesperia, XVII, 1941, p. 312.

Second Entry Total Price in Drachmas Prices per Metretes in Drachmnas

II. CLOTHING AND SHOES

Leipzig, 1928, and Entwicklungsgeschichte des griechischen Trcacht,Berlin, 1934; and

Vo g &yov3 'A?roXAoOavyt TvpE18,ELFFFF,KE0aJAac rAPFIH. P. Guiraud (La Main-d'oeuvre industrielie

1. adjTExovov(I, 160). Mantle or shawl. The garment is discussed in con-

Liddell-Scott-Jones, 'worn garment, threadbare cloak,' is, therefore, not complete.

C.A.F., I, p. 367), etc..

London and Boston, 1954, p. 56.

or arms, or both, or neither; 11 fortunately another item in a furniture list makes it

28 sella curulis, Polybios, VI, 53, 9; cf. Plutarch, Caes., 66.

R.E., s.v. Stuhl.

!3Vit. Soph., II, 588, 591, 613.

CHESTS AND BOXES

1. (I, 215, 216, 227, 228; V, 16). Chest, box. There is a

65 Cf. the English 'lean-to' for a shed attached to a major building.

75 Ibid., fig. 47.

London, 1920, p. 41, fig. 31.

94 Gr. Dim. in -tov, pp. 83, 147.

COUCHES AND BEDS

cushions are priced at 500 drachmas.

slumbering,125but Rodenwaldt follows Ransom in defining it as a poetical term for

Whereas chameunais definedby Liddell-Scott-Jones as ' pallet-bed,'the Irapa6KoX-

146 7o T7 xtVTpOV IOarOXO

greater stability of a three-legged table especially on a clay floor.

p. 25; and R.E., s.v. Citrus.

222 Hesperia, XVII, 1948, p. 34.

that of the grammarianHerodian in Grcammcatici Graceci,III, p. 944, lines 23 ff., where

A.J.A., XXXV, 1931, pp. 20-22.

IV. LIVESTOCK AND BEEHIVES