Date-24/07/2021.

Chapter-7 Unit-4

: ALTERNATING CURRENT:

 Current is of two types: A.C and D.C:

D.C: Direct current (DC), that is, steady current that does not vary with time.
A.C: Alternating current (AC) is that current whose magnitude changes continuously and
polarity changes periodically.

V0 or I0 are the maximum (peak) voltage or current.

Where ω is angular frequency, and ω=2πf where f is called frequency of A.C.
 The frequency of AC in India is 50 Hz.
 A time varying current or voltage may be periodic and non-periodic.
 In case of periodic current or voltage, the current or voltage is said to be alternating if its
amplitude is constant and alternate half cycle is positive and half negative.
 If the current or voltage varies periodically as sine or cosine function of time, the current or
voltage is said to be sinusoidal and is what we usually mean by it.

Mean A.C current:

If an alternating current is passed through an ordinary ammeter or voltmeter, it will record the mean
value for the complete cycle, as the quantity to be measured varies with time.
1. The average value of current for one cycle is:
T T

 Idt  I 0 sin tdt

2
I one cycle
 ( I av )T  0
T
 0
0 [Where,   ]
T T
 dt
0

 Since, these averages for the whole cycle are zero; the DC instrument will indicate zero
deflection.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 1

 2. The average value of current for half cycle is:
In AC, the average value of current is defined as its average taken over half the cycle. Hence,
T /2 T /2

 Idt I 0 sin tdt

2I 0
I  ( I av ) T / 2  0
 0
  0.637 I 0  63.7% of I 0
half cycle T /2
T /2 
 dt
0

2
[Where,  
]
T
Root mean square value of A.C (Ir ms):
We square the instantaneous current, take the average (mean) value of i 2 and finally take the square
root of that average.
 This procedure defines the root-mean-square current denoted as Irms. Even when I is negative, I2 is
always positive so Irms is never zero (unless I is zero at every instant).

Hence,
1. Mathematically rms of numerous values I 1, I2 ……In is defined as,
I 12  I 22  ......  I n2
I rms  .
n
2. For a current changes continuously, we can write,
T T

I I sin 2 tdt
2 2
dt 0
I 02
I2  0
T
 0
T
 .
one cycle 2
 dt
0
 dt0

I0
I rms  I2   0.707 I 0 or 70.7% of I 0 .
one cycle
2
I0
I rms 
 0.707 I 0 .
2
 The square root of the mean square value is called the virtual value and is the value given by AC
instruments.
 Thus, when we speak of our house hold power supply as 220 V AC, this means that the rms voltage
is 220 V and its voltage amplitude is,
V0  2Vrms  2  220  311V .
 The different values I0, Iav and Irms are shown in Fig.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 2

 Note:
 The average value of sinωt, cos ωt, sin2ωt, cos 2ωt, etc., is zero because it is positive in half of the
time and negative in rest half of the time.
Thus
1. sin t  cos t  sin 2t  cos 2t  0.
T T T T
2.  sin tdt   sin 2tdt   cos tdt   cos 2tdt  0.
0 0 0 0

T
T
 sin tdt 
2
3. .
0
2
T /2
T
4.  sin tdt   .
0

Phasors:
 If an AC source is connected to a series circuit containing resistors, inductors and capacitors and we
want to know the amplitude and time characteristics of the alternating current. To simplify our
analysis of circuits containing two or more elements, we use graphical constructions called phasor
diagrams.
 In these constructions, alternating (sinusoidal) quantities, such as current and voltage are rotating
vectors called Phasors.
 In these diagrams, the instantaneous value of a quantity that varies sinusoidally with time is
represented by the projection onto a vertical axis (if it is a sine function) or onto a horizontal axis (if
it is a cosine function) of a vector with a length equal to the amplitude (i0) of the quantity. The
vector rotates counterclockwise with constant angular velocity ω.

Current and Potential Relations:

In this section, we will derive voltage current relations for individual circuit elements carrying a
sinusoidal current. We will consider resistors, inductors and capacitors individually or combined.
Let the applied alternating potential difference, given by,
V  V0 sin t        (i)
Where Vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential
difference and ω is its angular frequency.

To find the value of current through the resistor, we apply

Kirchhoff’s loop rule ∑ε (t) = 0, to the circuit shown in fig.
V  V0 sin t  IR            (ii )
V V0
 I  sin t  I 0 sin t        (iii )
R R

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 3

 V0
Where the current amplitude Im is given by, I .
R
Comparing equation (i) and (iii) it is clear that the voltage and current are in phase with each other,
i.e. the phase difference is zero.
Phasor diagram:

2.Ac voltage applied to an inductor:

Let the applied alternating potential difference, given by,
V  V0 sin t        (i)
Where V0 is the amplitude of the oscillating potential
difference and ω is its angular frequency.

To find the value of current through the inductor, we

apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
i.e. ∑ε (t) = 0, to the circuit shown in fig. , and since there
is no resistor in the circuit,

dI
V L  0,          (ii )
dt
dI
Where, L is the self-induced emf in the inductor; and L is the self-inductance of the coil.
dt

dI dI
V L  V0 sin t  L .
dt dt
dI V0 V
  sin t  dI  0 sin tdt.      (iii )
dt L L
Integrating equation (iii) with respect to time we have:
V0
 dI  L  sin tdt.
V0 
 I ( cos t )  I 0 sin( t  ).      (iv )
L 2

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 4

 
I  I 0 sin( t  ).      (v)
Or
2
 Comparing equation (i) and (v) it is clear that the voltage leads the current by phase angle
(π/2).
Phasor diagram:

Inductive reactance (xL): The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of ac through it
is called inductive reactance.
V
We know I  0 , is the amplitude of the current.
L
The quantity ‘ωL’ is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance, denoted by,
XL=ωL=2πfL.
 The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance,
and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
 The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit in the same way as the
resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit.
 The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and to the frequency of the
current,

3.Alternating voltage applied to a capacitor:

Let the applied alternating potential difference, given by,

V  V0 sin t        (i)
Where V0 is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference and ω is its angular frequency.

To find the value of current through the capacitor, we apply

Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
i.e. ∑ε (t) = 0, to the circuit shown in fig. , and since there is no resistor in the circuit,
The instantaneous voltage v across the capacitor is,
Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 5
 q
V'  .
C

q
Or V  V '  0  V   0,        (ii )
C
q q
 V0 sin t   0   V0 sin t.
C C
 q  V0 C sin t                  (iii )
Differentiating the equation (iii),
dq d V 
 V0 C sin t  I  (V0 C ) cos t  ( 0 ) cos t  I 0 sin( t  )
dt dt 1 / C 2

Or I  I 0 sin( t  )        (iv )
2
Comparing equation (i) and (iv) it is clear that the current leads the current by phase
angle (π/2).

Phasor diagram:

Capacitive reactance (XC): The opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of ac

through it is called capacitive reactance.
V
We know I 0  0 , is the amplitude of the current.
C
The quantity ‘ωC’ is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive reactance, denoted by,
1 1
Xc   .
C 2fC
 The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance; its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
 The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the current,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 6

 4. R-C,circuit:

Consider a circuit with resistor R and capacitor C, connected in

series with an alternating source of potential V. If V R and VC are
the p.d. across resistor and capacitor respectively, then

(i) sup ply voltage : V  VR2  VC2  ( IR) 2  ( IX C ) 2  I R 2  X C2

2
V  1 
(ii ) Im pedance : Z   R 2  X C2  R 2   
I  C 
V0 V0
(iii ) Current : I  I 0 sin( t   ) where, I 0   .
Z R 2  X C2
Xc X 
tan   ,    tan 1  C 
R  R 

R R
Or cos   ,    cos 1   Where ‘φ’ is the phase difference.
Z Z 

5. L-R-Circuit:
Consider a circuit with a resistor R and an inductor L connected in series with an alternating source
of potential V. If VR and VL are the p.d. across resistor and inductor respectively, then

(i ) spply voltage : V  VR2  VL2  ( IR ) 2  ( IX L ) 2  I R 2  X L2

 R 2  X L2  R 2  L 
V
(ii ) Im pedance : z 
2

I
V V0
(iii ) Current : I  I 0 sin( t   ) where, I 0  0  .
Z R 2  X L2
XL X 
tan   ,    tan 1  L 
R  R 

R R
Or cos      cos 1  
,
Z Z
Where ‘φ’ is the phase difference.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 7

 6. L-C-Circuit:
Consider a circuit with inductor L and capacitor C connected in series
with an alternating potential V. If VL and VC are the p.d. across inductor
and capacitor respectively, then
(i) spply voltage : V  VL  VC  IX L  IX C  I ( X L  X C )

V
(ii ) Im pedance : z   XL  XC.
I
 V0 V0
(iii ) Current : I  I 0 sin( t  ) where, I 0   .
2 Z XL  XC

Where ‘φ=π/2’ is the phase difference.

7. Series L-C-R, circuit:

Consider a RLC- series circuit shown in fig. If V R, VL and VC are the p.d. across the resistor, inductor
and capacitor respectively, then from phasor diagram,

(i ) spply voltage : V  VR2  (VL  VC ) 2  ( IR ) 2  ( IX L  IX C ) 2

 I R2  ( X L  X C )2
2
V  1 
(ii ) Im pedance : z   R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2  R 2   L  
I  C 

V0 V0
(iii ) Current : I  I 0 sin( t   ) where, I 0   .
Z R2  ( X L  X C )2
(X L  XC )  X  XC 
tan   ,    tan 1  L 
R  R 

R R
Or cos   ,    cos 1  
Z Z 
 
   cos 1  
R
 R 2  ( X  X )2 
 L C 
Where, ‘φ’ is the phase difference.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 8

 L-C-R, resonance circuit:
Resonance will occur when oscillating quantities, here I and V are in same phase, i.e.
  0.
Or X L  X C  0.
1
Or L  .
C
1 1
   0  . Or f0  .
LC 2 LC

 Where ω0 is called resonant angular frequency and f 0 is called resonant frequency.

At resonance the impedance of the circuit is ,
Z  Z min  R 2  ( X L  X C )  R,
V
And I  I max  .
R

Quality factor or Q-factor:

The sharpness of resonance of an L-C-R series circuit at resonance can be determined by the
Q- factor of the circuit. It can be defined as the ratio of p.d across the capacitor or inductor to the
applied p.d. at resonance .

VL VC
Q  factor   .
V V
IX  L 1 L 1 L
 L  0    .
IR R LC R R C

Instantaneous power and average power:

Consider the most general case, in which current and voltage differ by a phase angle ‘φ’.
The instantaneous power,
Pins  VI  V0 sin t.I 0 sin( t   ).
 V0 I 0 sin t[sin t cos   cos t sin  ]
 V0 I 0 [sin 2 t cos   sin t cos t sin  ]
 sin 2t sin  
Pinst  V0 I 0 sin 2 t cos   .
 2

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 9

 T

P inst dt
1
T
 sin 2t sin  
Pav  0
  V0 I 0 sin 2 t cos   dt

T
T0 2
 dt
0

T 
T T
1 T
Pav   V0 I 0  cos   0 As  sin tdt  and  sin 2tdt  0.
2

T 2  0
2 0

V0 I 0
Pav  cos   Vrms I rms cos 
2
R
Where cos  is called power factor and cos   .
Z
Case-1: AC circuit consisting only resistors:
We know, Pav  Vrms I rms cos
.
R
Where cos    cos 0 0  1.
Z
V2 VI .
 Pav  Vrms I rms  I rms
2
R  rms  0 0
R 2
Case-2: AC circuit consisting only inductor, only capacitor or both:
Here the phase difference φ=π/2.

We know, Pav  Vrms I rms cos

.
R
Where cos  
 cos 90 0  0.
Z
 Pav  Vrms I rms  0  0

 Watt less current: An AC circuit consisting only inductor, only capacitor or both don’t consume
any power so the current flowing through the circuit is called wattles current.
Case-3: L-C-R series circuit:
We know Pav  Vrms I rms cos
.
R
Where cos   , Z  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2
Z
1
 Pav  Vrms I rms  .
R  ( X L  X C )2
2

 L-C-R series circuit at resonance:

R
At resonance cos   , Z  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2  R [ As X L  X C ]
Z
cos   1.
2
Vrms VI .
 Pav  Vrms I rms  I rms
2
R  0 0
R 2
It is purely resistive circuit.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 10

 L - C Oscillation:
We know that a capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and
magnetic energy, respectively.
When a charged capacitor is connected to an inductor, the charge on the
capacitor and the current in the circuit exhibit electrical oscillations called
L-C oscillation.

Let q and I be the charge and current in the circuit at time t.

dI
Since, , is positive, the induced emf in L will have polarity as shown, i.e.,
dt
Vb < Va .
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
q dI dq
L  0      (i ) [ I   ]
C dt dt
q d 2q d 2q 1
  L 2  0  2  02 q  0 [ As 0  ]
C dt dt LC
This is a second order differential equation. Let the solution of the equation is ,
q  A sin 0t  B cos 0t.        (ii )
dq
We know at t  0, q  q0 and I   0.
dt
Putting these values in equation (i) we have,
q0  A  0  B 1. Or B  q0        (iii )
dq
I   [ A0 cos 0t  B0 sin 0t ].  0  A0  1  B  0.
dt
Or A  0        (iv )
Putting the values of A and B we have,
q  q0 cos 0t. and I  0 q0 sin 0t  I 0 sin 0t        (v)
[ I 0  q00  Maximum current ]

1
Where, I 0  q00 (max imum current ) and 0  is resonant frequency.
LC
 Note that the above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two reasons:
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to introduce a
damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and the oscillations finally die
away.
Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 11
 (ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not remain constant. It is
radiated away from the system in the form of electromagnetic waves (discussed in the next
chapter). In fact, radio and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.

Transformer:
Transformer is a device which increases or
decreases the AC voltage by changing current.
Principle: Transformer is based on the principle of
mutual induction.
Construction:
 A transformer consists of two sets of coils,
insulated from each other. They are wound on
a soft-iron core as shown in fig.

 One of the coils called the primary coil has N p turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it
has Ns turns.
 Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
Working:
Let φ be the flux linked with each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a
voltage Vp is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage Vs , in the secondary with Ns turns is,
d
Vs   N s      (i )
dt
The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary. This is,
d
Vp  N p      (ii )
dt
Dividing equation (i) and (ii) we have,
VS N S
 .        (iii )
VP N P
Note: The above relation has been obtained using three assumptions:
(i) The primary resistance and current are small.
(ii) The same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux
escapes from the core, and.
(iii) The secondary current is small.
 If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is equal to
the power output, and since p = IV.
V I
VP I P  VS I S  S  P      (iv )
VP I S
Comparing equation (iii) and (iv) we have,
VS N S I P
         (v)
VP N P I S

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 12

 NS
 The ratio, , Is called turn ratio.
NP
 If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary (N s < Np), we have a step-down
transformer. In this case, Vs < V p and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage is stepped down, or reduced,
and the current is increased.
 If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary (Ns > Np), we have a step-up transformer.
In this case, Vs > V p and Is < Ip. That is, the voltage is stepped up, or increased, and the current is
decreased.
Losses of transformer:
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without any energy losses). But in
actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the fluxes due to
primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps in the
core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so,
energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I2R). In high current, low voltage windings,
these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and
causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis loss: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat and is kept to
a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.

Note: The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done
with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is
reduced and consequently, the I2R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to
an area sub-station near the consumers. There the voltage is stepped down. It is further stepped
down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches our
homes.

Assignment:-
1. An ac circuit consists of series combination of circuit elements X and Y .the current is ahead of

voltage in phase by, . If the element X is a pure resistor of 100ohm, name the circuit element Y
4
and calculate the r.m.s value of current if r.m.s value of voltage is 141V.
20 5
2. A resistor of 50Ω, an inductor of H and a capacitor of microfarad are connected in series to a
 
voltage source 230V, 50Hz. Find the impedance of the circuit.
3. What is resonant frequency of a series L-C-R circuit containing a coil of inductance of 0.12 H and
23Ω resistance and capacitor of capacitance 4.8 x10 -7F?

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 13

 4. Obtain the resonant frequency and Q factor of series L-C-R circuit with L=3.0 H, C=27µF, and R =
7.4Ω.
5. A 100 µF capacitor is charges with a 50 V source. Then the source removed and the capacitor
connected with a inductor as a result of which 5A current flows through the inductor. Calculate
the inductance of the inductor.
6. Find out the value of inductance which should be connected in series with a capacitor of
capacitance 5 µF, resistance 100Ω and A.C source of 50cycle per second, so that the power factor
is unity.
7. How much current is drawn by the primary coil of a transformer which steps down 220V to 22V, to
operate device with an impedance of 220Ω.
8. The primary coil of an ideal transformer has 100 turns and transformation ratio is also 100. The
input voltage and power are 220V and 1100W respectively. Calculate
(i) Number of turns in the secondary.
(ii) The current in the primary.
(iii) Voltage across the secondary.
(iv) The current across secondary.
(v) Power in secondary.
9. A sinusoidal voltage E  200 sin( 314t ) is applied to a resistor of 10Ω resistance. Calculate
(i) r.m.s value of voltage
(ii) r.m.s. value of current.
(iii) Power dissipated as heat in watt.
10. An alternating voltage given by V  140 sin( 314t ) is connected to a pure resistor of 50Ω .find the
r.m.s current through the resistor.

Answer: (1) 1A. (2) 50Ω (3) 663.5Hz. (40 11rad/s, 45. (5) 0.01H (6) 2H (7) 10 -2A.
(8) 10,000,5A, 22kV, 0.05A.1100W. (9) 141.4V, 14.14A, 2000W. (10) 1.98A.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT (chapter -7)

1. Define AC, obtain an expression for average value of AC during the

T
(I) Half cycle (0- ) and.
2
(II) Full cycle (0- T).

2. Define I R.M.S. obtains an expression for it.

3. Obtain the expression phase difference between voltage and current and draw the phasor diagram for
AC circuit consisting:

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 14

 (i) Only inductor. (ii )Only resistor.
(i) Only capacitor.
4. Derive an expression for impedance and phase angle of L-C-R, series circuit.
5. Write the expression for impedance and phase angle in L-R, L-C and R-C circuit.
6. Obtain an expression for resonance condition; hence write the expression for resonant frequency.
7. Define Q- factor. Obtain an expression for it .write its significance.
8. Prove that the average power consumption in AC circuit consisting only resistor is I2max/R.
9. Prove that the average power consumption in AC circuit consisting only inductor is zero.
10. Prove that the average power consumption in AC circuit consisting only capacitor is zero.
11. Prove that the average power consumption in L-C-R series AC circuit at resonance is I2max/R.
12. Obtain an expression for variation of charge and current in L-C oscillation.
13. Write the principle and explain the working of an A.C Generator.
14. Write the different energy loss of transformer.

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Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 15