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COMPUTER HARDWARE

Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. He

was born in Walworth Surrey, on December 26, 1791 and died in
18 October 1871. The First mechanical computer designed by
Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine in 1837. It uses read-
only memory in the form of punch cards.

COMPUTER
Computer is an advanced electronic device that is designed to work with
Information. It takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions
(called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output
for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
Numerical: 1, 2, 3 etc.
Non-numerical: (data in any form of data that is measured in words- (non-
numbers)
Arithmetic (=the branch of mathematic concerned with numbers) Ex: +,-,*./,
%,<>
Logical: The Logical Operations that can be performed in a Digital Computer
are, checking whether a variable, say, A is equal to or greater than or less
than another variable, say, B or a constant.
Input: Entering data into a computer
Processing: Performing operations on data
Output: Presenting the result
Storage: Save the result for future

Categories of Computer

There are two major categories of computer Digital computers and Analog
computers. Digital computer functions by receiving & computing data
converted in binary form (0 and 1) while Analog computer functions
continuously, no matter what the variations are in the input i.e. temperature,
voltage.
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Analog Computer

Analog computer is a type of computer which functions continuously, no

matter what the variations are in the input. These variations may include
instability in current, temperature, electric and mechanical parts. The best
examples of an analog computer are Oscilloscopes, Energy meters.
Oscilloscope is a sophisticated diagnostic instrument that draws a graph of
an electrical signal. This graph can tell you many things about a signal, such
as: The time and voltage values of a signal. The signals are plotted on a
graph, which shows how the signal changes.

Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive

and the telecommunications industry. General-purpose instruments
are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work.

Electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of

electrical energy consumed.

Digital Computer

The digital computer is a type of

computer which receives and computes
the data converted in binary form. It is
most commonly used in all fields of life.
Generally, it is an electronic device.
Digital Computer is a machine or a
device that helps to process any kind of
information. These are the devices
through which we provide some input and get the output within a fraction of
seconds. ... Some of the basic examples of digital devices are Personal
computers, Desktops, Laptops, Smartphones, and Mobiles.
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TYPES OF COMPUTERS

A computer is a combination of software and hardware. Computers are

available in all sorts of shapes and sizes. There are many types of computers
that are classified on the basis of their function, usage, capacity, speed,
reliability, and purpose. Major types of computers are:

• Personal Computers/ • Servers

Microcomputers • Workstations
• Minicomputers • Desktop Computers
(midrange computers) • Hybrid computers
• Mainframe computers
• Supercomputers

❖ Micro Computer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-
purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a
microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input
unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers.
It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
It is less expansive and easy to use.
A limited number of software can be used.
They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
IBM pc, Apple, Microsoft, Dell, and Lenovo, Sony, HP, etc. are some of the PC
manufactures.

❖ Personal Computers:
A personal computer is a multi-purpose computer. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology. They comprise of a monitor, a keyboard, CPU
with floppy, CD and Hard disks and a mouse.
They cost less and are suitable for house and individual use. They run
software like compilers, image viewers, games, word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management
applications and, to browse Internet to check emails, to download material
from web sites etc.
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❖ Laptops:
They are equivalent to PCs in their functionality. But, very small in size
compared to PCs. They are portable, in the sense; you can carry them
wherever you travel. They run on battery. As long as the battery can supply
power, the laptops function. Here, monitor, keyboard, Mouse, storage
devices are integrated as one device and get a Common power supply.
Advantage is, they are portable and handy.
Basic disadvantages are, they are costly and theft prone. If you want to
upgrade the existing configuration, they proved to be still costlier.

❖ Minicomputers:
Minicomputers are known as mid-range computers that contain one or more
processors. Minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting
from up to 200 users simultaneously. They support multiprocessing which
means these multiple processors share the same computer memory and
other required peripheral devices to perform the given task.
Computer that is smaller, less expensive, and less powerful than a
mainframe or supercomputer, but more expensive and more powerful than a
personal computer.
Minicomputers are used for scientific and engineering computations,
business-transaction processing, departments, file handling (Files are used to
store data in a storage device permanently. File handling provides a mechanism to
store the output of a program in a file and to perform various operations) and
database management. They are used by small and mid-size industries.
Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in the network environment.
personal computer is connected to the network with minicomputer acting
like a Servers.
UNIX and Linux operating system are used in Minicomputers.
❖ Mainframe computers
Mainframe computer likes as a big centralized
machine that contains the large memory, huge
storage space, multiple high-grade processors,
so it has ultra-processing power compare to
standard computer systems.
Mainframe computer uses the primary memory such as (RAM) and multiple
processors. It serves as a central processing unit for all workstations and
terminals points associated with it. A mainframe computer was designed to
be used process large amounts of data in pet bytes.
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Mainframe computer deals with thousands of users to execute their

instructions simultaneously. And can store. The name a mainframe ‘means a
frame to hold multiple processors and main memory.
Mainframe computer provides a great security against the attack of viruses,
warm, spyware, malware.
(A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that can be used
for entering data into, and transcribing data from, a computer or a computing system.
One of the most common types of computer terminal is a monitor and keyboard setup that
is connected to a larger computer through a network interface. Other types of computer
terminals include handheld terminals and dedicated devices such as credit card reading
terminals and point of sale terminals.)

Mainframe computers used in:

• Government data processing (Indian Railway)
• Banking
• Insurance
• scientific research,
• Education Sector

❖ Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive
computers. These huge computers are used to solve very
complex science and engineering problems.
Supercomputers get their processing power by taking
advantage of parallel processing (two or
more processors); they use lots of CPUs at the same time
on one problem. A typical supercomputer can do up to
ten trillion individual calculations every second
Such computers have been used primarily for scientific and engineering work
requiring exceedingly high-speed computations.
Common applications for supercomputers include testing
mathematical models for complex physical phenomena or
designs, such as climate and weather, evolution of the
cosmos, nuclear weapons and reactors, new chemical
compounds (especially for pharmaceutical purposes), and
cryptology.
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design.
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❖ Server
A server is a central computer that contains collections of data and
programs. Also called a network server.
A server provides resources, data, services, or programs to all connected
computers (Users), known as clients, over a network. Client computers
request information from the server over the network. Servers tend to have
more storage, memory and processing power than a normal workstation. In
theory, whenever computers share resources with client machines, they are
considered servers. There are many types of servers, including web servers,
mail servers, Application servers, Print servers DNS servers and virtual
servers (Website).
Ex: The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. When
users type domain names such as ‘google.com’ or ‘nytimes.com’ into web
browsers, DNS is responsible for finding the correct IP address for those
sites. Browsers then use those addresses to communicate with origin servers
or CDN edge servers to access website information.

❖ Workstations:
They are high end PCs. They contain more memory and high-speed
processor compared to PCs.
They are used in business but by a single user. Typical work done on
workstations includes video editing, animation, drafting of an architectural
design, animation etc.
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (Computer Aided
Design (CAD/CAM- Computer Aided Manufacturing), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high-quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,
at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
interface.
The current workstation market uses x86-64 microprocessors. Operating
systems available for these platforms include Microsoft Windows, FreeBSD,
various Linux distributions, Apple macOS (formerly known as OS X), and
Oracle Solaris.
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Hybrid Computer
Computers that exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers are
called Hybrid Computers. The logical operations are solved by the digital
aspects and the differential equations are solved using the analog features.
Few important examples of Hybrid Computers include It uses in the ICU
(intensive Unit Care) of the Hospital.
Applied in the sectors like ships, defense sector, airline sector. Digital
machines like an ultrasound machine, CT scan machines, and ATMs.
The speedometer used in cars is also an example of a hybrid computer.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
The term computer hardware refers to the physical components of a
computer system, including such items as the Central Processing Unit (CPU),
motherboard, disk drives, monitor, and keyboard, printer, case and drives
(floppy, hard drive, CD, DVD, etc...).

SOFTWARE
Software is a term used to describe a computer program, which is a set of
instructions that tells the computer what to do. Software can be split into
three categories. They are:

Programming software:
This software is used by computer programmers to help write computer
code. Ex: C, C++…etc.
Operating system software:
This software runs the computer. It has the instructions for using memory,
video cards, keyboards, etc.
The three most common operating systems for personal computers are
Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. Some popular, modern graphical user
interface or GUI (pronounced gooey) examples include Microsoft Windows,
macOS, Ubuntu Unity, and GNOME Shell for desktop environments, and
Android, Apple's iOS, BlackBerry OS, Windows 10 Mobile, Palm OS-WebOS,
and Firefox OS for smartphones.
A GUI (graphical user interface) is a system of interactive visual components
for computer software. ... A GUI is considered to be more user-friendly than
a text-based command-line interface, such as MS-DOS, or the shell of Unix-
like operating systems.
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A GUI displays objects that convey information, and represent actions that
can be taken by the user. The objects change color, size, or visibility when
the user interacts with them.

GUI objects include icons, cursors, and buttons. These graphical elements
are sometimes enhanced with sounds, or visual effects like transparency and
drop shadows.

Applications software:
There are literally thousands of different software applications. some of the
more common ones includes: Microsoft Office, Web browsers, Adobe
Photoshop…etc.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the

outside World. Input/output devices are required for users to communicate
with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO
the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer
system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.

Input Devices Output Devices

Keyboard Monitor
Mouse Printer
Scanner Plotter
Microphone Speaker
Touch screen Projector
Web camera Headphones
Joystick
Bar Code Reader

Both Input–Output Devices:

Modems : A Modem is considered an input and output device because it
sends data (upload/output) and receives data (download/input)
Network cards: (Up[load & Dowanloading)
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Input Devices: -

❖ Keyboard

Keyboard is the most popular input device that allows users to type
Alphabets, numbers, and operators, and also to control the cursor on the
screen.
There are different types of keyboards But the QWERTY keyboard is the most
widely used. Apart from the normal alphabetical keys. The keyboard has a
Numeric Keypad, Navigation Keys & Function Keys.
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Parts of the KEYBOARD

1. Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation
keys like comma, period,
Semicolon, brackets.

A) Letter Key – include letter’s,

number’s symbol’s and special
keys like function keys, control
keys, Arrow keys, caps lock key,
delete key, etc.
Special
B) Numeric Key – numbers from 0
to 9 and symbols like +, ‐? And *
belong to this part of the keyboard

• Function Key (Top Row) –

these keys are called function keys because they perform special functions. There are
twelve function Keys labeled F1, F2, F3… F12. These keys are also user Programmable
keys.

• Cursor Key or Arrow Keys (Navigation Key) –

these keys include left (), right (), up (),
down ( ) directions.

• Control Keys ‐these keys are used alone or in combination with

other keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used
control keys are CTRL, ALT, the Windows
Logo key and ESC.

• CAPS LOCK Key ‐ when you press this key, all

the letters that you type will be in capital letters.

• SHIFT Key – this key is used to capitalize a letter you want to change. To do this press
the letter you want while holding down the shift key.
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• Escape Key – This key is used to exit programs quickly. --→

• Enter Key – Pressing this key allows the computer to do the

command you had given.

• Backspace Key – This key will erase any characters on the left side of the
cursor.

• CTRL and ALT Keys ‐ these keys are called combination keys because they
only work together with another Key.

• Status Lights – these are the lights found on the upper right part of the keyboard. Each
light has a name from a particular key. If the lights are on, it means the key is activated.

Spacebar
It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.

Insert
Insert key is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.

Tab
Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document.
Also, It is used to insert indentation into a document.

Preview of Proper Placing of hands on the Keyboard

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Mouse: The mouse is a small device used to point to a

particular place on the screen and Select in order to perform
one or more actions. It can be used to select menu
Commands, size windows, start programs etc. It is used in
computer to control a cursor according to the mouse
movements.
It has two or three buttons on top for selecting/executing
different operations. Pressing buttons of mouse is known as
clicking of mouse.
The arrow showing the position of mouse on screen is known as mouse pointer.
The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used
most frequently.
Mouse Actions

Left Click: Used to select an item.

Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another.
Mice are constructed according to two different techniques:
Mechanical mice: contain a small ball inside the chassis, which is spun as the mouse is
moved over the surface. The ball in turn rotates some small wheels whose motion is
encoded by potentiometers or optical encoders. These mice can work on every surface,
but dirt is collected by the ball and often soils the encoders.
Optical mice don’t need a rotating ball; they contain optical sensors that emit signals as
the mouse is moved over a special grid containing reflecting lines in the X and Y
direction; on every line that is crossed a pulse is emitted. These mice have the
advantage that there are no moving parts and no dirt is collected from the surface, but
they work only in combination with a special mouse pad containing the grid.

Scanner: It is an input device used to capture digital images of

printed documents or other printed media.
Optical Character Recognition Software (OCR)-When a printed
document is scanned, normally this is stored as an image and thus
the OCR is used to convert this picture to word processing format
for editing.
MICRO PHONE: It is a device used to accept audio inputs from the
user. (Voice recorder, Recording audio for a video etc..)
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BARCODE READER: A bar code is a set of lines of different

thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code Readers are used
to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar
codes on them. Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light
on the lines that make up the bar code and detecting the amount
of light that is reflected back.
One must have noticed all standard items like perfumes, greeting
cards, books, cassettes available in the market have similar lines
as shown in the figure, known as bar codes. These can be read
with the help of bar code readers.
TOUCH SCREENS: It is a display device, which is touch-sensitive
and allows user to interact with the computer system by touching
an area on the screen.

WEB CAMERA: It is an easy to connect low-resolution digital

camera normally employed for transfer of images on the web-
based conferencing.
JOY STICK: It is a device used to control cursor on screen.
Normally it is used in Games and specially designed simulation
software. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the
option pointed by the cursor. Joystick is used as an input device
primarily used with video games, and controlling robots.

Output Devices:It is a device used to provide the processed data from

the computer to the user.

MONITORS: A Monitor is an output device, very similar to the

television screen. It displays the information as it is typed and
also displays the processed result or the output. It is available in
many forms cathode ray picture tube-based display, liquid
crystal-based display (LCD), Plasma panel display and touch panel
display. The size of a computer screen is measured diagonally
from corner to corner in inches. For desktop microcomputers, the
most common size is 13, 15, 17, 19 and 21 inches, for laptop
computers, 12.1, 13.3, and 14.1 inches.
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PRINTER: It is an output device to produce paper copy (hard copy)

for a document, pictures etc. The job of a printer is to put on
paper what is seen on the monitor. Printers vary mainly in cost,
quality, speed and noise levels. E.g.: Dot Matrix Printer, Inkjet /
Deskjet /Laser Printer.
PLOTTER: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It
interprets computer commands and makes line drawings on
paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts; maps etc. plotters were
widely used in application such as CAD (computer - aided design)
and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) though they have
generally been replaced with the wide-format conventional
printers.
SPEAKERS: A device through which we can listen to a sound as an
outcome of what we command a computer to do is called a
speaker
PROJECTOR: An optical device which presents an image or moving
images onto a projection screen is called a projector

SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply)

It is a main power supply to power the each and
every component of computer or it converts the
main power supply 230volts to 12volts, 5volts,
and 3volts and distribute to all components of computer.

Three Types of SMPS

1. AT SMPS

2. ATX SMPS

3. BTX SMPS

AT SMPS: AT stands for Advanced Technology. These are all

old SMPSs. They had 12pin power connector (6+6); this is
called as AT power connector. They were used in Pentium-I,
Pentium-MMX, Pentium-II and Pentium-III CPUs.
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• Red wire (+5v) • White (-5v)

• Yellow (+12v) • Orange (+5v)
• blue (-12v)

ATX SMPS: ATX stands for Advanced Technology eXtended. It has

20pin power connector. These are used in PIII, PIV, Dual Core and
Core 2 Duo computers and AMD CPUs. It has additional 4pin ATX
12v connector.

1. Red wire (+5v) 6. Orange (+5v)

2. Yellow (+12v) 7. Green (+5v)
3. blue (-12v) 8. Gray or Brown (+5v)
4. White (-5v) 9. Purple (+5v)
5. Black (0v)

BTX SMPS: BTX stands for Balanced Technology

eXtended. They have 24pin Power connector; this is also
called as ATX power connector. It has 15pin SATA power
connectors and 4 pin 12v ATX connector. They are used
in Dual core, core2duo, Quad core, i3, i5, i7 and latest AMD CPUs.

1. Red wire (+5v)

2. Yellow (+12v) 6. Orange (+5v)
3. blue (-12v) 7. Green (+5v)
4. White (-5v) 8. Gray or Brown (+5v)
5. Black (0v) 9. Purple (+5v)

Red : it is used for signal sending

Yellow : It is used for motor running
White &Blue :It is used for backward compatibility
Black : It is used for grounding purpose
Orange : It is used for power good signal
Green : It is used for power supply on in ATX
Gray & Brown : It is used for power good signal in ATX
Purple : It is used for auto shutdown in ATX
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SATA Power Connector:

It is only for Serial ATA drives such as SATA (Serial Advanced

Technology Attachment) hard disk drives and SATA CD or DVD
drives. Latest SMPSs have this connector. All SMPSs have 2
SATA power connectors.it has 15 pins.

Peripheral Power Connector:

This is IDE power connector. It has 4 pins. Yellow carries 12
volts, red carries 5 volts and black is the ground wire. Any
SMPS has 4 peripheral power connectors. Every motherboard
supports 4 IDE devices such as hard disk drives and CD or
DVD drives. Latest motherboards have only single IDE
connector, so latest motherboard supports only 2 IDE drives. So that latest
SMPSs have 2 peripheral power connectors for connecting 2 IDE drives.

Floppy Power Connector:

It is different from all other connectors. Off course all are different.
This is only for floppy, but now a day no one use floppy drives.

ATX 12 Volt Connector: It supply power to the processor.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SMPS OUTPUT

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PROCESSOR

Processor is known as “Microprocessor“, and it likes

as small type of chip that is placed in the computers
and another electronics component. Its basic job is
to receive from input devices and provide the
appropriate result on the output devices. Processor
can manage all instructions such as arithmetical,
logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic
instructions, that are passed from an operating system
(OS). modern processors can handle trillions of
calculations per second.

accepts data Input

processes data Processing
produces output Output
stores results Storage

The terms processor, is also known as central processing unit (CPU) and
microprocessor are commonly linked as synonyms. Most people use the
word “processor” interchangeably with the term “CPU”.
Intel and AMD are main companies, which are produced best quality
processors in the market.

Main functions of CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Fetch – In which, to obtain all instructions from main memory unit (RAM).
Decode –All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly
instructions. (coding)Assembly code must be decoded into binary
instructions, which are understandable to your CPU.
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Execute – now decoded instructions are sent to each component so that the
desired operation can be performed.
Store Phase: After completing above three phases, CPU releases the finally
feedback, then produced output data is moved to memory units for storing.

Components of CPU (Central Processing Unit) and their Functions

Control Unit: is the part of the computer’s central

processing unit (CPU), which directs the operation
of the processor.
Main goal of control unit of CPU is to control entire
operations of its units, and it helps to move all data
or instructions in between the all units of system.
Memory unit is received all instruction and data from control unit, interprets
them, and finally transfer entire operations to different units.
It is the responsibility of the Control Unit to tell the computer’s memory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the
instructions that have been sent to the processor.
It fetches internal instructions of the programs from the main memory to
the processor instruction register, and based on this register contents, the
control unit generates a control signal that supervises the execution of these
instructions.

Functions of the Control Unit –

1. It coordinates the sequence of data movements into, out of, and

between a processor’s many sub-units.
2. It interprets instructions.
3. It controls data flow inside the processor.
4. It receives external instructions or commands to which it converts to
sequence of control signals.
5. It controls many execution units (i.e., ALU, data buffers and registers)
contained within a CPU.
6. It also handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution
handling and storing results.
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ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. It contains the digital
circuit which is made with registers, and they help to solve the various
arithmetic and logical operations. It acts as a gateway between
primary memory and secondary storage. Data transferred between them
passes through the ALU.

Arithmetic unit: is designed to solve the different operations such as

addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc.
Logic Section: Functions of logic unit is to perform various types of
operations like as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of numerous
data value.

Logical operations can test for three conditions:

• Equal-to condition. In a test for this condition, the arithmetic/logic

unit compares two values to determine if they are equal. For example:
If the number of tickets sold equals the number of seats in the
auditorium, then the concert is declared sold out.
• Less-than condition. To test for this condition, the computer
compares values to determine if one is less than another. For example:
If the number of speeding tickets on a driver's record is less than
three, then insurance rates are $425; otherwise, the rates are $500.
• Greater-than condition. In this type of comparison, the computer
determines if one value is greater than another. For example: If the
hours a person worked this week are greater than 40, then multiply
every extra hour by 1.5 times the usual hourly wage to compute
overtime pay.

A computer can simultaneously test for more than one condition. In fact, a
logic unit can usually discern six logical relationships: equal to, less than,
greater than, less than or equal to, greater than or equal to, and not equal.

Registers: is also known as “Accumulator”, whereas small amounts of high-

speed memory that is built into processor (CPU). It works as temporary
storage location where data is coming from main memory side for execution
and move it for storing.
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They are used by the processor to store small amounts of data that are
needed during processing, such as:
• the address of the next instructions that to be executed, after
completing execution of the currently instruction.
• the results of calculations

In the Computer Architecture, registers are special types of computer

memory which are performed their tasks quickly such as (Fetching,
transferring, and storing) data and instructions.
Register memory is smaller compare to other computer memory like as Main
Memory, Secondary Memory, and Cache Memory.

Cache: is a small amount of high-speed random-access memory (RAM) built

directly within the processor. It is used to temporarily hold data and
instructions that the processor is likely to reuse. This allows for faster
processing as the processor does not have to wait for the data and
instructions to be fetched from the RAM.
Cache memory is divided into three level s such as L1, L2, and L3. L1 is small
in size to L2 but it is faster compared to L2, and further L3 is much faster to
L1 and L2.

Clock Speed: A computer’s processor clock speed determines how quickly

the central processing unit (CPU) can retrieve and interpret instructions. This
helps your computer complete more tasks by getting them done faster. The
CPU contains a clock which is used to coordinate all of the computer's
components. The clock sends out a regular electrical pulse which
synchronizes (keeps in time) all the components. The frequency of the
pulses is known as the clock speed.
The performance of CPU is measured in different parameters such as GHz
(Gigahertz) and MHz (Megahertz). but Hertz unit is used for measuring the
frequency. Clock speed is measured in hertz.
CPU is capable to perform multiple tasks with using their frequency in few
seconds. The frequency is measured into different parameter such as “how
many times the internal clock of a processor ticks in cycles/sec”. For
example – 2.5 GHz CPU can tick 2.5 billion times in every second.
In the 1980s, processors commonly ran at a rate of between 3 megahertz
(MHz) to 5 MHz, which is 3 million to 5 million pulses or cycles per second.
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Today, processors commonly run at a rate of 3 gigahertz (GHz) to 5 GHz,

which is 3 billion to 5 billion pulses or cycles per second.

System Bus: known as an address bus, data bus, or local bus, a bus is a
connection between components or devices connected to a computer. For
example, a bus carries data between a CPU and the system memory via the
motherboard.

Core: Processor cores are individual processing

units within the computer’s central processing
unit (CPU). The processor core receives
instructions from a single computing task,
working with the clock speed to quickly process
this information and temporarily store it in the
Random-Access Memory (RAM). Permanent
information is saved to your hard drive when you request it.
A CPU can have multiple cores. A processor with two cores is called a dual-
core processor; with four cores, a quad-core; six cores, hexa-core; eight
cores, octa-core, core i5, core i7 and i8, and those cores help to process
data in parallel nature for enhancing the entire performance of computer
system, as well as to manage their workload and speed.

Each core of a CPU can perform operations separately from the others. Or,
multiple cores may work together to perform parallel operations on a shared
set of data in the CPU's memory cache. Each core has own cache memory,
and they can make communication with its cache as needed

Single Core Processor

Single Core CPUs were used in the traditional type of computers. Those CPUs
were able to perform one operation at once, so they were not comfortable to
multi-tasking system. These CPUs got degrade the entire performance of
computer system while running multiple programs at same time duration.

In Single Core CPU, FIFO (First Come First Serve) model is used, it means that
couple of operations goes to CPU for processing according to priority base,
and left operations get wait until first operation completed.
 22

Dual Core Processor

Dual Core processor contains two processors, and they are linked with each
other like as single IC (Integrated circuit). Every processor consists its own
local cache and controller, so they are able to perform different difficult
operations in quickly than single core CPU.

There are some examples which are used as dual core processors such as
Intel Core Duo, the AMD X2, and the dual-core PowerPC G5.

Multi Core Processor

Multi core processor is designed with using of various processing units
means “Cores” on one chip, and every core of processor is able to perform
their all tasks. For example, if you are doing multiple activities at a same
time like as using WhatsApp and playing games then one core handles
WhatsApp activities and other core manage to another works such as game.

Quad Core Processor

Quad core processor is high power CPU, in which four different processors
cores are combined into one processor. Every processor is capable to
execute and process all instructions own level without taking support to
other left processor cores. Quad core processors are able to execute massive
instructions at a time without getting waiting pools. Quad core CPU help to
enhance the processing power of computer system, but its performance
depends on their using computing components.

Octa Core Processor

Octa core processor is designed with using of multiprocessor architecture,
and its design produces the higher processing speed. Octa core processor
has best ability to perform multi-tasking and to boost up efficiency of your
CPU. These types of processors are mostly used in your smart phones.

GPU Core (Graphics processing unit)

A CPU consists of four to eight CPU cores, while the GPU consists of
hundreds of smaller cores. This massively parallel architecture is what gives
the GPU its high compute performance. The CPU is composed of just a few
cores with lots of cache memory that can handle a few software at a time. In
 23

contrast, a GPU is composed of hundreds of cores that can handle thousands

of threads simultaneously.

For example, the Nvidia GeForce GTX 280 GPU has 240 cores,

CPU vs GPU
CPU GPU

Central Processing Unit Graphics Processing Unit

Several cores Many cores

Low latency High throughput

Good for serial processing Good for parallel processing

Can do a handful of operations at once Can do thousands of operations at once

(Parallel computing is a type of computation where many calculations or the

execution of processes are carried out simultaneously. Large problems can
often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same
time)

(Serial memory processing is the act of attending to and processing one item
at a time. )

Memory Unit
Memory unit is the main components of CPU, because its main objective is to
store all instructions, and pass them to other component of CPU (Control
unit). It is also known as a main/primary/internal memory.

There are two types of memory: -

1. Read only memory (ROM): - ROM is a part of the memory unit. This is read only
memory. It cannot be used to written. ROM is used in situations where the data
must be held permanently.

2. Random access memory (RAM): - RAM is also part of memory unit. It is used
for temporary storage of program data. Its data is lost when power is turned off.
 24

MOTHERBOARD
Motherboard is the Backbone of the Computer. The motherboard is a
computer’s central communications backbone connectivity point, through
which all components and external peripherals connect. The motherboard is
the main component of any branded or assembled PC, laptop, tablet or a
mobile phone.
Motherboard Consist of Processor Socket, RAM slots, PCI slots, AGP slot, IDE
connectors and Ports. Every motherboard has connectors and slots to
connect all the remaining parts of CPU. Here the list of all the slot and
connector of motherboard.

• Mother board Ports • SATA connectors

• CPU Socket • Primary and Secondary IDE
• North Bridge Connectors
• South Bridge • Power Connector
• RAM Slots • BIOS
• AGP Slot • CMOS battery
• PCI Slots
• Floppy Connector
 25

Motherboard ports: Many Ports are in back side of the CPU. Input and output
devices are connected here to communicate with CPU.
1. PS/2 Ports 4. Parallel Port or Printer Port
2. Serial Port 5. USB Ports
3. VGA Port 6. Ethernet Port
7. Audio Ports

PS/2 Port: It is used to connect a computer keyboard or

mouse. Most computers come with two PS/2 ports.
Maximum all motherboards have two PS/2 Ports. Purple
color PS/2 port for keyboard and green color PS/2 port for
Keyboard Mouse
mice device. Both have 6 pins.

Serial Port - Often used to connect an older mouse, older external

Modems, older digital cameras, etc., to the computer. The serial
port has been replaced by USB in most cases. It has 9-pin
connector. Transmits data at 19 Kb/s.

VGA (Video Graphics Array) or Monitor Ports - VGA port is used to connect
monitors, which has 15 pin in three rows. It is always in blue color. This is also
a D shape connector and this is female port. This port is come from
motherboard. When your VGA port has broken, you must get the PCI VGA card
to connect monitor. It is inserted in PCI slot.
DVI (Digital Video Interface) - LCD monitors work in a digital mode and support
the DVI format. At one time, a digital signal offered better
image quality compared to analog technology. However,
analog signal processing technology has improved over the
years and the difference in quality is now minimal.

HDMI Port- (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is used for

uncompressed digital video/audio transmission to a
display device like a computer monitor or TV. HDMI
1.4 build for high HD resolutions supports a
maximum of 4096×2160.
 26

Parallel Port – Most often used to connect a printer to the

computer.25-pin connector. Long and skinny, often pink in
color. Transmits data at 50-100 Kb/s.

USB Port- (Universal Serial Bus) - It is a universal port and used

for all latest devices. It has 4 pins. Two pins for 5volts and 2 pins
for data transfer. It supports maximum all latest devices, such as
keyboards, mice, printers, scanner, pen drives, cell phones, iPods,
iPhones etc.

USB versions:
USB 1.1: Many versions from introduced USB. USB 1.1 released in 1998.
It supports 1.5 Mbits per second.
USB 2.0: It released in 2000. USB 1.1 has been upgraded by USB 2.0 with Hi-
Speed. It supports 480 Mbits per second. So that, this is called as hi-speed USB.
USB 3.0: It released in 2008. It is 10 times faster than USB 2.0. Speed is 5 Gbits
per second.

Ethernet or LAN port- Ethernet port is also called as LAN port this
port is used to connect Local Area Network (connected to another
computer or LAN HUB or LAN Switch or Router. It has 8 pins. RJ45
jack is used to insert in this connector. It has two LED. Green LED
for connectivity and orange LED for sending data.

Audio Ports or Audio Connectors - Audio ports are in backside

of the computer. A computer has two audio ports, they are back
panel audio ports and front panel audio ports. All Motherboards
have three audio ports. Green port for Audio out. This is used to
connect headset or two speakers or 2.1 surround system. Pink
connector for mic, this is used to connect microphone. Blue color connector for
Line in, this connector is used to connect TV tuner card or capture cards.

CPU Socket- CPU Socket or Processor Socket. This is used to install or insert the
processor. The PGA (Pin Grid Array), LGA (Land Grid Array) and BGA (BALL GRID
ARRAY): are the CPU's forms that are the most popular
 27

LGA and PGA

LGA and PGA can be understood as opposites. "Land grid array" (LGA) consists
of a socket with pins that you place the processor on. PGA ("pin grid array"), on
the other hand, places the pins on the processor, which you then insert into a
socket with appropriately placed holes.

BGA
There is also a BGA socket, which stands for "ball grid array". The BGA
technique permanently attaches the processor to the motherboard during
production, making upgrades impossible
BGA are laptop sockets are designed to accept CPU chips that do not have pins.
BGA sockets frequently require the CPU to be soldered in place.

PGA LGA
 28

Sockets for Intel processors used for desktop computers

Intel Socket Names Used by Processor Family Description
1366 pins that touch pads on the processor
LGA1366 or Socket B Core i7 Works with DDR3 memory
Expected to replace LGA771 and LGA775
sockets
771 pins that touch pads on the processor
LGA771 or Socket J Core 2 Extreme Used on high-end workstations and low-end
servers
Works with DDR2 memory on boards that have
two processor sockets
Core 2 Extreme
LGA775 or Socket T Core 2 Quad
Core 2 Duo 775 lands or pads
Pentium Dual-Core Works with DDR3 and DDR2 memory
Pentium Extreme Edition Most popular Intel socket
Pentium D
Pentium
Pentium 4
Many Celeron processors
Pentium 4 478 holes for pins
Socket 478 Celeron processors Uses a dense micro-PGA (mPGA)
No longer sold
Socket 423 Pentium 4 423 holes for pins
39 x 39 SPGA grid
No longer sold
CPU Pentium III
Socket 370 Celeron II 370 holes for pins PGA
Cyrix C3 No longer sold
Sockets for AMD processors used for desktop computers
AMD Socket Used by Processor Family Description
AM3 or AMD3 Phenom II 938 holes for pins (PGA)
Works with DDR3 memory
AM2+ or AMD2+ Phenom II 940 holes for pins (PGA)
Phenom Works with DDR2 memory
Athlon Faster than AMD2
AM2 or AMD2 Athlon 940 holes for pins (PGA)
Sempron Works with DDR2 memory
Socket 754 Athlon 754 holes for pins (PGA)
Sempron Works with DDR memory
Socket 940 Athlon 940 holes for pins (PGA)
Works with DDR memory
Socket 939 Athlon 939 holes for pins (PGA)
Sempron Works with DDR memory
No longer sold
 29

Socket A Athlon 462 holes for pins (PGA)

Sempron Works with DDR memory
Duron Rarely sold today

HEATSINK AND FAN: After Install or insert the

processor, heat sink and fan must be inserted.
It cools the processor. So that this also called
as CPU cooler.
Before going to install processor, heat sink and
fan, use cooling paste on the Processor to avoid
heat problems. If it is new system, no need to use cooling paste. Because new
processors come with cooling paste.

THE CHIPSET: Chip set is a set of IC, used to be many IC’s work together to
provide support to CPU and I/O (input out device) and make the whole system
works, currently the chipset are integrated in to very few large scale IC. A few
motherboard manufacturers, such as Intel and AMD, make their own chipsets.
But other motherboard manufacturers use chipsets made by another
manufacturer. The major chipset manufacturers are Intel, AMD, NVIDIA and SiS
(Silicon Integrated Systems Corp) in that order.
The most chipset today's composed of two components, -
1. North bridge
2. South bridge

NORTH BRIDGE: North Bridge is always near the

processor socket. This is one of the important
components of a motherboard. It is a focal Point of
Motherboard and it is also called as Memory Controller
Hub. North Bridge interconnects Processor socket, RAM
slots and AGP slot.

SOUTH BRIDGE: The south bridge will control the Input

and Output Devices. South Bridge interconnects
Primary and Secondary IDE interfaces, SATA
connectors, Floppy Drive Connector, PCI slots and
BIOS.
 30

RAM SLOTS or DIMM SLOTS (Dual Inline Memory Module) : RAM slots are used
to insert RAMs. There are so many types of ram slots. They are SD ram slots,
DDR ram slots, DDR2, DDR3 & DDR4 ram slots. SD stands for synchronize
Dynamic and DDR Stands for Double Data Rate.

AGP SLOT: AGP slots are used to insert or install AGP Cards. AGP full form is Accelerated
Graphics Port or Advanced Graphics Port. This slot is for graphics and 3d gaming purpose. It is
always beside the PCI slots

PCI SLOTS or EXPANSION SLOT: PCI slots are used to Insert or install
Add-on cards, such as LAN cards, Sound cards, Capture cards and TV
tuner cards. PCI full form is Peripheral Component Interconnect.

INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE (ISA) SLOT: There is one 16-bit, 10MHz

ISA slot that lets you install additional system hardware via add-on cards. See
the section on installing internal peripherals.

FLOPPY DRIVE CONNECTOR: Floppy Drive Connector is used to

connect floppy drives. This controller supports a 34‐wire ribbon
cable, which connects the floppy drive to the motherboard. It
supports two floppy drives. So that A and B drives are reserved for
two floppy drives in computer. It has 33 pins.
 31

IDE (INTEGRATED DEVICE ELECTRONICS) DRIVE CONNECTORS: The two ide drive
connectors are marked IDE1, the primary channel, and IDE2, the secondary
channel. It is also called PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment)
connectors. Each connector supports two drives, a master and a slave. IDE ports,
the 40-pin connector, these ports are for connecting IDE hard disk drives or IDE
CD-ROM or IDE CD writer.

IDE 1

IDE 2

SATA Connectors: (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment): SATA connectors

are also called as Serial ATA connectors. These are connecting with serial ATA
devices, such as Hard disk drives and CD or DVD drives. The serial data transfer
interface has been designed using 7 pins connector. There are two or four
Serial ATA connectors on the motherboard. Each connector supports one drive,
which connects to the motherboard with a Serial ATA cable. Transfer rates for
Serial ATA begin at 150MB/s. it is a L shape connector

SATA Power

SATA DATA Cable Connector

SATA Data Cable

BIOS (Basic input and Output system): This is also one of the important chips.
The BIOS, ROM BIOS, or System BIOS is a chip located on all motherboards that
contain instructions on how to load basic computer hardware and includes a
test referred to as a POST (Power On Self-Test) that helps verify the computer
meets requirements to boot up properly. The program is stored in the Read
Only Memory (ROM) ROM can retain BIOS permanently even though electric
power was removed from the system.
 32

CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor): There is

a battery in the motherboard, which is used to power the south
bridge and the BIOS to save the setting, data and time. This is a 3
volt battery. When the battery is weak the PC will show and
inaccurate time of day clock, or show CMOS check sum error
message during boot, at this time the user defined information in the CMOS ram may
be lost, the PC may be still able to run by using the default value in the BIOS that was
defined by manufacturer.

Power Connector: This power connector is ATX power connector. It has 20 or 24 pin
connectors. Motherboard takes the power from this connector to work. This Power
Connectors let you attach two leads from (SMPS)Power Supply to the motherboard
Power Connector
Motherboard Power Connector

SMPS Power Connector

Attach to MB

12 Volt power connector: This 12-volt power connector for CPU socket. (Processor) if
this is not connected to the CPU will not work. It is near the CPU Socket.
Attach to MB

MB 12 ATX CONNCECTOR
SMPS 12 VOLT POWER CONNECTOR CONNECTOR

Front Panel Connecting pins:

These are the motherboard front panel connections like start, Restart buttons
etc. here the +PW- is the power SW. +HD- is the HDD LED connector, -RES+ is
the Reset connector, +speak is the speaker connector.

HD+, HD: to connect to the hard disk indicator at front of the PC, when hard disk is work
indicator at the front of the case will blink.
 33

Power Led +: -Power Led to connect to the power on indicator at the front of the
PC when the PC is Powered on the indicator will turns on.

MSG +, MSG: - to connect to the Led indicator at the front of the PC, this light
will turn on when the PC is in standby mode.

Power +, Power: - to connect to the power on/off switch at the front of the PC.

RES+, RES: - to connect to the Reset switch from the front of the PC.

SPK+, SPK: - to connect to the small speaker inside the case this is useful for
diagnostic purpose, during power on self-test if the BIOS found some
hardware problem BIOS will generate the sound on this speaker,
this is called BIOS beep code.

Front panel USB and audio connectors: These are the usb1 and usb2
front panel connectors. In the connectors there is a missing pin to
connect the right direction. So connect the front panel USB cables to
the front USB connector. At the same way connect front panel audio
also. This connector has also missing pin.

Different types of motherboards:

AT Motherboard
 34

These Motherboards are the oldest of its kind. AT means Advanced Technology
(AT) power connectors. The AT Motherboard was tradition motherboard that
was introduced by IBM Company in 80s with size ranging 13.8 x 12 inches.
There are two power connectors of 6 pin each mounted on the AT
motherboards. Due to their big size, they were not able to use in small size
desktop computers. This Motherboard made it difficult for new drives to get
installed. When they were used in early 286/386 and 486 Computers.

ATX Motherboard:

The ATX stands for Advanced Technology eXtended as this Motherboard

configuration developed in the mid-’90s and is still in use. The ATX
Motherboard is an improvement over the previously working Motherboard, such
as AT. The ATX connector on the motherboard consists of a single20pin power
connector. These boards are used for P1/P2.
 35

Dimensions of a full-size standard ATX board range in 12 x 9.6 inches. these

dimensions can vary with different manufacturer. This motherboard offers more
expansion slots, up to four slots for RAM, Two or sometimes more than two
PCIe slots for dual graphics cards and more USB and other ports for connectivity
also its size gives space in between components for airflow to keep heat in
control. This size of motherboard is used by those who want more expansion
slots and different connecting ports and deal with heavy workloads.
These boards are used for Pentium- III & IV etc.

The ATX Motherboards seem to have gone through lots of upgrades in recent
times.
ATX is the most common Motherboard design which is used in smaller boards
(including micro-ATX, FlexATX, nano-ITX, Mini-ITX).

Examples are –Dual Core, Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad, Quad Core, i3, i5 and i7
Processors
 36

Modern ATX Motherboard

Micro-ATX Motherboard

It is smaller than the typical ATX Motherboards with a dimension of 9.6 x 9.6
inches. Some manufactures have a dimension reduced to 9.6 x 8.1 inches. Most
modern ATX Motherboards have a maximum of seven PCI or PCI-Express
expansion slots, while microATX boards only have a maximum of four.

This Motherboard has less ports and slots as compared to Standard ATX board.
This type of motherboard is more suitable for those who don’t want to much
connectivity and later upgrades like adding more ram and additional GPU or
Graphics card and adding PCI cards. these types of motherboard is cost
effective to ATX motherboard.

This type of motherboard form factor supports both Intel and AMD processors.
It is commonly used on Small Form Factor Desktop Computers.
 37

Micro ATX Motherboard

Mini ITX Motherboard (Information Technology eXtended)

Mini ITX is a low-power consumption motherboard format of 6.7 × 6.7 inches,

which is smaller than any other conventional Motherboard. Mini ITX
motherboard is not getting more heat due to their less power consumption
layout design.

Mini-ITX is a compact motherboard configuration designed to support relatively

low-cost computers in small spaces such as in automobiles (vehicle embedded
computers), set-top box es, and network devices. The Mini-ITX can also be
used in making thin client computers. ... Video, audio, and local area network
(LAN) connection are built into the Mini-ITX.
 38

Mini-ITX often has two memory slots, 1 PCI Express or mini-PCI slot, several
USB ports, and one network port. Some Mini-ITX motherboards include an
onboard VGA port and an HDMI port.

E-ATX Motherboard:

E-ATX is also called with full name “extended ATX Motherboard”. The E-ATX is
primarily used for gaming. This Motherboard can be expanded to have huge
memory and can accommodate a powerful CPU with more cores. This
motherboard is designed for both dual CPU and single configuration and has up
to 8 ram slots and has more PCIe and PCI slots for adding PCI cards for
different purposes. It is used for workstations and servers. these types of
motherboard use for mainly playing games.
 39

It has a lot of PCI slots and DIMM slots.

These boards have inbuilt WiFi, sound cards, onboard troubleshooting features,
and powerful VRM (voltage regulator module).
A maximum of 128 GB ram can be installed on this Motherboard.

HARD DISK

HARD DISK DRIVE :- Hard disk drive is a main storage device of computer. It’s a
non-violated drive and stores the data permanently, so that this is permanently
storage device and it’s a secondary memory of a computer.

Hard disk drives are three types.

• IDE Hard drives (PATA)

• SATA Hard drives

• SCSI Hard drives

IDE Hard drives: -IDE Stands for Integrated Device

Electronics. These drives are also called as PATA
(parallel Advanced Technology Attachment) hard drives.
Hard drives have 40pin data interface and 4 pin power
IDE Interface cable

connector which comes from SMPS and Jumper setting

are to change drive option from master to slave or slave
to master. These drives have low speed and low
capacity than SATA and SCSI hard drives. ATA(IDE)
cables are used to connect hard drives to
motherboard. These drives capacities are 10GB,
20GB, 40GB, 80GB, 120GB, 160GB, 250GB and
320GB.

SATA HARD DRIVE: - It stands for Serial Advanced

Technology Attachment. These drives have 4pin data
interface and 7 pin power interfaces to work and no
jumper pins, because no need to change drive setting.
These drives have high speed and high capacity than IDE
 40

hard drives and Low speed and low capacity than SCSI hard drives. 4pin SATA
cables are used to connect hard drives to motherboard. These drives capacities
are 80GB, 120GB, 160GB, 250GB, 320GB, 500GB, 1TB and 2TB. (Some hard
drives have 4pin power connector also.)

SCSI Hard Drives: SCSI stands for (Small Computer System Interface). These
drives have generally 50 to 68 pins. These drives are very high capacity and
high speed than both IDE and SATA drives. 50 to 68 pin SCSI data cables are
used to connect these hard drives. Generally, these drives are used in servers.
Good for 24/7 operations Capacities are 160GB, 250GB, 320GB, and 500GB,
1TB, 2TB, 5TB and 10TB.

Solid State Drives (SSD)

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new
generation of storage device used in computers. SSDs replace traditional
mechanical hard disks by using flash-based memory, which is significantly
faster.
Which means They do not store data using magnetism. Instead, they make use
of flash memory technology. They make use of integrated circuits or
semiconductor devices to store data permanently, at least until they are erased.
Here are some of their advantages. SSDs for computers are available in 120 GB
to 4 TB capacities.

o Faster data access.

o Less susceptible to shock.
o Lower access times and latency.
o Durability.
o Less power usage.
 41

Part of hard disk

The hard drive, which typically provides storage for data and applications within
a computer, has four key components inside its casing -- the platter (for
storing data), the spindle (for spinning the platters), the read/write arm (for
reading and writing data) and the actuator (for controlling the actions of the
read/write arm).

Platter

Platters are made out of aluminum, glass or ceramic disk that is coated in a
magnetic media and is located within a hard drive to permanently store all your
computer's data.
When the computer is turned on, these platters will begin to rotate at so many
rotations per minute (RPM).
This rate varies depending upon the model of hard drive you have; an example
of how fast a hard drive may spin is 7200 RPM. As the disk platters are rotating,
the read/write head accesses information on one of the platters.
Data is stored on the platters in tracks, sectors and cylinders to keep it
organized and easier to find.
 42

( A disk drive track is a circular path on the surface of a disk

or floppy diskette on which information is magnetically
recorded and from which recorded information is read.
The illustration to the right shows how a track goes all around
the platter, as well as how it is used to help locate and retrieve
information from a disk or diskette.)

(Sector: - In computer disk storage, a sector is a subdivision of a

track on a magnetic disk. Each sector stores a fixed amount of
user-accessible data, traditionally 512 bytes for hard disk drives.
The sector is the minimum storage unit of a hard drive. The size
of sectors can be customized to maximize the storage area. For example, if a
user stores smaller files, decreasing the sector size allows more files to fill the
space without any leftover room.

A cylinder is any set of all of tracks of equal diameter in a hard disk drive
(HDD). As can be seen in the picture, the red highlighted tracks correspond on
each hard drive platter.)
 43

Actuator

The actuator or head actuator is a small motor that moves a hard drive's heads
over the media surface, to read and write data. It takes instructions from the
drive's circuit board to control the movement of the read/write arm and
supervise the transfer of data to and from the platters. It's responsible for
ensuring the read/write heads are in exactly the right place at all times.

The Read/Write Arm

The read/write arm controls the movement of the read/write heads, which do
the actual reading and writing on the disk platters by converting the magnetic
surface into an electric current (read the disk) or transform electrical current
into magnetic field (write the disk). The arm makes sure the heads are in the
right position based on the data that needs to be accessed or written; it's also
known as the head arm or actuator arm.

The Spindle

The spindle keeps the platters in position and rotates them as required. The
revolutions-per-minute rating decide how fast data can be written to and read
from the hard drive. A typical internal desktop drive runs at 7,200 RPM
(rotations per minute), though faster and slower speeds are available. The
spindle keeps the platters at a fixed distance apart from each other to enable
the read/write arm to gain access.

actuator arm

The part of a hard disk to which the read/write arms attach. All the heads are
attached to a single head actuator, also called an actuator arm, that moves the
heads around the platters.
 44

System Memory

Computer memory is a generic term for all of the different types of data storage
technology that a computer may use, including RAM & ROM.
Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and
Secondary memory (hard drive, CD,etc.). Random Access Memory (RAM) is
primary-volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is primary-non-volatile
memory.

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is
very fast, it can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in
RAM memory is lost when it loses power)
• It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary
memory.
• The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a
program are stored in this memory.
• It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.
• RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random-Access
Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).
DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of
RAM used in computers. The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR)
DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes
in several versions including DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better
performance and are more energy efficient than DDR. DRAM consists of a one
capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime
• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
 45

SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is
faster than DRAM, it has six transistors in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is
generally only used as a data cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in very high-
end server systems. A small SRAM cache of the most imminently-needed data
can result in significant speed improvements in a system
Characteristic of Static RAM
• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption

The common types of DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): . In late 1996, SDRAM began to appear in

systems. Unlike previous technologies, SDRAM is designed to synchronize itself
with the timing of the CPU. This enables the memory controller to know the
exact clock cycle when the requested data will be ready, so the CPU no longer
has to wait between memory accesses.
SDRAM can stand for SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate SDRAM), where the I/O,
internal clock and bus clock are the same. For example, the I/O, internal clock
and bus clock of PC133 are all 133 Mhz. Single Data Rate means that SDR
SDRAM can only read/write one time in a clock cycle.
 46

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) It was popular in the early 2000s and was mainly used
for video game devices and graphics cards, with transfer speeds up to 1 GHz.

(DDR SDRAM) Stands for "Double Data Rate." It is an advanced version of

SDRAM, a type of computer memory. DDR-SDRAM, sometimes called "SDRAM
II," can transfer data twice as fast as regular SDRAM chips. This is because DDR
memory can send and receive signals twice per clock cycle.
DDR1 SDRAM has been succeeded by DDR2, DDR3, and most recently, DDR4
SDRAM

Standard (Approximate Operating Voltage Associated RAM Clock Approximate Transfer

Year Introduced) Rates Rates

SDRAM (1993) 3.3 V 66 – 133 MHz 100 – 166 MT/s

DDR SDRAM (2000) 2.6 V, 2.5 V 100 – 200 MHz 200 – 400 MT/s

DDR2 SDRAM (2003) 1.8 V, 1.55 V 200 – 400 MHz 400 – 1066 MT/s

DDR3 SDRAM (2007) 1.5 V, 1.35 V 400 MHz – 1066 MHz 800 – 2133 MT/s

DDR4 SDRAM (2014) 1.2 V 1066 – 1600 MHz 1600 – 3200 MT/s
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Types of RAM Slots

SIMM
Single inline memory modules (SIMMs) were the standard type of RAM module
used during the 1980s and 1990s. Single In-Line Memory Modules (SIMM) is
that the little circuit boards having notches wherever the RAM chips are fixed.
SIMM connectors and therefore the slot situated on the motherboard are
created of metal (gold or tin). In SIMM, Pins present in either facet are
connected. There are two type of SIMM presents, one with 30 pins and another
one is with 72 pins.

DIMM
DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module) also has metal connectors similar to SIMM,
but either of the sides of the connector does not rely on the other. Advanced
motherboards use 168, 184, 240 pin DIMMs. It consumes 3.3 volts of power
and can store from 32 MB up to 1GB of memory.
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Pins
DIMM and SIMM are manufactured with pins which enable them to connect to
the PC’s motherboard. The typical SIMM module has 72 pins, while the most
common pin configuration of the DIMM module is 168 pins. Other DIMM
configurations include 100, 144, 172, 184, 204, 214 and 240 pins.
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
SIMM DIMM
COMPARISON

Basic Pins present in either DIMM pins are independent.

side are connected.

Channel 32 bit 64 bit

Power consumption 5 volts 3.3 volts

Storage provided 4MB to 64 MB 32MB to 1 GB

Applications 486 CPU and early Modern Pentium PCs are enabled
Pentium computers use with DIMM modules.
SIMM.

BIOS
BIOS stand for Basic Input and Output System, Which is a small chip in
motherboard. But it is one of the important chips in motherboard. It has
predefined software.
BIOS are also called as CMOS BIOS. CMOS stands for Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor. It has predefined Software, which checks the each and
every component of motherboard, when we turn on the CPU that is called POST.
POST stands for Power on Self Test, after which the system starts booting up
It stores the setting of motherboard components and its specifications, Date,
time and passwords. In motherboard there is a battery to give power to BIOS
chip to store the settings. There is a jumper to reset the setting of BIOS. It is
useful, when BIOS software Corrupted.
There is a option to see BIOS settings on start-up. Intel Motherboards have F2
button, Mercury Motherboards have Del button and branded systems have F10
 49

button to change or Entering setting of a BIOS. When you press the key at
startup, BIOS settings will be on screen. You can see system configuration and
other settings here.
This is the Award BIOS options. they are Standard CMOS features, Advanced
BIOS features, Advanced Chipset features, Integrated Peripherals, Power
Management Setup, PnP/PCI configurations, PC Health Status,
Frequency/Voltage Control, Load Fail-safe Defaults, Load Optimized Defaults,
Set Supervisor Password, Set User Password, Save & Exit Setup and Exit Without
Saving, and below the shortcut keys Esc to Quit, F10 to Save & Exit setup, Arrow
keys to select Items and to change the values +/-, PU/PD.

Standard CMOS setting: - In these settings, Date, Time settings, disk drive
settings, how many drives have detected or not. In this motherboard, hard
drives connected to IDE channel 0 Master, that means Primary Master and DVD
RW connected to IDE channel 4 Master. Floppy drive settings, if your system has
floppy disk drives, you must enable Drive A. Bottom of this window, there are
some option to change settings.
Advanced settings: Hard disk boot priority settings for using more than one
hard drives, select hard drive for boot. At the same CD-ROM boot priority
important options are first boot and second boot devices. First boot always in
Hard disk, but whenever you format your system, you must change first boot
device as CD drive to boot from bootable CD.

Advanced Chipset settings: These settings for Graphics purpose. Your system
has Installed AGP cards, these settings are automatically enabled. But you have
to select or change card memory here.
Load fail safe defaults settings: load fail safe default settings are used to
restore the default settings of BIOS
Supervisor password: is used to set password to all BIOS settings. To create
password, just select the option and enter password and conformation. User
password is used to login. This option is to view the all BIOS settings. If you
want to change option supervisor password is must.

Last two options are used to save or not options. Save & exit option is saving
your settings and without saving option is not saving option.
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OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

An operating system is system software that works as an interface between a user and the
computer hardware, that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides
common services for computer programs. (A computer program is a collection of
instructions that performs a specific task when executed)
The primary objective of an operating system is to make computer system convenient to
use and to utilize computer hardware in an efficient manner.
The operating system performs the basic tasks such as receiving input from the keyboard,
processing instructions and sending output to the screen. Without an operating system, a
computer is useless.

The operating system manages a computer's hardware resources, including:

• Input devices such as a keyboard and mouse.

• Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners.
• Network devices such as modems, routers and network connections.
• Storage devices such as internal and external drives.

Process Management: It manage all the User and system Process.

Memory Management: Operating System also Manages the Computer Memory that is
provided to the process.
Extended Machine: It is behaves like an Extended Machine that Provides us Sharing of
Files between Multiple Users.
Mastermind: It performs Many Functions that's why we can say that Operating System
is a Mastermind.

Graphical user interface (GUI):

Modern operating systems use a graphical user interface (GUI). A GUI is a type of user
interface which allow people to interact with a computer and help to use your mouse to
click icons, buttons, and menus, and everything is clearly displayed on the screen using a
combination of graphics and text.
Each operating system's GUI has a different look and feel, so if you switch to a different
operating system it may seem unfamiliar at first. However, modern operating systems are
designed to be easy to use, and most of the basic principles are the same.
Before GUIs, computers had a command-line interface, which is non-graphical meant users
had to type every single command to the computer and the computer would only display
text.MS dos is a command line interpreter.

TYPES OPRATING SYSTEM:

The three most common operating systems for personal computers
are Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS, and Linux.