LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES

LT 504: CONSTRUCTION & UTILIZATION OF

MA T ERIALS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

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Student
I. Theories in Second Language Acquisition
A. Behaviorist Theory
This theory explains how one behav es as a language learner. Learning is
about change in behav ior. I n order to learn, one must repeat the behavior
through and through. I n the classroom, teachers don’t teach the language, they
expose the learners in the env ironment of the language. When learners commit
mistakes, they should be corrected and rew arded. This pattern should be
repeated ov ertime to make learning automatic.

B. Universal Grammar Theory

This theory w as proposed by Noam Chomsky in 1960s. According to this
theory, humans are born w ith innate grammar, that is a natural ability to acquire
a language. This refers to the Language Acquisition Dev ice (LAD). I n other words,
infants don’t go to school to learn their language, they acquire it naturally over
time. Chomsky also introduced the concept of transformational grammar.

C. Monitor Hypothesis
One of Stephen Krashen’s Fiv e Main Hypotheses on Second Language
Acquisition, the Monitor Hypothesis states that language is not learned, but
acquired. Krashen introduced the tw o types of language competence—the
acquired competence (unconscious) and the learned competence, the latter
otherw ise called the “monitor.”

D. Cognitive Theory
I f behav iorism measures the behav ior, cognitiv ism measures the
know ledge. This theory states that grammar is a matter of cognition. Just knowing
the language is a manifestation of learning. For instance, one w hose native
language is English may know the basic structures of the Spanish grammar, buy
may not necessarily know how to speak the language.

E. Conversation Theory
Proposed by John Schuhmann, this theory states that w e acquire language
through conv ersations. By using the language on a regular basis, w e get better at
it, but in the condition of know ing its basics, e.g. v ocabulary. This theory
emphasizes that language acquisition is meaning-based, that is, for example,
using body language to understand a message conv eyed. Meanings are
constructed from social interaction.

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 F. Acculturation Theory
Acculturation means being part of a society you are in. For example,
people w ho migrate to another country hav e to learn the language in order to be
part of the culture. I n other words, the motiv ation to learn a language stems from
the need to take part in social interactions.

II. Perception, Communication, and Learning Theories

A. Perception Theories
Rohlin (n.d.) defines perception as a person's ability to be aw are of and
understand w hat is happening in his or her env ironment. This refers to how the mind
processes information that the sensory organs — the eyes, ears, nose and skin —
send to it. The brain uses these pieces of information to create memories, make
decisions, and reflect on problems. The theories of perception hav e dev eloped
around this idea. The different theories of perception are adv erbial theory,
disjunctiv ist theory, self-perception theory and v isual perception theory.

1. Adverbial Theory
This theory explains the process of how people perceive or see things based
on their appearances. According to adv erbial theory of perception, when an
object appears to be a certain color, the color is considered to be an adverb.
Color describes “how” the object appears and “how ” it makes an impression
on the mind. Hence, the name adv erbial.

Perceived characteristics are not made by the object; they are interpreted
by the mind. I nterpretation of an object's appearance takes place w ithin the
mind's justification or reasoning of w hy the object appears as it does. The way
that a person perceives the object and its characteristics is how it appears to
him or her. I f the object has parts that a person cannot see or perceive, those
parts w ill not appear to him or her.

2. Disjunctivist Theory
This theory states that perceived objects are mind-independent, or objects
that exist in the env ironment. The brain also perceives mind-dependent
objects, or objects that do not exist in the env ironment. This is referred to as
hallucination, meaning the objects that are perceived are not really there and
do not represent w hat is perceived.

3. Self-Perception Theory
This is the theory of self-aw areness. A person creates an attitude or belief of
another person's attitude during a situation through observation and reflection
of the causes of his or her ow n behav ior. The person believ es that his or her own
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 attitudes, inner feelings and abilities are deriv ed from his or her external
behav iors, or the w ay in w hich he or she interacts w ith the w orld. Self-
perception theory dev eloped as an explanation for cognitiv e dissonance,
w hich is w hen a person believes two contradicting ideas at the same time. This
causes discomfort, so a person is most likely to believ e that his or her own
choice is correct, even in the face of ev idence that proves otherwise.

4. Visual Perception Theory

This includes tw o main theories: Bottom-Up Processing and Top-Down
Processing. The Bottom-Up Processing Theory, proposed by the American
psychologist James J. Gibson, states that perception of an object begins with
v isual stimulus. The eye sees the object and sends this information to the v isual
cortex of the brain, w here the object is interpreted and identified by the mind.
The Top-Dow n Processing Theory, proposed by the British psychologist Richard
L. Gregory, deals w ith the mind's ability to interpret information and patterns in
a giv en context. A person can identify an unintelligible, hand-w ritten word by
reading the entire sentence that it is in — the context or meaning of the other
w ords in the sentence is used to giv e the unintelligible w ord meaning.

B. Communication Theories
As defined in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, communication is a process
by w hich information is exchanged betw een indiv iduals through a common
system of symbols, signs, or behav ior. Although people communicate w ith one
another ev ery day, communication is not as simple as w e perceive it. I t is a
complex process that encompasses different elements. The follow ing models of
communication w ill show us how communication works:

1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

 Derived by Aristotle at around 5 B.C., this model explains that speakers should
adjust their messages according to their audience and the occasion to
achieve a particular effect.
 For example, a fter the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7,
1941, then US President Franklin Roosevelt deliv ered a stirring speech to
declare w ar on Japan on December 8.

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 Speaker = US President Franklin Roosevelt

Speech = deliv ered by the US President

Occasion = US President’s response to the attack

Audience = US Congress

Effect = Congress members w ere persuaded to declare w ar on

Japan

2. Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

 This model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

 This was often called the “Telephone Model ” since it was developed from the
technology of the telephone and the experience of noise coming from the
sw itchboard.
 An example for this is mobile phone communication.
Sender = the person calling

Encoder = cellphone

Channel = radio frequencies

Decoder = the reception place of the signal w hich converts signals

into message

Receiv er = the person being called

Noise = w hatever problem that may interfere w ith the message

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 Feedback = the receiver’s response

3. Osgood-Schramm’s Model of Communication

 I n this model, pay attention to the role of the interpreter. Encoding and
decoding are not automatic processes. Both go through the filter of the
interpreter. Therefore, the message may succeed or fail, based on the
interpreter’s appreciation of the message.
 There are times w hen the sender and the receiver may apply different
meanings to the same message, and this is termed as “semantic noise.”

4. Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication

 According to White, it is possible to begin at any of the stages outlined in

his model.
 The model show s that oral communication is a continuous process with no
real beginning or end.

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C. Learning Theories
1. Behaviorist Theory
Behav iorist Theory, or Behaviorism, states that learning occurs through a series
of rew ards or punishments. According to B.F. Skinner, rew ards increase the
likelihood that behav iors w ill be repeated, w hile punishments decrease the
likelihood of repetition. He also theorized that rew ards and punishments could
be either positiv e or negative in nature. W hen w e give or add something to the
env ironment, the interaction is positiv e; w hen w e take something aw ay, th e
interaction is negative. F or example, remov ing an undesirable activ ity from the
agenda might be a negativ e reward, and adding an undesirable activity to it
might be a positiv e punishment.

2. Cognitive Theory
The Cognitive Theory is largely based on the w ork of Jean Piaget, who
proposed the idea that learners are not empty vessels, but candles ready to be
lighted . I nstead of focusing solely on observable behavior, the Cognitivism seeks
to explain how the mind w orks during the learning process. The mind takes in
information, processes that information, then uses that information to produce
learning outcomes.

3. Constructivist Theory
In Constructivism, the learner is viewed as a constructor of knowledge. New
learning is shaped by schemas, w hich the learner brings to the learning
process. Lev Vygotsky is an important fou nder of the Constructivist Theory.
Vygotsky believ ed that learning is a collaborative process, and that social
interaction is fundamental for cognitive development. According to Vygotsky,
students learn best w hen working collaboratively with those whose proficiency
lev el is higher than their own, allowing them to complete tasks they are not yet
able to do independently. Vygotsky identified these concepts as the More
Know ledgeable Other and the Zone of Proximal Dev elopment. Constructivist
classrooms are student-centered, w ith the teacher acting as the facilitator.

4. Humanist Theory
The Humanist Theory approaches learning as a w ay to fulfill an indiv idual’s
potential rather than meeting specific learning targets. Maslow’s research on
the Hierarchy of Needs is a major concept w ithin this theory, as it focuses on
the w hole person, specifically the cognitive and affective needs of the learner.
The theory holds that self-actualization is the ultimate goal of each indiv idual.
Learners are trusted to determine their own goals, set standards, and evaluate
their ow n w ork. Thus, students are at the center of the Humanist classroom.
Teachers are facilitators and coaches, recognizing the unique needs of each
student and supporting their academic and social dev elopment.

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Padgett, D. (2020). Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the
Classroom. Leader in Me. https://www.leaderinme.org/blog/learning-theories/

Rohlin, A. (n.d.). What Are the Different Theories of Perception? I nfo Bloom.
https://www.infobloom.com/what-are-the-different-theories-of-perception/

Uychoco, M.T. & Santos, M.L. (2018). Communication for Society: Purposive
Communication. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, I nc.