Data communication assignment

Question .1 Why does bandwidth increases with frequency

One reason mobile and fixed wireless bandwidth is climbing is

that we now are starting to use higher frequencies. That matters
because signals at higher frequencies inherently can carry more
data.

As a simple example, assume that every zero crossing of any

wave represents the opportunity to code a bit (one or zero). Using
a very simple coding, the total amount of bits that can be
represented in one second of time hinges on the number of
oscillations a wave makes over that period of time.

Higher-frequency signals make more crossings, and therefore can

represent more symbols. And that is why millimeter wave signals
have such high bandwidth: there are simply so many more zero
crossings in any unit of time, compared to lower-frequency signals
(600 MHz to 800 MHz or 2-GHz, for example).

The definition of bandwidth is frequency range and it seems to be

correct to say that higher bandwidth guarantees higher data rate.

MCQ:

Which is the SI unit for the bandwidth?

A.) Hertz
B.) H/m
C.) Pascal
D.) Cd/m2 (ANS:A)
Q2) What is the difference between attenuation, distortion

and noise?

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received.
The three different causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.
Attenuation:
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or
composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy
in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire
carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some

of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To

compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal.
Distortion:
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different
frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation
speed (see the next section) through a medium and, therefore,
its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences in
delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly
the same as the period duration. In other words, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they
had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore

not the same.

Noise:
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise,
such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse
noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random
motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from
sources such as motors and appliances.These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the
receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the
other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the
receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high
energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines,

lightning, and so on.

MCQ Que:- ______ is a type of transmission impairment in which the signal
loses strength due to the resistance of the transmission medium
A. Attenuation
B. Distortion
C. Noise
D. Decibel

Q.3. What is Baseband and Broadband Transmission.

Ans:- Baseband Transmission :- Baseband Transmission is a signaling technology
that sends digital signals over a single frequency as discrete electrical pulses. The
entire bandwidth of a baseband system carries only one data signal and is
generally less than the amount of bandwidth available on a broadband
transmission system.
The baseband signal is bidirectional so that a baseband system can both transmit
and receive signals simultaneously. Baseband signals can be regenerated using
repeaters in order to travel longer distances before weakening and becoming
unusable because of attenuation.
Baseband transmission technologies do not use modulation, but they can use
time-division multiplexing (TDM) to accommodate multiple channels over a single
baseband transmission line

Broadband Transmission:- Broadband Transmission is a signaling technology that

sends signals simultaneously over a range of different frequencies as
electromagnetic waves.
Broadband Transmission is a signaling technology that sends signals
simultaneously over a range of different frequencies as electromagnetic waves.
The bandwidth of a broadband system can usually carry multiple, simultaneous
data signals.
These signals are unidirectional – traveling in only one direction at a time – so a
broadband system can generally either transmit or receive but cannot do both
simultaneously. Broadband signals can be regenerated using amplifiers in order to
travel longer distances before becoming attenuated
MCQS :-
Q.1 Broadband long-distance communications were made possible by the advent
of

a. telegraph cables

b. repeater amplifiers
c. HF radi
d. Geostationary satellites

Q.4 What are Topologies, Protocols and Standards?

Protocol :
In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and
procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the
system. Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols . Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.

Standards :
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for
exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which
are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards :

Standards are of two types :

De Facto Standard.
De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”. These are the standard s that have not been approved by any
Organization , but have been adopted as Standards because of it’s widespread
use. Also , sometimes these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their own
rules on their products which are different . Also they use some same standard
rules for manufacturing for their products.

De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By
Regulations” . Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by
officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard which
are important to follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP, TCP, IP,
UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.

Topologies:
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and
logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same
or different in a same network.
There are 8 types of topologies:
Point-to-Point: Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as
computer, switches or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece
of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the
other and vice-versa.
Bus Topology: In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line
or cable. Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time.
Star Topology: All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known
as hub device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to
point connection between hosts and hub.
Ring Topology: In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to
communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data
travels through all intermediate hosts.

Mesh Topology: In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple

hosts. This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host
or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
Tree Topology: Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form
of network topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
Daisy Chain: This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring
topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means,
if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.
Hybrid Topology: A network structure whose design contains more than one
topology is said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and
demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

MCQ: A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said
to be __________ topology.
(a) Daisy
(b) Hybrid
(c) Ring
(d) Bus
Q.5 What do you understand by the term Multiplexing? Explain different Multiplexing
techniques.
Ans : Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium.
Types of Multiplexing Technique
1. FDM 2. WDM 3. TDM
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): It is a technique by which the total bandwidth
available in a communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency
bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal.
o The most common example of frequency-division multiplexing is radio and television
broadcasting.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM): It is a technology which multiplexes a number of

optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of
laser light.
o The technology of WDM is widely used in Optical Transport Networks.

Time- Division Multiplexing (TDM): A multiplexing technique by which multiple data signals
can be transmitted over a common communication channel in different time slots is known as
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
o Packet switching networks use TDM for telecommunication links.
Types of TDM :(a).Synchronous TDM (b). Statistical TDM
 Synchronous TDM:It time division multiplexing assigns a fixed time slot to each
connected device, whether the device transmits data or not.

 Statistical TDM:With asynchronous/statistical time division multiplexing, time slots are

flexible, and assigned when connected devices have data that is ready to send.
MCQ:In which type of multiplexing time slots are preassigned to sources and fixed.
a) TDM b) Synchronous TDM c) Asynchronous TDM d) FDM
Correct ans. (b) Synchronous TDM.

Q.6 What is Transmission? Differentiate between

Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission With
Examples!

Transmission is the action of transferring or moving something from one

position or person to another. It is a mechanism of transferring data between
two devices connected using a network. It is also called communication
Mode.
Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which is a
continuous stream of data signals accompanied by timing signals. It helps to
ensure that the transmitter and the receiver are synchronized with each other.
This communication methods is mostly used when large amounts of data
needs to be transferred from one location to the other.
Asynchronous Transmission is also known as start/stop transmission, sends
data from the sender to the receiver using the flow control method. It does not
use a clock to synchronize data between the source and destination.
This transmission method sends one character or 8 bits at a time. In this
method, before the transmission process begins, each character sends the start
bit. After sending the character, it also sends the stop bit. With the character
bits and start and stop bits, the total number of bits is 10 bits.

Key Differences:
Synchronous Asynchronous
Synchronous data transmission is a data
transfer method in which a continuous Asynchronous data transmission is a data
stream of data signals is accompanied by transfer method in which the sender and
timing signals. the receiver use the flow control method.

Asynchronous handler helps you to run a

Synchronous handler do not return until it
process independently of sending a
finishes processing the HTTP request for
response to the user.
which it is called.
Users do not have to wait until sending
Users need to wait until it sending finishes completes before receiving a response
before getting a response from the server. from the server.

In asynchronous transmission, the

In this transmission method, blocks of
information should be transmitted
characters are transmitted at high- speed
character by character.
on the transmission line.
It sends data in the form of blocks or Data is sent in the form of character or
frames. byte.
Asynchronous transmission method is
Synchronous Transmission is fast. slow.

Asynchronous Transmission is
Synchronous Transmission is costly. economical.

The time interval of transmission is

The time interval of transmission is
random.
constant.
In asynchronous transmission, there is a
Synchronous Transmission does not have
gap between data.
a gap between data.
Asynchronous postback renders only
Synchronous postback renders the entire
needed part of the page.
page of any postback.
It requires local buffer storages at the two
It does not need any local storage at the
ends of the line to assemble blocks.
terminal end.
 Asynchronous replication an ideal for
Synchronous replication should be
projects that span across long distances
performed when reliable and long-term
and have a very minimal budget.
storage is required.
This method requires accurately
This method does not need any
synchronized clocks at both ends.
synchronized clocks.
You can use it in high-speed applications
You can use it in the low-speed
like the Transmission of data from one
communication like the connection of a
computer to another.
terminal to a computer.
The voice-band and broad-band channels The voice-band channels that have a
are mostly used in the Synchronous narrow type in the used asynchronous
Transmission. transfer.

An example of a synchronous transmission scheme is known as the

High-level Data Link Control, or HDLC. This protocol arose from an
initial design proposed by the IBM Corporation. HDLC has been
used at the data link level in public networks and has been adapted
and modified in several different ways since.

A more advanced communication protocol is the Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM), which is an open, international standard for
the transmission of voice, video, and data signals. Some advantages
of ATM include a format that consists of short, fixed cells (53 bytes)
which reduce overhead in maintenance of variable-sized data
traffic. The versatility of this mode also allows it to simulate and
integrate well with legacy technologies, as well as offering the
ability to guarantee certain service levels, generally referred to as
quality of service (QoS) parameters.
MCQ:
Synchronous signal is usually comprised of one or more high
frequency _______ shaped waveforms.
A}Rectangle
B}SawTooth
C}Triangle
MCQ =: In digital data transmission :
A)Baud rate is always smaller or equal to bit rate
B)Baud rate is equal to bit rate
C)Baud rate is always higher than bit rate
D)none of the above
Q)8 What is line code and block code? Explain line
coding techniques in detail.

ANS) Line code: - A line code is the code used for data transmission of a
digital signal over a transmission line. This process of coding is chosen so
as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-symbol interference.
Whenever we transmit data, it is in the form of digital signals, so with the help
of line coding, we can convert a sequence to bits (or encoding) into a digital
signal which then again converted into bits by the receiver (or can be said as
decoded by the receiver)
Block code: - Block coding helps in error detection and re-transmission of
the signal. It is normally referred to as mB/nB coding as it replaces each m-
bit data group with an n-bit data group (where n>m). Thus, it adds extra bits
(redundancy bits) which helps in synchronization at receiver’s and sender’s
end and also providing some kind of error detecting capability.
For example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is divided into 4-
bit groups. The heart of block coding is the substitution step. In this step, we
substitute an m-bit group for an n-bit group.
Line coding techniques: -
UNIPOLAR LINE CODING: - In Unipolar line coding all the signal levels are
either above or below the axis. It has only one voltage level other than zero.
The symbols 0&1 in digital system can represented in various formats with
different levels and wave forms. The selection of particular format for
common pulse depends on the systems band width, system’s ability to pass
DC level information, error checking facility, case of clock regeneration &
synchronization at receiver, complexity & cost etc.
NON-RETURN TO ZERO (LEVEL) NRZ: -
RETURN TO ZERO (LEVEL) RZ: -
POLAR LINE CODING: - In Polar line coding the voltages are on the both
sides of the axis. Which means it will have both positive and negative values
for voltages or amplitude, it is quite like NRZ scheme but, here we have NRZ-
L (i.e., NRZ-Level) and NRZ-I (i.e., NRZInvert). It has two voltage level other
than zero. The symbols 0&1 in digital system can represented in various
formats with different levels and wave forms. The selection of particular
format for common pulse depends on the systems band width, system’s
ability to pass DC level information, error checking facility, case of clock
regeneration & synchronization at receiver, complexity & cost etc.
NRZ-L AND NRZ-I: -
RETURN TO ZERO RZ: -
BIPOLAR LINE CODING: - In this scheme there are three voltage levels
positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at
zero, while the voltage level for the other element alternates between positive
and negative. Bipolar encoding, binary zero ('0') is represented by 0 voltage
whereas binary one ('1) is represented by alternating positive and negative
voltages. The Bipolar coding technique uses different types of pulses based
on which it is known as NRZ (Non-Return to Zero) or RZ (Return to Zero).
NOT RETURN TO ZERO (NRZ): -
RETURN TO ZERO (RZ): -

MCQ QUE: - In ________ encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.
a) Unipolar
b) Bipolar
 c) Polar
d) None of the above

Q.9
1.FLOW CONTROL :-
It is an important function of the Data Link Layer. It refers to a set of procedures
that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before waiting for
acknowledgement from the receiver.

2. ERROR CONTROL :-
The error control function of data link layer detects the errors in transmitted
frames and re-transmit all the erroneous frames.

Difference between Flow Control and

Error Control

Flow Control Error Control

1. Flow control is meant only for Error control is meant for the
the transmission of data from transmission of error free data from
sender to receiver. sender to receiver.
2. For Flow control there are two To detect error in data, the
approaches: Feedback-based approaches are: Checksum, Cyclic
Flow Control and Rate-based Redundancy Check and Parity
Flow Control Checking.
To correct error in data, the
approaches are: Hamming code
Binary Convolution codes, Reed-
Solomon code, Low-Density Parity
Check codes.
It is used to detect and correct the
3. It prevents the loss of data and error occurred in the code.
avoid over running of receive buffers.
 Example of Error Control techniques
4. Example of Flow Control are : Stop & Wait ARQ and Sliding
techniques are: Stop & Wait Protocol Window ARQ.
and Sliding Window Protocol.

MCQ Question:-
In the ___ protocol we avoid unnecessary transmission by sending only frames
that are corrupted.
a.
Stop-and-Wait ARQ
b.
Go-Back-N ARQ
c.
Selective-Repeat ARQ
d.
none of the above
Answer: (c).
Selective-Repeat ARQ

Q.10. Explain CRC method of Error Detection?

Ans. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Cyclic Redundancy check method is most powerful
mechanism of error detecting. Unlike the parity check which is based on addition, CRC is based
on binary division.
In CRC, instead of adding bits to achieve a desired parity, a sequence of redundant bits, called
the CRC or the CRC remainder, is appended to the end of a data unit so that the resulting data
unit becomes exactly divisible by a second predetermined binary number. At its destination the
incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data
unit is assumed to be intact and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicates that the data unit
has been damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected.
The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a predetermined
divisor, the remainder is the CRC. A CRC must have two qualities. It must have exactly one less
bit than the divisor, and appending it to the end of the data string must make the resulting bit
sequence exactly divisible by the divisor.
CRC generator and checker
First, a string of n 0’s is appended to the data unit. The number n is less than the number of bits
in the predetermined divisor, which are n + 1 bits.
Second, the newly formed data unit is divided by the divisor, using a process called binary
division the remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.
Third, the CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the appended Os at the end of the data unit.
The data unit arrives at the receiver data first followed by the CRC. The receiver treats the whole
string as a unit and divides it by the same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.
If the string arrives without error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero and the data unit
passes. If the string has been changed in transit the division yields a non zero remainder and the
data unit does not pass.

MCQ
Q. Which error detection method consists of just one redundant bit per data unit?
A. Simple parity check
B. Two-dimensional parity check
C. CRC
D. Checksum

Q 11).What is Go – BACK - N – ARQ? And what is it used for.

Ans).In Go-Back-N ARQ, N is the sender's window size.
Suppose we say that Go-Back-3, which means that the three
frames can be sent at a time before expecting the
acknowledgment from the receiver.
It uses the principle of protocol pipelining in which the multiple
frames can be sent before receiving the acknowledgment of the
first frame. If we have five frames and the concept is Go-Back-3,
which means that the three frames can be sent, i.e., frame no 1,
frame no 2, frame no 3 can be sent before expecting the
acknowledgment of frame no 1.
In Go-Back-N ARQ, the frames are numbered sequentially as Go-
Back-N ARQ sends the multiple frames at a time that requires the
numbering approach to distinguish the frame from another frame,
and these numbers are known as the sequential number.OOPs
Concepts in Java

The number of frames that can be sent at a time totally depends

on the size of the sender's window. So, we can say that 'N' is the
number of frames that can be sent at a time before receiving the
acknowledgment from the receiver.
If the acknowledgment of a frame is not received within an
agreed-upon time period, then all the frames available in the
current window will be retransmitted.
The sequence number of the outbound frames depends upon the
size of the sender's window. Suppose the sender's window size is
2, and we have ten frames to send, then the sequence numbers
will not be 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. Let's understand through an
example.
o N is the sender's window size.
o If the size of the sender's window is 4 then the sequence
number will be 0,1,2,3,0,1,2,3,0,1,2, and so on.
The number of bits in the sequence number is 2 to generate the
binary sequence 00,01,10,11.
Use of Go – Back- N – ARQ.
Go-Back-N ARQ is a more efficient use of a connection than
Stop-and-wait ARQ, since unlike waiting for an
acknowledgement for each packet, the connection is still being
utilized as packets are being sent. In other words, during the time
that would otherwise be spent waiting, more packets are being
sent. However, this method also results in sending frames
multiple times – if any frame was lost or damaged, or the ACK
acknowledging them was lost or damaged, then that frame and all
following frames in the send window (even if they were received
without error) will be re-sent. To avoid this, Selective Repeat
ARQ can be used.
MCQ
In Go-Back-N ARQ, if frames 4, 5, and 6 are received successfully, the receiver may send an ACK
_______ to the sendere
A) 5 B) 6 C) 7 D) any of the above

Q.12 what is stop and wait?

Ans. Stop-and-wait ARQ, also referred to as alternating bit
protocol, is a method in telecommunications to send information
between two connected devices. It ensures that information is not
lost due to dropped packets and that packets are received in the
correct order. It is the simplest automatic repeat-request (ARQ)
mechanism.
A stop-and-wait ARQ sender sends one frame at a time; it is a
special case of the general sliding window protocol with transmit
and receive window sizes equal to one in both cases. After
sending each frame, the sender doesn't send any further frames
until it receives an acknowledgement (ACK) signal. After receiving
a valid frame, the receiver sends an ACK. If the ACK does not
reach the sender before a certain time, known as the timeout, the
sender sends the same frame again. The timeout countdown is
reset after each frame transmission. Stop-and-wait ARQ is
inefficient compared to other ARQs, because the time between
packets, if the ACK and the data are received successfully
 Used in connection oriented communication.
 It offers error and flow control.
 It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers.
 Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window
Protocol concept with Window Size 1.
-MCQ
Q.1 Where is Stop and Wait ARQ used?
a) in data link and transport layers b) in connection oriented
communication
c) offering error and flow control c) option a & b
QUESTION14 : WHAT IS HYBRID SWITCHING?
ANS: Hybrid switching enables both circuit and packet-switched services to be provided
in the same communication network. It uses synchronous slots based on circuit-oriented
network.

Hybrid switching, which combines the principles of both circuit and packet-switching.
This technique first partitions a message into packets (packet-switching) and transmits
each packet via a dedicated circuit (circuit-switching). As soon as a packet is ready for
transmission, a circuit meeting appropriate bandwidth requirements is established
between the sending and receiving nodes. When the packet reaches its destination, the
circuit is terminated so that it can be used again. This scenario has many advantages but
it also requires extremely fast circuit-switching equipment.

Hybrid Switch : Using both Connection-orient(CO) and Connection-less-orient(CL) slot

In hybrid architecture, packet and circuit switching exist side by side so that trunk
bandwidth is shared by the two services. Thus the packet sub network is visualized as a
network with varying trunk capacities according to load. The user can select either
circuit or packet service, depending on connection characteristics and needs.

The hybrid packet and circuit switching system allows merging of packet and circuit
traffic from user interface modules on a TDM (time division multiplexing) bus and
transfer of packet information from one module to another module or the exchange
circuit information between modules. Circuit exchanges or packet transfers are
performed synchronously on the TDM buses in bursts of period T, with each burst
comprising a fixed number of bytes.

Hybrid switching dynamically combines both virtual cut-through and wormhole

switching to provide higher achievable throughput than wormhole alone, while
significantly reducing the buffer space required at intermediate nodes when compared
to virtual cut-through.

MCQ: Hybrid switching enables both circuit and packet-switched services to be

provided in the __________ communication network

[a] Same [c]Both

[b]Different [d] None of above
Ans: A (same)
Q 15.What application layer and transport layer protocol are used when you
access "www.google.com" from web browser?
It uses two protocols Http from application layer and TCP from transport layer
while you are accessing www.google.com in your web browser.
When we open google.com in our browser, it creates a session between client
and server.The protocol used here in application layer is https (hyperlink transfer
text protocol) which enables secure connection over internet and the encryption
process happens to be in presentation layer and sessions are handled by session
layer.. This two layers are hidden in TCP/IP model compared with OSI model…
Transport layer provides reliable communication to the destination with the help
of protocols TCP and UDP.. Ports are dedicated for specific services over internet
and there are 65535 ports… Data sent in the form segments along with port down
the layer. Network layer is the layer is capable of logical or ip addressing to which
data to be send over the network as packets.. Data link layer is capable of MAC
addressing encapsulates the address along with data and send as frames..
Physical layer carries the data in the form of electrical signals towards destination
and then the process of decapsulation takes place over the layers towards the
destination or client..
For following reasons TCP which is known as transmission control protocol :
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to
establish and maintain a network conversation through which application
programs can exchange data.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to
establish and maintain a network conversation through which application
programs can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP),
which defines how computers send packets of data to each other.
MCQ:
1.Which transport layer protocol is used in World Wide Web?
Ans: Http (hypertext transfer protocol)
HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol
suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, and
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is commonly used.

Q16 - what is network switching and explain its types.

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.
Switching is the most valuable asset of computer networking. Every
time in computer network you access the internet or another
computer network outside your immediate location, or your messages
are sent through a maze of transmission media and connection
devices. The mechanism for exchange of information between
different computer networks and network segments is called
switching in Networking. On the other words we can say that any type
signal or data element directing or Switching toward a particular
hardware address or hardware pieces.
Hardware devices that can be used for switching or transfering data
from one location to another that can use multiple layers of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Hardware devices that can used
for switching data in single location like collage lab is Hardware switch
or hub but if you want to transfer data between to
different location or remote location then we can use router or
gatways.
For example: whenever a telephone call is placed, there are numerous
junctions in the communication path that perform this movement of
data from one network onto another network. One of another example
is gatway,that can be used by Internet Service Providers (ISP) to
deliver a signal to another Internet Service Providers (ISP). For
exchange of information between different locations various types of
Switching Techniques are used in Networking.
Classification Of Switching Techniques:-

a) Circuit Switching-

Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

Advantage-
In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.

It has fixed bandwidth.

b) Message Switching-

Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as

a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored
and forwarded.

In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path

between the sender and receiver.

Advantage-
Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.

Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in

the nodes.

c)Packet Switching-

The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in

one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

Advantages-

Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
MCQ :- A ---------- network is a cross between a circuit switched network and a
datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
a. Virtual circuit
b. Packet-switched
c. frame-switched
d. None of above
Question 17 : Why is an application such as POP needed for
electronic messaging?
Ans:
The Post Office Protocol (POP3) is an Internet standard protocol used
by local email software clients to retrieve emails from a remote mail
server over a TCP/IP connection. Since the first version was created in
1984, the Post Office Protocol (currently at Version 3) has since became
one of the most popular protocols and is used by virtually every email
client to date. Its popularity lies in the protocol's simplicity to configure,
operate and maintain. POP is needed for electronic messaging because
Email servers hosted by Internet service providers also use POP3 to
receive and hold emails intended for their subscribers. Periodically,
these subscribers will use email client software to check their mailbox
on the remote server and download any emails addressed to them.
Once the email client has downloaded the emails, they are usually
deleted from the server, although some email clients allow users to
specify that mails be copied or saved on the server for a period of time.
Email clients generally use the well-known TCP port 110 to connect to a
POP3 server. When a user checks for new email, the client will connect
to the POP3 server. The email client then supplies its username and
password to the server for authentication. Once connected, the client
issues a series of text-based commands to retrieve all email messages.
It then stores these downloaded messages on the user’s local system as
new emails, deletes the server copies and disconnects from the server.
By default, the server emails are deleted once they are retrieved. As a
result, the emails are tied to that particular machine and it would not
be possible to access the same emails from an email client on another
machine. The user could get around this issue by configuring the email
client settings to leave a copy of the emails on the server.

MCQ : A simple protocol used for fetching e-mail from a mailbox is

[A] POP2
[C] IMAP
[B] POP3
[D] None of the above Ans. B

Q 18 DISCUS THE THREE MAIN DIVISION OF THE DOMAIN SPACE ?

TLD - Top Level Domains
These are at the highest level in the DNS structure of the Internet. There are
several different types of TLD's, being:

ccTLD - country code Top Level Domains

Two letter domains established for geographical locations; for
example; .au signifies Australia. When originally designated, usually only residents
of a country could register their corresponding ccTLD; but over the years quite a
few countries have allowed parties outside their shores to register website
names. An example of this is Tuvalu (.tv).
In the case of .au domain names, strict rules are still in place (and that's a good
thing). For example, .com.au registrants must still be Australians or have
registered business interests in Australia. The registration eligibility criteria for au
names has meant .au is still strongly associated with Australia and has fostered a
great deal of trust and confidence among local and even overseas online
shoppers.

gTLD - generic Top Level Domain

The best known generic TLD's include .com, .net, .biz, .org and .info - these can be
registered by anyone, anywhere in the world. However, some of the new gTLD's
more recently released have various restrictions

MCQ
1. Mechanism that is used to convert domain name into IP address is known
as ___.

1.URL

2.DNS

3.FTP

4.HTTP

Option 2 : dns

Question 19 : Explain in detail about HTTP (Hyper Text

Transfer Protocol)?
Answer :
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.It is a protocol used to access the
data on the World Wide Web (www).The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the
data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.This protocol is
known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that allows us to use
in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another document.HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one
host to another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.HTTP is used to carry the
data in the form of MIME-like format.HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is
transferred between client and server. The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way
the messages are sent from the client to the server and from server to the client.
SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered
immediately.

Features of HTTP :

 Connectionless protocol : HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client

initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server
receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the
response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the connection.
The connection between client and server exist only during the current request
and response time only.
 Media independent : HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be
sent as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data content. It
is required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-
type header.
 Stateless : HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each
other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the
client and server do not retain the information between various requests of the
web pages.

HTTP Transactions :
The client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server. The
server replies to the request message by sending a response message.
Messages : HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the
message types follow the same message format.
1. Request Message : The request message is sent by the client that consists of
a request line, headers, and sometimes a body.
2. Response Message : The response message is sent by the server to the
client that consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Working of HTTP :
 Through the HTTP protocol, resources are exchanged between client devices and
servers over the internet. Client devices send requests to servers for the resources
needed to load a web page; the servers send responses back to the client to fulfill
the requests. Requests and responses share sub-documents such as data on
images, text, text layouts, etc. which are pieced together by a client web browser
to display the full web page file.

 In addition to the web page files it can serve, a web server contains an
HTTP daemon, a program that waits for HTTP requests and handles them when
they arrive. A web browser is an HTTP client that sends requests to servers.
When the browser user enters file requests by either "opening" a web file by
typing in a URL or clicking on a hypertext link, the browser builds an HTTP
request and sends it to the Internet Protocol address (IP address) indicated by
the URL. The HTTP daemon in the destination server receives the request and
sends back the requested file or files associated with the request.

 To expand on this example, a user wants to visit xyz.com. The user types in the
web address and the computer sends a "GET" request to a server that hosts that
address. That GET request is sent using HTTP and tells the xyz server that the
user is looking for the HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) code used to
structure and give the login page its look and feel. The text of that login page is
included in the HTML response, but other parts of the page particularly its
 images and videos are requested by separate HTTP requests and responses. The
more requests that are made for example, to call a page that has numerous
images the longer it will take the server to respond to those requests and for the
user's system to load the page.

 When these request/response pairs are being sent, they use TCP/IP to reduce and
transport information in small packets of binary sequences of ones and zeros.
These packets are physically sent through electric wires, fiber optic cables and
wireless networks.

 The requests and responses that servers and clients use to share data with each
other consist of ASCII code. Requests state what information the client is seeking
from the server; responses contain code that the client browser will translate into
a web page.

Proxies in HTTP :
Proxies, or proxy servers, are the application-layer servers, computers or other
machines that go between the client device and the server. Proxies relay HTTP
requests and responses between the client and server. Typically, there are one or
more proxies for each client-server interaction.

Web developers can use proxies for the following purposes:

 Caching : Cache servers can save web pages or other internet content locally,
for faster content retrieval and to reduce the demand for the site's bandwidth.

 Authentication : Controlling access privileges to applications and online

information.

 Logging : The storage of historical data, such as the IP addresses of clients that
sent requests to the server.

 Web filtering : Controlling access to web pages that can compromise security
or include inappropriate content.
 Load balancing : Client requests to the server can be handled by multiple
servers, rather than just one .

MCQ : The first line of HTTP request message is called _____________

a) Request line b) Header line
c) Status line d) Entity line

Answer : A

Q20 :- WHAT IS THE MAIN FUNCTION OF APPLICATION LAYER ?

ANS :- Application Layer

The application layer in the OSI model is the closest layer to the end user which means
that the application layer and end user can interact directly with the software application.
The application layer programs are based on client and servers.

The Application layer includes the following functions:

o Identifying communication partners: The application layer identifies the availability of
communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
o Determining resource availability: The application layer determines whether sufficient
network resources are available for the requested communication.
o Synchronizing communication: All the communications occur between the applications
requires cooperation which is managed by an application layer.

Services of Application Layers

o Network Virtual terminal: An application layer allows a user to log on to a remote host.
To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
The user's computer talks to the software terminal, which in turn, talks to the host. The
 remote host thinks that it is communicating with one of its own terminals, so it allows the
user to log on.
o File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): An application allows a user to access
files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a computer and to manage files in a
remote computer. FTAM defines a hierarchical virtual file in terms of file structure, file
attributes and the kind of operations performed on the files and their attributes.
o Addressing: To obtain communication between client and server, there is a need for
addressing. When a client made a request to the server, the request contains the server
address and its own address. The server response to the client request, the request
contains the destination address, i.e., client address. To achieve this kind of addressing,
DNS is used.
o Mail Services: An application layer provides Email forwarding and storage.
o Directory Services: An application contains a distributed database that provides access
for global information about various objects and services.

MCQ QUESTION

1. Which one of the following is an architecture paradigms?

a) Peer to peer
b) Client-server
c) HTTP
d) Both Peer-to-Peer & Client-Server

Answer:c)HTTP