COMMUNICATION THEORY & CULTURE

ASSIGNMENT - FRANKFURT SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Academic Year 2020-22

PRN No.: 20050341056 Submitted By: Yugchhaya Baid

Submitted To: Prof. Sudha Date Submitted: 6th November, 2020

Venkataswamy

Symbiosis School of Media & Communication, Bengaluru

Constituent of SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL (DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
(Established under Section 3 of the UGC Act 1956 vide Notification No. F.9 12/2001-U.3
of the Government of India)
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade
Objective
To write about the theorists and the key contributions of the Frankfurt School of thought, particularly on
the culture industry and the public sphere.

The Frankfurt School of Thought

• Introduction
Frankfurt School was introduced at the Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung),
founded in 1923 by Felix Weil; as an attachment to the Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany.
Initially, it was introduced to study the developing Marxist studies in Germany. Due to the Nazis
pressure, the institute faced many difficulties and was forced shift from Switzerland to New York and
finally in 1949 it settled back to the original location - Germany.
The initial idea of study was on the labor movement and the origins of anti-Semitism, which at the time
were being ignored in German intellectual and academic life. But in 1930s, the institute’s Marxist
approach was further focused on the interdisciplinary integration of the social sciences comprising of
topics based on economic, social, political and aesthetics, ranging from empirical analysis to
philosophical theorization.

• Critical Theory
The Frankfurt School was said to be a group of German-American critical theorists, who
studied combined Marxist analysis with Freudian psychoanalysis to form the basis of “Critical Theory.”
Naming a few contributing theorist associated to the institute: Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno,
Jürgen Habermas, Antonio Gramsci, Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm, Odo Kirchheimer, Leo
Löwenthal, Franz Leopold Neumann and Friedrich Pollock. Here in the theorists excelled in
humanitarian topics but still choose the Marxist theories as the core to understand the culture and
society.
Where in Max Horkheimer asked “What is ‘theory’?” as the opening question of his essay,
Traditional and Critical Theory (1937). Traditional theories like Social & scientific, whether deduced
or analysed, always proceed to explain facts by
application of universal laws in order to either
confirm or disconfirm them. But Horkheimer also
defined critical theory in the same essay as “social
critique meant to effect sociologic change and
realize intellectual emancipation, by way of
enlightenment that is not dogmatic in its
assumptions.”
Horkheimer rejected the belief of objectivity in
knowledge by stating “The facts which our senses
present to us are socially preformed in two ways:
through the historical character of the object
perceived and through the historical character of the
perceiving organ”, in Ingram and Simon-Ingram
(1992). As we can obtain knowledge from god’s viewpoint, but can only be obtained from a societal
perspective set in interdependent individuals.

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Assuming traditional theories are assessed on considering the empirical inference, then no practical
consequences can be actually implied. To separate knowledge from action and speculation from social
transformative enterprise can be achieved by the theoretically-oriented tool: knowledge as a mirror of
reality.
Critical Theory characterized as the analyzes of
importance of the ruling understandings which
considered knowledge as functional to ideology
critique and social emancipation which falsify how
human relations occur in the real world. Thus,
abandoning the ignorant notion of
knowledge-impartiality. Hence the development of
a critical theory on the approach of Marxism was
considered an appropriate response to such a notion.
This theory has been greatly affected by Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s concept of dialects of
socio-historical oppositions and bourgeois
philosophy. Hegel established that the birth of
modern state made rationality come to terms with
reality whereas, Marx firmly insisted on the basic
need of reading the development of rationality via
history with reference to class struggle. Instead, the
Critical Theory aligned there study to the
interpretation of society and indicated the
requirement of creating open systems as an intrinsic
part of the social criticism. Socialism, the joint
possession structure of production is what
capitalism was visibly unfolding too due to the immanent contradictions; dialects & ideology.
Stating Herbert Marcuse from his essay ‘Philosophie und Kritische Theorie (1937)’, where he defends
the view of Critical Theory by characterizing it as “ Being neither philosophy tout court nor pure
science, as it claims to be instead an overly simplistic approach to Marxism.”

• Contributors
- Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) - The then director the Institute of Social Research and the chair of
social philosophy. Under his supervision, the institute was aligned to develop social theory on
interdisciplinary basis. He endorsed the notion; ‘no absolute truth of reality.’ Also saw the
society as a unit constantly revamping itself resulting into the social absolute idea of being criticized.
Horkheimer said ‘critical theory aims to asses the breach between ideas and reality’ but he also
prolonged that ‘there is no general criteria for critical theory as a whole’, since it depended on a
repetition of event.

- Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) - He aimed to establish a critical social consciousness while also
arguing that objects exist for us along conceptuality. Adorno was in opposition to the idea: critical
theory merely criticising one point of view and was also keen, that diabetic approach isn’t a middle
point of absolutism & reality.

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- Jürgen Habermas (1929- present) - One of the well known second generation of critical theorists.
He grew up amidst the Nazi regime & WWII, effects his thinking & writing deeply and the writings
are steeped in the German tradition. But was also influenced by the works of Marx, Weber and the
first generation of the critical theorists of the Frankfurt School.

- Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979) - While teaching at Columbia & Harvard, he began his research
leading him to write about the Soviet Marxism. Marcuse’s career shows the constant attempt to
examine, defend and restructure Marxist enterprise.

• Contributions
1. Culture Industry
“To write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric” - Theodor Adorno

The phrase “Culture Industry” was given by the Frankfurt School theorists-Theodor Adorno and Max
Horkheimer. It was depicted in a chapter “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass
Deception”, of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment(1947). In this chapter, the theorists describe it as an
industry that mass-produces meaningless cultural goods-films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.-
aimed to deceive the masses by creating illusions & stereotypes. These commodities are cultivating a
false psychological desire; can only be achieved and satisfied by products of capitalism.

Adorno and Horkheimer were highly influenced by the major developed theories - Marx's theories of
alienation and commodity fetishism, Max Weber's instrumental reason, and Georg Lukacs' concept of
the reification of consciousness. The reason they adopted the phrase only to argue that the industry
showcases an ‘assembly-line character’; cultural items produced were analogous compared to other
industries manufacturing vast quantities of consumer goods.
Their concern with production of cultural content in mass society is clearly evident in the chapter
but they also criticize the supply-driven nature of cultural economies. No where, do they suggest;
products are inferior just that these products have replaced the original other forms of entertainment
without really understanding the salient character played by then-defunct sources of culture.

“People know what they want because they know whatother people want” - Theodor Adorno

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Artifacts created by humans comprise of “materialization of labour” and its intentions; have
analytically distinct aspects but are interconnected. When considered as ‘a product of labor: has utility
for someone’; serve a requirement of individual or collective practical reason. As the value of the
artefact depends upon its utility also the
condition of the market. But when considered
as ‘an objectivization: aesthetic sense’, the
value of the artefact depends upon its
relevance as well as the conditions preserving
the monopoly. From the utility to the
relevance continuum, artifacts can be arranged
between them.

Cultural products: all artifacts where relevance

dominates utility. Though here particularly in
Adorno’s idea, the cultural products which
formed the popular culture - film, horoscope,
jazz, magazines, soap operas, etc. With
cultural objects being more interchangeable,
relevance declines equals decline in
monopolistic value. How Horkheimer and
Adorno have stated it as, "what might be
called use value in the reception of cultural
commodities is replaced by exchange
value." The exchange value can be attained by
widespread process of fetishisation, so
technically, consumer pays for the packaging
and not for the product.

One key characteristic of the culture industry

is repetition which Horkheimer and Adorno
have emphasised upon by demonstrating the
differentiation of "popular" and "serious"
music. As stated by Adorno in ‘On Popular
Music’ (1941), “The whole structure of popular music is standardized, even where the attempt is made
to circumvent standardization. Standardization extends from the most general features to the most
specific ones." Suggesting that standardization implies the interchangeability.

Adorno & Horkheimer set the terms in the ‘Dialectic of Enlightenment’ for cultural products: "no
independent thinking must be expected from the audiences" but instead, "the product prescribes every
reaction." Which leads to the standardization of the audience. Adorno describes standardization "divests
the listener of his spontaneity and promotes conditioned reflexes." in the ‘On Popular Music.’ Hence,
the argument suggests that under the significance of late capitalism both pop culture & its audience
suffer complete loss.

Horkheimer and Adorno began considering and dismissing, the claim that the standardization: the
identity of mass culture, can be explained in technological terms. As it was being argued that the
standardization of the cultural product under late capitalism is technologically determined. They also
stated in the ‘Dialectic of Enlightenment’ that “Technology attains its power, they argue, only
through the power of monopolies and great corporations.”
Stuart Ewen, ‘Captains of Consciousness’ (1976) states that there are two aspects of mass society: mass
production and mass consumption. But Adorno emphasizes that standardization of the cultural product

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isn’t a mass production result. He also states "the expression 'industry' [in the concept 'culture industry']
is not to be taken literally. It refers to the standardization of the thing itself -- such as the Western,
familiar to every movie-goer -- and to the rationalization of distribution techniques, but not strictly to
the production process." in ‘Culture Industry Reconsidered’ (1975). Whereas in had been more to the
point & stated in ‘On Popular Music’, that “The production of popular music can be called 'industrial'
only in its promotion and distribution, whereas the act of producing a song-hit still remains in a
handicraft stage." It is "still 'individualistic' in its social mode of production.” But relatively expresses
that standardization is actually a prerequisite of mass consumption.

Describing ‘pseudo-individualization: necessary correlative of musical standardization’ prevents

listeners from enduring the standardization; is pulling them to the animalistic level by forcing them to
forget, music was standardized. This duality of ‘popular music’ proves the purpose of marketing it
because to mass market a song must be distinguishable from another but without pseudo-
individualization and standardization, the song could not be successfully marketed.

As Horkheimer and
Adorno pointed out
clearly in ‘Dialectic of
Enlightenment’, "modern
communications media
have an isolating effect."
isolation inclusive of
social as well as physical
which keeps people from
gregarious interactions.
They continue saying,
"communication
establishes uniformity
among men by isolating
them.”

Popular music either

provide the content of
thought or promotes
thoughtlessness in the
people. When talking about the first part; Adorno proposes that popular music serves an ideological
function for its listeners but about the second part, he cites the Distraction Thesis in ‘On Popular
Music’. Wherein he says "Distraction" is a correlate of capitalism; this mode of production, "which
engenders fears and anxiety about unemployment, loss of income, war, has its 'non-productive' correlate
in entertainment; that is, relaxation which does not involve the effort of concentration at all." Thus,
distraction is a presupposition of popular music; "the tunes lull the listener to inattention.”

Adorno classifies the mass response to popular music as two major types: "rhythmically obedient" &
"emotional”. The rhythmically obedient type of listener especially open to "masochistic adjustment to
authoritarian collectivism." But the emotional type of listeners "consume music in order to be allowed
to weep. They are taken in by the musical expression of frustration rather than happiness." Adding to it
he also says, ”music that permits it's listeners the confession of their unhappiness reconciles them, by
means of this 'release,' to their social dependence."

“Every work of art is an uncommitted crime.” – Theodor Adorno

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2. Public Sphere
The term “public sphere” was given by Jurgen Habermas and defined as “made up of private people
gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state.” The public being
a critical judge, means open to all but more relatable to the state. The public sphere is public opinion
which can be an idealized model of
democratic debate. In Germany, the
public sphere came up as part of civil
society, the realm of commodity exchange
and labor.

The emergence of early finance and trade

capitalism developed a new social order.
The power structure of the society estates
was stabilized via capitalism and worked
in the direction of their dissolution. The
traffic in commodities and capitalist trade
news were the instruments of dissolution
which led to the public being referred ad
state equipment with a monopoly over
legal enforcement.

Depersonalized state authority leading to the birth of civil society wherein economic activity
converted to private but the orientation was in the direction of public commodity market. The whole
thought of economics changed completely as it took the modern configuration and ceased to be related
to household. Meanwhile the press’s role became important with the developed political journals. News
transformed as a commodity due to the relative commercial need of traffic in news.

As the bourgeois developed, making it the real carrier of public where the importance of social status in
the civil society led to stress between the court and town. In the early capitalism, the cooperation
between state regulation and private initiative was predominant. While private people prepared to urge
the public authority to legalize itself before public opinion.

Habermas’s argument lies upon the very notion of changed public & private along time wherein he
defines major terms and provides historical viewpoint of the philosophical problem he is speaking
about. While Habermas frequently stresses on the spatial dimension of public sphere; “it is an idea
dependent on various socio-economic elements, not an actual place.”

Essentially in Hegel’s ‘ Philosophy of Right’ was where this phrase ’public sphere’ came out denoting
the realm: goods are manufactured and exchanged with the occurrence of all other economic
relationships. Habermas's model of public sphere completely depended on the existence of civil
society.

Habermas, however deletes a major point of gendered spheres that was the part of Greek world private
and public realm. The public realm was male: the head of the household, competitive and open; the
private realm was female who had no real legal or political status kept as secret.
The representative publicity existed from the Middle Ages until the eighteenth century where the public
and private realms were not separated wherein constituted the king (only public person) representing
himself before an audience (spectators).

Habermas’s investigation of a publicity that arose in the eighteenth century still relevant in modern
times is ‘The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere’. The public use of reason in

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rational-critical debate being the key feature.

He sees the public sphere growing out of the private

institution of the family, and he calls it "literary public
sphere", where first time discussion of art and
literature were possible. The public sphere’s entry
depended on one's education and qualification as a
property owner even if defined as inclusive.

The self-intepretation of the public sphere shaped into

the concept of "public opinion" was argued by
Habermas. But due to the economic and structural
changes, the bourgeois public sphere crumbed. He
called “refeudalization of society: blurred
boundaries between state and society”, where the
private sphere collapsed when state and society became
involved in each other's spheres. The key feature of the
public sphere was also replaced by leisure because private people no longer existed as a public of
property owners.

Habermas insisted, “the mass media world is cheap and powerful” as they attempt to manipulate and
create a public where none exists, and also to manufacture consensus. With the rise of new disciplines
like advertising and public relations this claim has been very evident in modern politics. Moving
towards the feudal aspect once agin as politicians and organizations represent themselves before the
voters. Easily manipulative public opinion can only be seen but at rare times, critical opinion is also
visible.

Therefore, Habermas holding on to hope that power and domination may not be the everlasting features.

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References

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